Largest prehistoric animals: Difference between revisions

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The largest prehistoric organisms include both vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many of them are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found. Their body mass, especially, is largely conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic^[1] and biomechanical constraints.^[2]

Non-mammal synapsids (Synapsida)

Pelycosaurs

The herbivorous Cotylorhynchus hancocki was the largest of the pelycosaurs and the largest amniote to have lived at the time, with an estimated length and weight of at least 6 m (20 ft) and 500 kg (1,100 lb).^[3]^[4] The biggest carnivorous pelycosaur was Dimetrodon angelensis, which could reach 4.6 m (15 ft) and 250 kg (550 lb). The largest members of the genus Dimetrodon was also the world's first fully terrestrial apex predators.^[5]

Therapsids

The plant-eating dicynodont Lisowicia bojani is the largest-known of all non-mammal synapsids, at 4.5 m (15 ft) and 9,000 kg (20,000 lb).^[6]^[7]^[8]
Among the largest carnivorous synapsids was the therapsid Anteosaurus, which was 5–6 m (16–20 ft) long, and weighed 500–600 kg (1,100–1,300 lb).^[9]^[10]
Inostrancevia latifrons is the largest known gorgonopsian, with a skull length of more than 60 cm (24 in), a total length approaching 3.5 m (11.5 ft) and a mass of 300 kg (661.3 lbs).^[11]
The largest of therocephalians is Scymnosaurus,^[12]^[13] which reached a size of the modern hyena.^[14]
The largest known non-mammalian cynodont is Scalenodontoides, a traversodontid, which had a maximum skull length of approximately 617 millimetres (24.3 in) based on a fragmentary specimen.^[15] Paceyodon davidi was the largest of morganucodontans, an order close to mammals. It is known by a right lower molariform 3.3 mm (0.13 in) in length, which is bigger than molariforms of all other morganucodontans.^[16]

Mammals (Mammalia)

Non-therian mammals

The largest multituberculates Taeniolabis taoensis is the largest non-therian mammal known, at a weight possibly exceeding 100 kg.^[17]
The known adult of Repenomamus giganticus reached a total length of around 1 m (3 ft 3 in) and an estimated mass of 12–14 kg (26–31 lb). With such parameters it was the largest species in Gobiconodonta and surpassed in size several small theropod dinosaurs of the Early Cretaceous.^[18] Gobiconodon was also a large mammal, it weighed 4.5–5.4 kilograms (9.9–11.9 lb) and measured 460–510 millimetres (18–20 in).^[19]

Monotremes (Monotremata)

The largest known monotreme (egg-laying mammal) ever was the extinct long-beaked echidna species known as Murrayglossus, known from a couple of bones found in Western Australia. It was the size of a sheep, weighing probably up to 30 kg (66 lb).^[20]
Kollikodon was likely the largest monotreme in Mesozoic. It's body length could be up to a 1 m (3 ft 3 in).^[21]

Metatherians (Metatheria)

The largest non-marsupial metahtherian was Thylacosmilus, weigh 80 to 120 kilograms (180 to 260 lb),^[22]^[23] one estimate suggesting even 150 kg (330 lb).^[24] Australohyaena is another large metatherian, weighing up to 70 kilograms (150 lb).^[25]
Stagodontid mammal Didelphodon was one of the largest Mesozoic metatherians. It’s skull reached 12.21 centimetres (4.81 in) in length and a weight of complete animal was 5 kilograms (11 lb).^[26]

Marsupials (Marsupialia)

The largest known marsupial, and the largest metatherian, is the extinct Diprotodon, about 3 m (9.8 ft) long, standing 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall and weighing up to 2,786 kg (6,142 lb).^[27] Fellow vombatiform Palorchestes azael was similar in length being around 2.5 m (8.2 ft), with body mass estimates indicating it could exceed 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).^[28]
The largest known carnivorous marsupial was Thylacoleo carnifex. Measurements taken from a number of specimens show they averaged 101 to 164 kg (223 to 362 lb) in weight.^[29]
The largest known kangaroo was Procoptodon, which could grow up to 2 m (6.6 ft) and weigh 230 kg (510 lb).^[30] Some species from the genus Sthenurus were similar in size or a bit larger than the exant grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus).^[31]

Non-placental eutherians

The largest known cimolestid is Coryphodon, 1 m (3 ft 3 in) high at the shoulder, 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) long and up to 700 kg (1,500 lb) of mass.^[32]

Terrestrial even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)

The largest known land-dwelling artiodactyl was Hippopotamus gorgops with a length of 4.3 m (14 ft) and a height of 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in).^{[citation needed]} Bison latifrons reached a shoulder height of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in), and had horns that spanned over 2 m (6 ft 7 in).^{[citation needed]} Pelorovis also reached 2 t (2.0 long tons; 2.2 short tons) in weight.^{[citation needed]} Aside from local populations and subspecies of extant species, such as the gaur population in Sri Lanka, European bison in British Isles, Caucasian wisent and Carpathian wisent, the largest, modern extinct bovid is aurochs (Bos primigenius) with an average height at the shoulders of 155–180 cm (61–71 in) in bulls and 135–155 cm (53–61 in) in cows, while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching 155–160 cm (61–63 in).^[33] The kouprey, reaching 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) is also considered to be possibly extinct.^{[citation needed]}
The largest known camel that ever lived was the Syrian camel.^{[citation needed]} It was 3 m (9.8 ft) at the shoulder and 4.0 m (13 ft) tall.^{[citation needed]} Titanotylopus from North America possibly reached 2,485.6 kg (5,480 lb) and a shoulder height of over 3.4 m (11 ft).^[34]^[35]
The largest known ruminant, aside from the extant giraffe, is Sivatherium, with a body weight of 1,250 kg (2,760 lb).^{[citation needed]}
Daeodon and similar in size and morphology Paraentelodon^[36] were the largest-known entelodonts that ever lived, at 3.7 m (12 ft) long and 1.77 m (5.8 ft) high at the shoulder.^[37]
The largest known wild suid to ever exist was Kubanochoerus gigas, having measured up to 550 kg (1,210 lb) and stood more than 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) tall at the shoulder.^[38]
The extinct Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) and the stag-moose (Cervalces scotti) were of similar size to the Alaskan moose. However, the Irish elk could have antlers spanning up to 4.3 m (14 ft) across, about twice the maximum span for a moose's antlers.^[39] Broad-fronted moose (Cervalces latifrons) was twice as heavy as the Irish elk but its antlers were smaller.^[40]

Cetaceans (Cetacea)

The largest prehistoric sperm whale, or toothed whale was Livyatan melvillei weighing in at about 57 tonnes (63 short tons).^[41]^[42]
The largest of known Eocene archeocete whales was Basilosaurus at 17–20 m (56–66 ft) in length.^[43]^[44]^[45]

Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)

One of the largest land mammals of all time was *Paraceratherium*

The largest known perissodactyl, and the second largest land mammal (see Palaeoloxodon namadicus) of all time was the hornless rhino Paraceratherium. The largest individual known was estimated at 4.8 m (15.7 ft) tall at the shoulders, 7.4 m (24.3 ft) in length from nose to rump, and 17 t (18.7 short tons) in weight.^[46]^[47]
Some prehistoric horned rhinos also grew to large sizes. The giant woolly rhino Elasmotherium reached 6 m (20 ft) long and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) high.^{[citation needed]}
The largest prehistoric horse was Equus giganteus of North America. It was estimated to grow to more than 1,250 kg (1.38 short tons) and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at the shoulders.^[48]
The giant tapir Tapirus augustus was the largest tapir ever, at about 1,100 lbs (500 kg), 2.1 metres (6.9 ft) long and 0.9 metres (3.0 ft) tall at the shoulders to 3.5 metres (11 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}

Carnivores (Carnivora)

The largest terrestrial mammalian carnivore and the largest known bear, as well as the largest known mammalian land predator of all time, was Arctotherium angustidens, the South American short-faced bear. A humerus of A. angustidens from Buenos Aires indicates that the males of the species could have weighed 1,588–1,749 kg (3,501–3,856 lb) and stood at least 3.4 m (11 ft) tall on their hind-limbs.^[49]^[50]
The biggest odobenid and one of the biggest pinnipeds to have ever existed is Pontolis magnus, with skull length of 60 cm (24 in) (twice as large as the skulls of modern male walruses)^[51] and more than 4 m (13 ft) in total body length.^[52]^[53] Only the modern males of elephant seals (Mirounga) reaches the similar sizes.^[52] The second largest prehistoric pinniped is Gomphotaria pugnax with the skull length of nearly 47 cm (19 in).^[51]
One of the largest of prehistoric otariids is Thalassoleon, comparable in size to the biggest extanct fur seals. An estimated weight of T. mexicanus is no less than 295–318 kg (650–701 lb).^[54]
The largest viverrid known to have existed is Viverra leakeyi, which was around the size of a wolf or small leopard at 41 kg (90 lb).^[55]
The heaviest known felids are the Ngangdong tiger (Panthera tigris soloensis), which are estimated to have weighed up to 480 kg (1,060 lb),^[56] the American lion (Panthera atrox), weighing up to 363 kg (800 lb)^[57]^[58] and saber-toothed cats Amphimachairodus kabir and Smilodon populator, with the males possibly reaching 350–490 kg (770–1,080 lb) and 220–400 kg (490–880 lb) respectively.^[24]^[59]
The largest nimravid was probably Quercylurus major as it's fossils suggest it was similar in size to the modern-day brown bear and was scansorial.^[60] Eusmilus was the largest of the holplophonine nimravids, reaching the weigth of nearly 111 kg, comparable to a small Arfican lion.^[61]
The largest known fossil hyena is Pachycrocuta, estimated at 90–100 cm (35–39 in) at the shoulder^[62] and 190 kg (420 lb) weight.^[24] Another huge hyena with mass over 100 kg is the cave hyena. It is actually a subspecies of the African spotted hyena, which is at 10% less than the extinct cave hyena.^[63] The closely related percrocutid feliform, Dinocrocuta, was much bigger, 300 kg (660 lb).^[64]
The largest canid of all time was Epicyon haydeni, which stood 90 cm (35 in) tall at the shoulder, had a body length of 2.4 m (7.9 ft) and weighed 100–125 kg (220–276 lb),^[65]^[66]^[67] with the heaviest known specimen weighing up to 170 kg (370 lb).^[68] The largest known wolf species is the dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus) 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) in length and weighed between 50 and 110 kg (110 and 243 lb).^[24]^[69]
The largest bear-dog was a species of Pseudocyon weighing around 773 kg (1,704 lb), representing a very large individual.^[70]
The biggest known mustelid to ever exist was likely the giant otter, Enhydriodon. It exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, and would have weighed in at around 200 kg (440 lb), much larger than any other known mustelid, living or extinct.^[71]^[72] There were other giant otters, like Siamogale, at around 50 kg (110 lb)^[73] and Megalenhydris, which was larger than a modern-day giant river otter.^[74] Another large-bodied mustelid was the superficially cat-like Ekorus from Africa, about the size of a leopard and filling a similar ecological niche before big cats came to the continent.^{[citation needed]} Megalictis was thought to be around the size of a black bear according to old estimates. Newer estimates, however, significantly downgrade its size, although, at a maximum weight more than twice that of a wolverine, it is larger than most (if not all) living mustelids.^{[citation needed]}
The heaviest procyonid was possibly South American Chapalmalania. It reached 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in body length with a short tail and 150 kilograms (330 lb), comparable in size to an American black bear (Ursus americanus).^[75] Another huge procyonid was Cyonasua, which weighted about 15–25 kg, about the same size as a medium-sized dog.^[76]

Armadillos, glyptodonts and pampatheres (Cingulata)

The largest cingulate known is Doedicurus, at 3.8 m (12 ft) long and reaching a mass of approximately 1,910 to 2,370 kg (2.11 to 2.61 short tons).^{[citation needed]} Glyptodon easily topped 3.3 m (11 ft) and 2 t (2.2 short tons).^{[citation needed]}

Hedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, and moles (Erinaceomorpha and Soricomorpha)

The largest known animal of the Erinaceomorpha and Soricomorpha groups was Deinogalerix,^[77] measuring up to 60 cm (24 in) in total length, with a skull up to 20 cm (7.9 in) long.

Bats (Chiroptera)

Found in Quaternary deposits of South and Central Americas, Desmodus draculae had a wingspan of 0.5 m (20 in) and a body mass of up to 60 g (2.1 oz). Such proportions make it the largest vampire bat that ever evolved.^[78]

Rabbits, hares, and pikas (Lagomorpha)

The biggest known prehistoric lagomorph is Minorcan giant lagomorph Nuralagus rex at 12 kg (26 lb).^[79]

Anteaters and sloths (Pilosa)

The largest known pilosan ever was Megatherium, a ground sloth with an estimated average weight of 3.8 t (4.2 short tons)^[80] and a height of 6 m (20 ft)^[80] which is almost as big as the African bush elephant. Several other sloths grew to large sizes as well, such as Eremotherium, but none as large as Megatherium.

Primates (Primates)

The largest known primate of all time was Gigantopithecus blackii, standing 3 m (9.8 ft) tall and weighing 540 kg (1,200 lb).^[81]^[82] However In 2017, new studies suggested a body mass of 200–300 kg (440–660 lb) for this primate.^[83]
The largest known Old World monkey is the prehistoric baboon, with a male specimen of Dinopithecus projected to weigh an average of 46 kg (101 lb) and up to 57 kg (125 lb).^[84] It exceeds the maximum weight record of the chacma baboon, the largest extant baboon. One source projects a specimen of Theropithecus oswaldi to have weighed 72 kg (158 lb).^[85]
The largest known New World monkey was Protopithecus, weighing up to 23 kg (50 lb).^[86]
Some prehistoric prosimians grew to huge sizes as well. Archaeoindris was a 1.5-metre-long (4.9 ft) lemur that lived in Madagascar and weighed 150–187.8 kg (331–414 lb),^[87] as large as an adult male gorilla.^[88] Megaladapis is another large extinct lemur at 1.3 to 1.5 m (4 ft 3 in to 4 ft 11 in) in length^{[citation needed]} and had an average body mass of around 140 kg (310 lb).^[89]

Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea)

The largest known land mammal ever was a proboscidean called Palaeoloxodon namadicus which weighed about 22 t (24.3 short tons) and measured about 5.2 m (17.1 ft) tall at the shoulder.^[46] The largest individuals of the steppe mammoth of Eurasia (Mammuthus trogontherii) estimated to reach 4.5 m (14.8 ft) at the shoulders and 14.3 t (15.8 short tons) in weight.^[46]^[90] Stegodon zdanskyi, the biggest species of Stegodon, was 13 t (14.3 short tons) in body mass.^[46] Another one enormous proboscidean is Stegotetrabelodon syrticus, over 4 m (13 ft) in height and 11 to 12 t (12.1 to 13.2 short tons) in weight.^[46] The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) was about 4 m (13.1 ft) tall at the shoulder but didn't weigh as much as other huge mammoths. It's average mass was 9.5 t (10.5 short tons) with one unusually large specimen about 12.5 t (13.8 short tons).^[46] Columbian mammoths had very long tusks. The largest known mammoth tusk, 4.9 m (16 ft) long, belonged to this species.^[91]
The largest mammutid was the Neogene Mammut borsoni. The biggest specimen reached 4.1 m (13 ft) tall and weighed about 16 t (17.6 short tons).^[46] This species also had the longest tusks, 5.02 m (16.5 ft) long from basis to tip along the curve.^[92]
Deinotherium was the largest proboscidean in Deinotheriidae family. Bones retrieved in Crete confirm the existence of specimen 4.1 m (13 ft) tall at the shoulders and more than 14 t (15.4 short tons) in weight.^[46]

Sea cows (Sirenia)

According to reports, Steller's sea cows have grown to 8 to 9 m (26 to 30 ft) long as adults, much larger than any extant sirenians.^[93] The weight of Steller’s sea cows is estimated to be 8–10 t (8.8–11.0 short tons).^[94]

Rodents (Rodentia)

Josephoartigasia monesi was the largest-known rodent of all time, approximately 3 m (9.8 ft) long and 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall and weighing an estimated 1 t (1.1 short tons).^[95]
Before the discovery of Josephoartigasia monesi, another giant rodent was known, Phoberomys insolita, but it was known from only a few fragments, so its real size is unknown.^{[citation needed]} A slightly smaller relative, Phoberomys pattersoni, was found, which was 3 m (9.8 ft) long and weighed 320 kg (700 lb).^{[citation needed]}
The largest beaver was the giant beaver of North America. It grew over 2 m in length and weighed roughly 90 to 125 kg (198 to 276 lb), also making it one of the largest rodents to ever exist.^[96]

Astrapotherians (Astrapotheria)

Some of the largest known astrapotherians weighed about 3–4 t (3.3–4.4 short tons), including the genus Granastrapotherium^[97] and some species of Parastrapotherium (P. martiale).^[98] The skeleton remains suggests that the species Hilarcotherium miyou was even larger, with a weight of 6.456 t (7.117 short tons).^[99]

Arsinoitheres (Arsinoitheriidae)

The largest known arsinoitheriid was Arsinoitherium. When alive, it would have been 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulders, and 3 m (9.8 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}

Condylarths (Condylarthra)

The largest known condylarth is Phenacodus. It was 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) long and weighted up to 56 kg (123 lb).^{[citation needed]}

Dinoceratans (Dinocerata)

The largest known dinoceratan was Uintatherium.^{[citation needed]} It was about the size of a rhinoceros.^{[clarification needed]} Despite its large size, it had a brain only about as large as an orange.^{[citation needed]}

Desmostylians (Desmostylia)

The largest known desmostylian was a species of Desmostylus, with skull length of 81.8 cm (32.2 in) and comparable in size to the Steller's sea cow.^[100]

Paleoparadoxia is also known as one of the largest desmostylians, with body length of 3.03 m (9.9 ft).^[101]

Litopterns (Litopterna)

The largest known litoptern was Macrauchenia, which had three hoofs per foot. It was a relatively large animal, with a body length of around 3 m (9.8 ft).^[102]

Notoungulates (Notoungulata)

The largest notoungulate known of complete remains is Toxodon. It was about 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) in body length, and about 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) high at the shoulder and resembled a heavy rhinoceros. Although is not complete, the preserved fossils suggests that Mixotoxodon were the most massive member of the group, with a weight about 3.8 t (4.2 short tons).^[103]

Oxyaenids (Oxyaenidae)

The largest known oxyaenid was Sarkastodon weighing in at 800 kg (1,800 lb).^[104]

Hyaenodontids (Hyaenodontidae)

The largest hyaenodontid was Simbakubwa at 1,500 kg (3,300 lbs).^{[citation needed]}

Mesonychids (Mesonychia)

The largest mesonychid was Mongolonyx robustus. This predator would have been 1.3–1.4 m (4 ft 3 in – 4 ft 7 in) tall at the shoulders and 2.7–2.8 m (8 ft 10 in – 9 ft 2 in) long.^{[citation needed]} Ankalagon is the largest mesonychid known from the Paleocene of North America, it grew to be as large as a bear.^[105]^[106]

Reptiles (Reptilia)

Lizards and snakes (Squamata)

Giant mosasaurs are the largest-known animals within the Squamata. The largest-known mosasaur is likely Mosasaurus hoffmanni, estimated at 17.6 m (58 ft) in length.^[107] Another giant mosasaur is Tylosaurus, estimated at 10–14 m (33–46 ft) in length.^[108]^[109] Another large mosasaur is Hainosaurus bernardi (could be synonymous to Tylosaurus). It was once estimated at 17 and 15 m (56 and 49 ft) in length,^[110]^[111] but later estimates put it at around 12.2 m (40 ft).^[112]
The largest known prehistoric snake is Titanoboa cerrejonensis, estimated at 12.8 m (42 ft) in length and 1,135 kg (2,502 lb) in weight.^[113] Another known very large fossil snake is Gigantophis garstini, estimated at around 9.3–10.7 m (31–35 ft) in length.^[114]^[115] A close rival in size to Gigantophis is a fossil snake, Palaeophis colossaeus, which may have been around 9 m (30 ft) in length.^[113]^[116]^[117] Later studies speculate that it reached a maximum length of 12.3 m (40 ft).^[118]
The largest known land lizard is probably Megalania at 7 m (23 ft) in length.^[119] However, maximum size of this animal is subject to debate.^[120]

Turtles and tortoises (Testudines)

The largest known turtle ever was Archelon ischyros at 5 m (16 ft) long, 4.9 m (16 ft) wide and 2,200 kg (4,900 lb).^[121] Another huge prehistoric sea turtle is the Late Cretaceous Gigantatypus, estimated at over 3.5 metres (11 ft) in length.^[122] The third largest turtle of all time was the fresh-water turtle, Stupendemys, with an estimated total carapace length of more than 3.3 m (11 ft) and weight of up to 1,814–2,268 kg (3,999–5,000 lb).^{[citation needed]} Afterwards, the next largest turtle, and third-largest sea-turtle was Protostega at 3 m (9.8 ft).^[123]^[124] Carbonemys cofrinii had a shell that measured about 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in) and was estimated to weigh 916 kg (2,019 lb).^[125]^[126]^[127]
Two tortoises share the title of largest-known ever tortoise: Meiolania at 2.4 m (8 ft) long and well over 0.91 t (1 short ton), and Megalochelys atlas at 2.7 m (9 ft)^[128] and weighing 0.8-1.0 tonnes.^[129] The Cenozoic Titanochelon were also larger than extant giant tortoises, with a shell length of up to 2 metres.^[130]^[131]

Cotylosaurs (Captorhinidae)

The heavy built Moradisaurus grandis, with a length of 2 m (6 ft 7 in),^[132] is the largest known captorhinid.^[133]

Pareiasaurs (Pareiasauridae)

The largest known pareiasaur is Scutosaurus, up to 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, with bony armor, and a number of spikes decorating its skull.^{[citation needed]}

Phytosaurs (Phytosauria)

Some of the largest known phytosaurs include Redondasaurus with a length of 6.4 meters and Smilosuchus with a size of 6.8 meters.^{[citation needed]}

Pseudosuchians (Pseudosuchia)

The largest known rauisuchian is Fasolasuchus tenax, which measured an estimated of 8 metres.^[134] It is both the largest rauisuchian known to science, and the largest non-dinosaurian terrestrial predator ever discovered.^{[citation needed]} A specimen of Prestosuchus discovered in 2010 suggest that this animal reached lengths of nearly 7 meters (23 feet) making it one of the largest Triassic pseudosuchians alongside Saurosuchus and Fasolasuchus.^[135]
Desmatosuchus was likely one of the largest known aetosaurs, at least 4 meters (13 feet) in length and 280 kg (617 lbs) in weight.^[136]^[137]

Crocodiles and close relatives (Crocodylomorpha)

The largest known crocodylomorph is likely Deinosuchus riograndensis at 12 m (39 ft) long and weighing 8.5 t (9.4 short tons).^[138]^[139]
In the past, the Sarcosuchus imperator was believed to be the largest crocodylomorph, with initial estimates proposing a length of 12 m (39 ft) and a weight of 8 t (8.8 short tons),^[140]. However, recent estimates have now shrunk to a length of 9 to 9.5 m (29.5 to 31.2 ft) and a weight of 3.5 to 4.3 metric tons (3.9 to 4.7 short tons).^[141]
Some close contenders in size are Astorgosuchus bugtiensis estimated at around 8 m (26 ft),^[142] and Purussaurus brasiliensis estimated at 11–13 m (36–43 ft),^[143] according to another information, maximum estimate measure 11.4 m (37 ft) and almost 7.8 t (8.6 short tons) in length and in weight respectively.^[144] Another large crocodilian is Rhamphosuchus, estimated at 8–11 m (26–36 ft) in length.^[145]
The largest terrestrial sebecid crocodylomorph is Barinasuchus, from the Miocene of South America, which reached 9 m (30 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}

Plesiosaurs

Plesiosauroids (Plesiosauroidea)

The longest known plesiosauroid was Albertonectes at 11.2–11.6 metres (37–38 ft).^[146] Thalassomedon rivaled it in size, with its length at 10.86–11.6 metres (35.6–38.1 ft).^[147]

Pliosauroids (Pliosauroidea)

There is much controversy over the largest-known of the Pliosauroidea. Fossil remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as "Predator X" have been discovered and excavated from Norway in 2008. This pliosaur has been estimated at 15 m (49 ft) in length and 45 t (50 short tons) in weight.^[148]^[149] However, in 2002, a team of paleontologists in Mexico discovered the remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as "Monster of Aramberri", which is also estimated at 15 m (49 ft) in length.^[150] This species is, however, claimed to be a juvenile and has been attacked by a larger pliosaur.^[151] Some media sources claimed that Monster of Aramberri was a Liopleurodon but its species is unconfirmed thus far.^[150] Another very large pliosaur was Pliosaurus macromerus, known from a single 2.8-metre-long (9.2 ft) incomplete mandible. It may have reached 18 m (59 ft), assuming the skull was about 17% of the total body length.^[152]

Choristoderes (Choristodera)

The largest known choristoderan, Kosmodraco dakotensis is estimated to have had a total length of around 5 m (16 ft).^[153]^[154] Another large choristoderan is Borealosuchus, which with a length of up to 4 meters rivaled Kosmodraco in size.^[153]

Ichthyosaurs (Ichthyosauria)

The largest known ichthyosaur was Shastasaurus sikanniensis at 21 m (69 ft) in length.^[155] In April 2018, paleontologists announced the discovery of a previously unknown ichthyosaur that may have reached lengths of 26 m (85 ft) making it one of the largest animals known, rivaling some blue whales in size. Another, larger ichthyosaur was found in 1850 in Aust, Gloucestershire, being noted in the same paper. Its remains seemed to surpass the measurements of the other ichthyosaur, but the researchers commented that the remains were too fragmentary for a size estimate to be made.^[156]

Tanystropheids (Tanystropheidae)

Tanystropheus, the largest of all tanystropheids, reached up to 5 meters in length.^[157]

Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)

The largest known pterosaur was Quetzalcoatlus northropi, at 127 kg (280 lb) and with a wingspan of 12 m (39 ft). Another close contender is Hatzegopteryx, also with a wingspan of 12 m (39 ft). This estimate is based on a skull 3 m (9.8 ft) long.^[158] Yet another possible contender for the title is Cryodrakon which had a 10-metre (33 ft) wingspan.^[159] An unnamed pterodactyloid pterosaur from the Nemegt Formation could reach a wingspan of nearly 10 metres.^[160] According to various assumptions, the wingspan of Arambourgiania philadelphiae reached from 8 to more than 10 metres.^[160]^[159] South American Tropeognathus reached the maximum wingspan of 8.7 meters.^[161]^[162]

Thalattosaurs (Thalattosauria)

The largest species of thalattosaur, Miodentosaurus brevis grew to more than 4 meters (13 feet) in length.^[163] The second largest member of this group is Concavispina with a lenght of 3.64 meters.^[164]

Non-avian dinosaurs (Dinosauria)

Sauropods (Sauropoda)

A mega-sauropod, Maraapunisaurus fragillimus, is a contender for the largest-known dinosaur in history. It has been estimated at 58 m (190 ft) in length and 122,400 kg (269,800 lb) in weight.^[165] Unfortunately, the fossil remains of this dinosaur have been lost.^[165] More recently, it was estimated at 30.3–32 m (99–105 ft) in length.^[166]
Barosaurus lentus may have been the largest sauropod and largest dinosaur yet discovered. Originally thought to reach only 27 m (89 ft), a massive cervical vertebra has been recently attributed to this species, suggesting maximum length of 50 m (160 ft) and masses of up to 100 t (110 short tons).^[167]
Other huge sauropods include Argentinosaurus, Alamosaurus, and Puertasaurus with estimated lengths of 30–33 m (98–108 ft) and weights of 50–80 t (55–88 short tons).^[168] Patagotitan was estimated at 37 m (121 ft) in length and 69 t (76 short tons) in mass,^[169] and was similar in size to Argentinosaurus and Puertasaurus.^[170] Giant sauropods like Supersaurus, Sauroposeidon, and Diplodocus probably rivaled them in length but not weight.^[165]
Supersaurus may have been the longest dinosaur yet discovered as a study of 3 specimens suggested length of 39 m (128 ft) to 42 m (138 ft) or more.^[171]

Many large sauropods are still unnamed and may rival the current record holders.

The "Archbishop", a large brachiosaur that was discovered in 1930. The animal was reported to get a scientific paper published by the end of 2016.^[172]
Brachiosaurus nougaredi is yet another large brachiosaur from Early Cretaceous North Africa. The remains have been lost, but the sacrum drawing remains. They suggest a sacrum of almost 5 ft (2 m) long, making it the largest dinosaur sacrum discovered so far.^{[citation needed]}
In 2010, the femur of a large sauropod was discovered in France. The femur suggests an animal that grew to immense sizes.^[173]

Non-avian theropods (Theropoda)

The largest theropod as well as the largest terrestrial (or possibly semi-aquatic)^[174] predator yet known is Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, with the largest specimen known estimated at 12.6–18 m (41–59 ft) in length and around 7–20.9 t (8–23 short tons) in weight.^[175]^[176] New estimates published in 2014 and 2018, based on a more complete specimen supported that Spinosaurus could reach lengths of 15 to 16 meters (49 to 52 ft).^[177]^[178]^[179] The latest estimates suggest a weight of 6.4 to 7.5 metric tons (7.1 to 8.3 short tons).^[178]^[179]
Other large theropods were Giganotosaurus carolinii, and Tyrannosaurus rex, whose largest specimens known estimated at 13.2 m (43 ft)^[180] and 12.3 m (40 ft)^[181] in length, and weigh between 4.2 to 13.8 t (4.6 to 15.2 short tons)^[182]^[183]^[184]^[175] and 4.5 metric tons (5.0 short tons)^[185]^[186] to over 7.2 metric tons (7.9 short tons),^[181] respectively. Some other notable giant theropods (e.g. Carcharodontosaurus, Acrocanthosaurus, and Mapusaurus) may also have rivaled them in size.

Armoured dinosaurs (Thyreophora)

The largest-known thyreophoran was Ankylosaurus at 9 m (30 ft) in length and 6 t (6.6 short tons) in weight.^[187]^[188] Stegosaurus was also 9 m (30 ft) long but around 5 t (5.5 short tons) tonnes in weight.^{[citation needed]}

Pachycephalosaurs (Pachycephalosauria)

The largest pachycephalosaur was the nominate Pachycephalosaurus, with a body length of about 4.5 metres (14.8 ft) long and a weight of about 450 kilograms (990 lb).^[189]

Ceratopsians (Ceratopsia)

The largest ceratopsian known is Triceratops horridus, along with the closely related Eotriceratops xerinsularis both with estimated lengths of 9 m (30 ft). Pentaceratops and several other ceratopsians rival them in size.^[190]

Ornithopods (Ornithopoda)

The very largest known ornithopods, like Shantungosaurus were as heavy as medium-sized sauropods at up to 23 t (25 short tons),^[191]^[192] and 18.7 m (61 ft) in length.^[191]

Birds (Aves)

The largest known birds of all time might have been the elephant birds of Madagascar. Of almost the same size was the Australian Dromornis stirtoni. Both were about 3 m (9.8 ft) tall.^{[citation needed]} The elephant birds were up to 400 kg (880 lb) and Dromornis stirtoni was up to 500 kg (1,100 lb) in weight.^{[citation needed]} The tallest bird ever was the giant moa at 3.6 m (12 ft) tall.^{[citation needed]}

The widest known wingspan of any flight-capable bird was Pelagornis sandersi with a wingspan of 7.3 m (24 ft), and a body weight of 21.7 kg (48 lb). The heaviest flight-capable bird was the giant teratorn, Argentavis magnificens which had a somewhat-smaller wingspan at around 4.5 meters but was far heavier, with accepted maximums around 70–72 kg.^[193]

Waterfowl (Anseriformes)

The largest known waterfowl of all time belonged to the Dromornithidae (e.g. Dromornis stirtoni).^[194]

Shorebirds (Charadriifromers)

Miomancalla howardi was the largest charadriiform of all time, weighing approximately 1.5 ft (0.46 m)(?) more than the Great Auk with a height of approximately 1 m (3.3 ft).^[195]

Storks and allies (Ciconiiformes)

The largest known of Ciconiiformes was Leptoptilos robustus, standing 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall and weighing an estimated 16 kg (35 lb).^[196]^[197]

Hesperornithines (Hesperornithes)

The largest known of the hesperornithines was Canadaga arctica at 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) long.^[198]

Gastornid (Gastornithiformes)

Individuals of Gastornis averaged 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in) in height, with large individuals up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall.^{[citation needed]}

Teratorns (Teratornithidae)

The largest known teratorn and the heaviest flying bird ever was Argentavis.^{[citation needed]} The immense bird had a wingspan estimated up to 6.4 m (21 ft) and a weight up to 68 kg (150 lb).^{[citation needed]} It could grow as tall as an adult human when standing.^{[citation needed]}

Phorusrhacids (Phorusrhacidae)

The largest known-ever Cariamiforme and largest phorusrhacid or "terror bird" (highly predatory, flightless birds of South America) was Brontornis, which was about 175 cm (69 in) tall at the shoulder, could raise its head 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) above the ground and could have weighed as much as 400 kg (880 lb).^[199] The immense phorusrhacid Kelenken stood 3–3.2 m (9.8–10.5 ft) tall with a skull 710 mm (28 in) long (460 mm [18 in] of which was beak), had the largest head of any known bird. The largest North American phorusrhacid is Titanis, which is about 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) tall, as tall as a forest elephant.

Accipitriforms (Accipitriformes)

The largest known bird of prey ever was the enormous Haast's eagle (Hieraaetus moorei), with a wingspan of 2.6 to 3 m (8 ft 6 in to 9 ft 10 in), relatively short for their size. Total length was probably up to 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) in female and they weighed about 10 to 15 kg (22 to 33 lb). The largest extinct Titanohierax was a giant hawk about 8 kilograms that lived in the Antilles, where it was among the top predators.

Pigeons and Doves (Columbiformes)

The largest pigeon relative known was the dodo (Raphus cucullatus), possibly exceeding 1 m (3.3 ft) in height and weighing as much as 28 kg (62 lb), although recent estimates have indicated that an average wild dodo weighed much less at approximately 10.2 kg (22 lb).^[200]^[201]

Gamebirds (Galliformes)

The largest known of the Galliformes was likely the giant malleefowl, which could reach 7 kg in weight.^[202]

Songbirds (Passeriformes)

The largest known songbird is the extinct giant grosbeak (Chloridops regiskongi) at 280 mm (11 in) long.^{[citation needed]}

Cormorants and allies (Pelecaniformes)

The largest known cormorant was the spectacled cormorant of the North Pacific (Phalacrocorax perspicillatus), which became extinct around 1850 and averaged around 6.4 kg (14 lb) and 1.15 m (3 ft 9 in).^[203]

Grebes (Podicipediformes)

The largest known grebe, the Atitlán grebe (Podylimbus gigas), reached a length of about 46–50 centimetres (18–20 in).^[204]

Bony-toothed birds (Odontopterygiformes)

The largest known of the Odontopterygiformes— a group which has been variously allied with Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes and Anseriformes—and the largest flying birds of all time other than Argentavis were the huge Pelagornis, Cyphornis, Dasornis, Gigantornis and Osteodontornis.^{[citation needed]} They had a wingspan of 5.5–6 m (18–20 ft) and stood about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) tall.^{[citation needed]} Exact size estimates and judging which one was largest are not yet possible for these birds, as their bones were extremely thin-walled, light and fragile, and thus most are only known from very incomplete remains.^{[citation needed]}

Woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes)

The largest known woodpecker is the possibly extinct imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) with a total length of about 560 mm (22 in).^{[citation needed]}

Parrots (Psittaciformes)

The largest known parrot is the extinct Heracles inexpectatus with a length of about 1 meter (3.3 feet).^[205]

Penguins (Sphenisciformes)

The largest known penguin of all time was Palaeeudyptes klekowskii of Antarctica, its body length (tip of the bill to tip of the tail) is estimated about 2.02 m (6 ft 8 in) and body weight is estimated about 116.21 kg (256.2 lb).^[206] Another large penguin is Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi of New Zealand and Antarctica. Its body length is estimated 1.99 m (6 ft 6 in) and was 97.8 kg (216 lb) in weight. There is also an estimate that one remain of Anthropornis can reach that body length of 2.05 m (6 ft 9 in) and 108 kg (238 lb) in weight.^[207] Similar in size were the New Zealand giant penguin (Pachydyptes pondeorsus) with a height of 1.4 to 1.6 m (4 ft 7 in to 5 ft 3 in) and weighing possibly around 80 to 100 kg (180 to 220 lb) and over, and Icadyptes salasi at 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall.

Owls (Strigiformes)

The largest known owl of all time was the Cuban Ornimegalonyx at 1,100 mm (43.3 in) tall probably exceeding 9 kg (20 lb).^[208]

Ratites (Struthioniformes)

The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant birds (Vorombe/Aepyornis) of Madagascar, which were related to the ostrich. They exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in height and 500 kg (1,100 lb) in weight.^[209] The tallest known bird was the South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus), part of the moa family of New Zealand that went extinct about 500 years ago. It stood up to 3.7 m (12 ft) tall,^[210] and weighed approximately half as much as a large elephant bird due to its comparatively slender frame.^[209]

Amphibians (Amphibia)

The largest known amphibian of all time was the 9.1 m (30 ft) long temnospondyli Prionosuchus.^[211] Another huge temnospondyli was Mastodonsaurus giganteus at 20 ft (6 m) long.^[212] Unnamed species of temnospondyl from Lesotho is partial, but possible body length estimation is 23 ft (7 m).^[213]

Frogs (Anura)

The largest known frog ever was an as yet unnamed species that was about 58–59-centimetre-long (22.8–23.2 in).^[214]

Diadectomorpha

The largest known diacectid, Diadectes, was a heavily built animal, 1.5 to 3 m (4 ft 11 in to 9 ft 10 in) long, with thick vertebrae and ribs.^{[citation needed]}

Anthracosauria

The largest known anthracosaur was Anthracosaurus, a predator. It could reach up to 3.7 m (12 ft) in length. Eogyrinus commonly reached 4.6 m (15 ft); however, it was more lightly built.^[215]

Temnospondyli

The largest known temnospondyl amphibian is Prionosuchus, which grew to lengths of 9 m (30 ft).^[211]

Fishes (Pisces)

Fishes are a collection of multiple unrelated clades of non tetrapods.

Spiny sharks (Acanthodii)

The largest of the now-extinct Acanthodii was Xylacanthus grandis, an ischnacanthiform based on a ~ 35 cm (14 in) long jaw bone. Based on the proportions of its relative Ischnacanthus, X. grandis had an estimated total length of 2.5 meters (8.2 feet).^[216]

Placoderms (Placodermi)

The largest known placoderm was the giant predatory Dunkleosteus. The largest and most well known species was D. terrelli, which grew almost 9 m (29.5 ft) in length^[217] and 4 t (4.4 short tons)^[218] in weight. Its filter feeding relative, Titanichthys, may have rivaled it in size.^{[citation needed]}

Cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes)

Megalodon (brown) with the whale shark (blue), great white shark (yellow), and human (black) for scale

Mackerel sharks (Lamniformes)

An extinct giant shark, Otodus megalodon^[219]^[220]^[221] is by far the biggest mackerel shark ever known.^[222] Most estimates of megalodon's size extrapolate from teeth, with maximum length estimates up to 10–20.3 meters (33–67 ft)^[220]^[221]^[223] and average length estimates of 10.5 meters (34 ft).^[224]^[225] Due to fragmentary remains, there have been many contradictory size estimates for megalodon, as they can only be drawn from fossil teeth and vertebrae.^[226]^: 87^[227] Mature male megalodon may have had a body mass of 12.6 to 33.9 metric tons (13.9 to 37.4 short tons), and mature females may have been 27.4 to 59.4 metric tons (30.2 to 65.5 short tons), assuming that males could range in length from 10.5 to 14.3 meters (34 to 47 ft) and females 13.3 to 17 meters (44 to 56 ft).^[228]

Hybodonts (Hybodontiformes)

One of the largest hybodontiforms was the Jurassic Asteracanthus with body length of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).^[229] Crassodus reifi is known from less materials, however it is estimated that reached over 3 m (9.8 ft).^[230]

Eugenedont (Eugeneodontida)

The largest known eugenedont is an as-yet unnamed species of Helicoprion discovered in Idaho. The specimens suggest an animal that possibly exceeded 12 m (39 ft) in length.^[231]

Another fairly large eugenedont is Parahelicoprion. The specimens suggest an animal that grew to the same size, 12 m (39 ft), but was much more slender and overall less heavy.^{[citation needed]}

Lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)

The largest known lobe-finned fish was the 6–7 m (20–23 ft) long Rhizodus.^[232]

Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii)

Pachycormiformes

The largest known ray-finned fish and largest bony fish of all time was the pachycormid, Leedsichthys problematicus, at around 16.5 m (54 ft) long.^[233] Earlier estimates have had claims of larger individuals with lengths over 27 m (89 ft).^[234]^[235]

Ichthyodectiformes

The largest known of ichthyodectiform fish was Xiphactinus, which measured 6.0 m (20 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}

‬Opahes, ribbonfishes, oarfishes and allies (Lampriformes)

Megalampris was likely the largest fossil opah. This fish was around 4 m (13 ft) in length when alive, which is twice the length of the largest living opah species, Lampris guttatus.^[236]

Salmon and trout (Salmoniformes)

The largest salmon was Oncorhynchus rastrosus, varying in size from 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) and 177 kg (390 lb)^[237] to 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) and 200 kg (440 lb).^[238]^[237]

Echinoderms (Echinodermata)

Crinozoa

Sea lilies (Cricoidea)

Longest stem of Seirocrinus subangularis reached over 26 m (85 ft).^[239]

Asterozoa

Starfish (Asteroidea)

Helianthaster from Hunsrück Slate had radius about 25 cm (9.8 in).^[240]

Arthropods (Arthropoda)

Dinocaridida

Gilled lobopodians

Based on the findings of mouthparts, the Cambrian gilled lobopodian Omnidens amplus is estimated to have been 1.5 metres (4.9 ft).^[241] It is also known as the largest Cambrian animal known to exist.^[241]

Radiodont (Radiodonta)

The largest known radiodont is Aegirocassis benmoulai, estimated to have been at least 2 m (6 ft 7 in) long.^[242]^[243]

Chelicerata

Sea spiders (Pycnogonida)

The largest fossil sea spider is Palaeoisopus problematicus with legspan about 32 cm (13 in).^[244]

Horseshoe crabs and allies (Xiphosura)

Willwerathia reached 9 cm (3.5 in) in carapace width and was the largest species of basal ("synziphosurine") xiphosurans.^[245]^[246] Howewer, the Devonian Maldybulakia reached nearly 11.5 cm (4.5 in)^[247] and was assigned to xiphosurans in 2013.^[246]
Horseshoe crab trackway icnofossil Kouphichnium lithographicum from Cerin in Ain indicates length of animal 77.4–85.1 cm (30.5–33.5 in).^[248]

Chasmataspidids (Chasmataspidida)

The largest chasmataspidids were the Ordovician Hoplitaspis at 29 cm (11 in) in length and similar in size range Chasmataspis.^[249]

Eurypterids (Eurypterida)

Size comparison of the largest known eurypterids

The largest known eurypterid was Jaekelopterus rhenaniae at 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) in length, which is also the largest arthropod known to exist.^[250] A close contender was Acutiramus bohemicus at 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) in length.^[251]

Arachnids (Arachnida)

There are three contenders for largest-known arachnid as well as the largest scorpions of all time: Pulmonoscorpius kirktonensis, Brontoscorpio anglicus and Praearcturus gigas. Each was estimated to have been 70 cm (28 in),^[252] 90 cm (35 in)^[253] and up to 100 cm (39 in),^[254] respectively.
Mongolarachne jurassica is the largest described fossil spider, with the total body length of female is approximately 24.6 millimetres (0.97 in) while the front legs reach about 56.5 millimetres (2.22 in) in length.^[255] Dinodiplura ambulacra had larger body length, combined length of carapace and opisthosoma reaches 26.15 mm (1.030 in).^[256]
The largest of prehistoric whipscorpions and possibly the largest-known whipscorpion ever discovered^[257] was Mesoproctus. An unnamed species M. sp. had a carapace of 32.5 mm (1.28 in) in length and 16 mm (0.63 in) in width, comparable or even larger than the extant Mastigoproctus have.^[258]
The largest fossil acariform mite and also the largest erythraeoid mite ever recorded was Immensmaris chewbaccei with idiosoma of more than 8 mm (0.31 in) in length.^[259]

Artiopods (Artiopoda)

Probable relative of trilobites, Tegopelte reached 280 mm (11 in) long^[260] and was the largest of the Burgess Shale bilaterians, surpassing all other benthic organisms by at least twice.^[260]

Trilobites (Trilobita)

Some of these extinct marine arthropods exceeded 60 cm (24 in) in length. A nearly complete specimen of Isotelus rex from Manitoba attained a length over 70 cm (28 in), and an Ogyginus forteyi from Portugal was almost as long. Fragments of trilobites suggest even larger record sizes. An isolated pygidium of Hungioides bohemicus implies that the full animal was 90 cm (35 in) long.^[261]

Myriapods (Myriapoda)

The largest known myriapod by far was Arthropleura. Measuring 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) long^[262] and 50 centimetres (20 in) wide.^[263] Some specimens could have been even larger, up to 2.63 metres (8 ft 8 in) in length and 50 kilograms (110 lb) in weight.^[264]^[265]

Non-hexapod crustaceans (Crustacea)

Cycloids (Cyclida)

The largest animal of this order is Opolanka decorosa, the Late Triassic Halicyne-like cycloid which reached over 6 cm (2.4 in) across the carapace.^[266]

Insects (Insecta)

Sawflies, wasps, bees, ants and allies (Hymenoptera)

The largest known of this group was the giant ant Titanomyrma giganteum with queens growing to 6 cm (2.4 in). It had a wingspan of 15 cm (5.9 in).^[267]
Apis lithohermaea is one of the largest honey bees ever found, comparable in size to the modern Apis dorsata.^[268]
The giant horntail Ypresiosirex orthosemos reached 67.9 mm (2.67 in) in length including the incomplete ovipositor.^[269] Another example of giant sawfly is Hoplitolyda duolunica, with wingspan over 92 mm (3.6 in).^[270]

Fleas (Siphonaptera)

The largest known in this group was probably Pseudopulex magnus, growing to 0.90 in (22.8 mm) in length.^[271]

Earwigs (Dermaptera)

Extinct as recent as after 1967^[272]^[273] and also submitted as the Holocene subfossils,^[274]^{[note 1]} the Saint Helena giant earwig (Labidura herculeana) reached 84 mm (3.3 in) in length uncluding forceps 34 mm long.^[272]

Chresmodidae

Chresmodidae had long specialized legs like of the modern Gerridae family. One of the Chresmodidae, Chresmoda obscura could reached a size of about 19 centimetres (7.5 in).^[275]

Beetles (Coleoptera)

The largest fossil scarabeid was Oryctoantiquus borealis with an estimated body length of 5 centimetres (2.0 in).^[276] Protognathinus spielbergi had total length including mandibles about 5.5 centimetres (2.2 in).^[277]

Titanopterans (Titanoptera)

Related to modern orthopterans, titanopterans from the Triassic period were much larger. The wingspan of Gigatitan vulgaris was up to 40 centimetres (16 in).^[278] Clatrotitan andersoni also reached a huge size, having a forewing of 13.8 centimetres (5.4 in) long.^[279]

Antlions and related net-winged insects (Neuroptera)

Makarkinia adamsi from the Crato Formation is estimated to have the longest forewings of any neuropteran species, estimated at 160 mm (6.3 in).^[280]

Cockroaches, termites, mantises and allies (Dictyoptera)

Some Carboniferous cockroach-like insects grouping in Blattoptera like Archoblattina beecheri^[281] and Necymylacris (Xenoblatta) scudderi^[282]^[283] could reach around 9 centimetres in total length, which is comparable to a modern Megaloblatta longipennis.
Found in the Miocene of Austria, the giant termite Gyatermes styriensis reached 25 millimetres (1 in) in body length and had a wingspan of 76 millimetres (3 in).^[284]

Dragonflies, damselflies and griffinflies (Odonatoptera)

The largest known in this group was probably Meganeura with a wingspan of 75 cm (30 in).^[285] Another enormous and possibly larger species was Meganeuropsis permiana.^[286]

Palaeodictyoptera

The largest known insect of this order was Mazothairos, with a wingspan of up to 560 mm (22 in).^[287]

Ringed worms (Annelida)

Websteroprion is the largest known fossil eunicidan annelid, with estimated length ranges 0.42–8.3 m (1 ft 5 in – 27 ft 3 in), however comparison with closely related extant taxa indicates length around 1–2 m (3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in).^[288] It also had the biggest scolecodonts of any prehistoric polychaete, up to 13.2 mm (0.52 in) in length and possibly larger.^[288]

Molluscs (Mollusca)

Snails and slugs (Gastropoda)

The largest known of this group were in the genus Campanile, with the extinct Campanile giganteum having shell lengths up to 90 cm (35 in).^[289]

Bivalves (Bivalvia)

The largest known bivalve ever was Platyceramus platinus, a giant that usually had an axial length of 1 m (3 ft 3 in), but some individuals could reach an axial length of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).^[290]

Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)

Nautiloids (Nautiloidea)

The largest and longest known of this group was Endoceras giganteum with a shell length of 5.73 m (18.8 ft). There is a record of individual whose shell length had reached 9.14 m (30.0 ft), but it is doubtful.^[291]

Ammonites (Ammonoidea)

The largest known ammonite was Parapuzosia seppenradensis.^[292] A partial fossil specimen found in Germany had a shell diameter of 1.95 m (6 ft 5 in), but the living chamber was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about 3.5 m (11 ft) and weighed about 705 kg (1,554 lb) when it was alive.^[293] However, later study estimates shell diameter up to around 2 m (6 ft 7 in).^[294]

Belemnites (Belemnoidea)

The largest known belemnite was Megateuthis gigantea, reaching about 50 mm and 700mm in maximum diameter and length of rostrum, respectively.^[295]

Squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes and allies (Neocoleoidea)

Octopod Enchoteuthis melanae (considered as specimen of Tusoteuthis longa) had mantle length up to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), comparable to the modern-day giant squid. Originally, this taxon is considered as animal like giant squid, with total length including arms over 10 metres (33 ft). However, considering other fossil relatives, total length including arms is estimated to be around 3 metres (9.8 ft).
Both non-octopod Yezoteuthis and teuthid Haboroteuthis are estimated to be similar in size to the modern-day giant squid.^[296]^[297]

Brachiopods (Brachiopoda)

The largest brachiopod ever evolved was the Carboniferous Gigantoproductus giganteus, with shell width of 35 centimetres (14 in).^[298]^[299] However, Striatifera striata from Akkermanovka Quarry, Russia had height up to 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in).^[300]

Hyoliths (Hyolitha)

The largest hyolith is Macrotheca almgreeni, with length about 50 centimetres (20 in).^[299]^[301]

Cnidarians (Cnidaria)

Jellyfishes and allies (Medusozoa)

The largest fossil jellyfish is Cambrian Cordubia gigantea, with diameter of 88 centimetres (35 in).^[302] Specimens from the Cambrian of Wisconsin reached 70 cm in length.^[303]

Vendobionts (Vendobionta)

Petalonamids (Petalonamae)

Longest specimens of Trepassia wardae (also known as Charnia wardi) reached 185 cm in length.^[304] Charnia masoni is known from specimens as small as only 1 cm, up to the largest specimens of 66 cm in length.^[305]

Proarticulata

Dickinsonia rex reached 1.4 meters (4 ft 7 in) in length, that makes it one of the largest precambrian organisms.^[306]^[307]

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@@ Line 411: / Line 411: @@
 ==== Hybodonts (Hybodontiformes) ====
-One of the largest [[Hybodontiformes|hybodontiforms]] was the Jurassic ''[[Asteracanthus]]'' with body length of up to {{cvt|3|m}}.<ref>Sebastian Stumpf, Faviel A. López-Romero, René Kindlimann, Frederic Lacombat, Burkhard Pohl, Jürgen Kriwet. A unique hybodontiform skeleton provides novel insights into Mesozoic chondrichthyan life. 2021. https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.fqz612jr5</ref>
+One of the largest [[Hybodontiformes|hybodontiforms]] was the Jurassic ''[[Asteracanthus]]'' with body length of up to {{cvt|3|m}}.<ref>Sebastian Stumpf, Faviel A. López-Romero, René Kindlimann, Frederic Lacombat, Burkhard Pohl, Jürgen Kriwet. A unique hybodontiform skeleton provides novel insights into Mesozoic chondrichthyan life. 2021. https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.fqz612jr5</ref> ''[[Crassodus|Crassodus reifi]]'' is known from less materials, however it is estimated that reached over {{cvt|3|m}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maisch |first=Michael W. |last2=Matzke |first2=Andreas T. |date=2016-06-01 |title=A new hybodontid shark (Chondrichthyes, Hybodontiformes) from the Lower Jurassic Posidonienschiefer Formation of Dotternhausen, SW Germany |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303820368_A_new_hybodontid_shark_Chondrichthyes_Hybodontiformes_from_the_Lower_Jurassic_Posidonienschiefer_Formation_of_Dotternhausen_SW_Germany |journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen |language=en |pages=241–257 |doi=10.1127/njgpa/2016/0577}}</ref>
 ==== Eugenedont (Eugeneodontida) ====
@@ Line 419: / Line 419: @@
 === Lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii) ===
-The largest known [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned fish]] was the {{cvt|6|-|7|m}} long ''[[Rhizodus]]''.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} It was also the largest freshwater fish ever known.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}
+The largest known [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned fish]] was the {{cvt|6|-|7|m}} long ''[[Rhizodus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jeffery |first=J.E. |year=2003 |title=Mandibles of rhizodontids: anatomy, function andevolution within the tetrapod stem-group |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298928986 |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=255–276 |doi=10.1017/S0263593300000432 |s2cid=129517553}}</ref>
 === Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) ===
@@ Line 435: / Line 435: @@
 The largest [[salmon]] was ''[[Oncorhynchus rastrosus]]'', varying in size from {{cvt|1.9|m}} and {{cvt|177|kg}}<ref name=Sankey2016>{{cite journal|first=Julia |last=Sankey |first2=Jacob |last2=Biewer |first3=Janis |last3=Basuga |first4=Francisco |last4=Palacios |first5=Hugh |last5=Wagner |title=The giant, spike-toothed salmon, ''Oncorhynchus rastrosus'' and the "Proto-Tuolumne River" (early Pliocene) of Central California. |journal=PaleoBios |volume=33 |year=2016 |pages=1–16 | url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/84g0595b}}</ref> to {{cvt|2.4|m}} and {{cvt|200|kg}}.<ref>Stearley, R.F. and G.R. Smith. 2016. Salmonid fishes from Mio-Pliocene lake sediments in the Western Snake River Plain and
 the Great Basin. in [https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/134040/MP%20204.pdf W.L. Fink and N. Carpenter (eds.). Fishes of the Mio-Pliocene Western Snake River Plain and Vicinity]. Misc. Pub. Museum Zoology, University of Michigan 204:1–45</ref><ref name=Sankey2016/>
+== Echinoderms ([[Echinoderm|Echinodermata]]) ==
+=== [[Crinozoa]] ===
+==== Sea lilies ([[Crinoid|Cricoidea]]) ====
+Longest stem of [[Seirocrinus|''Seirocrinus subangularis'']] reached over {{cvt|26|m}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Hans |date=2010 |title=Treatise Online, no. 16, Part T, Revised, Volume 1, Chapter 19: Paleoecology of pelagic crinoids |url=https://journals.ku.edu/treatiseonline/article/view/4086 |journal=Treatise Online |language=en |doi=10.17161/to.v0i0.4086 |issn=2153-4012}}</ref>
+=== [[Asterozoa]] ===
+==== Starfish ([[Starfish|Asteroidea]]) ====
+''[[Helianthaster]]'' from [[Hunsrück Slate]] had radius about {{cvt|25|cm}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blake |first=Daniel B. |date=2009-06-01 |title=Re-evaluation of the Devonian family Helianthasteridae Gregory, 1899 (Asteroidea: Echinodermata) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12542-009-0020-x |journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift |language=en |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=293–308 |doi=10.1007/s12542-009-0020-x |issn=1867-6812}}</ref>
 == Arthropods ([[Arthropoda]]) ==
@@ Line 449: / Line 461: @@
 === [[Chelicerata]] ===
+==== Sea spiders ([[Sea spider|Pycnogonida]]) ====
+The largest fossil sea spider is [[Palaeoisopus|''Palaeoisopus problematicus'']] with legspan about {{cvt|32|cm}}.<ref name="Palaeoisopus1980">{{Cite journal |last1=Bergström |first1=Jan |last2=Stürmer |first2=Wilhelm |last3=Winter |first3=Gerhard |date=1980-06-01 |title=Palaeoisopus, Palaeopantopus and Palaeothea, pycnogonid arthropods from the Lower Devonian Hunsrück Slate, West Germany. |url=https://www.academia.edu/5146832 |journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift |language=en |volume=54 |issue=1–2 |pages=7–54 |doi=10.1007/BF02985882 |s2cid=86746066}}</ref>
 ==== Horseshoe crabs and allies ([[Xiphosura]]) ====
-''[[Willwerathia]]'' reached {{cvt|9|cm}} in carapace width and was the largest species of basal ("[[Synziphosurina|synziphosurine]]") xiphosurans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Lyall I.|last2=Poschmann|first2=Markus|last3=Brauckmann|first3=Carsten|date=1998|title=On the Emsian (Lower Devonian) arthropods of the Rhenish Slate Mountains: 2. The synziphosurine ''Willwerathia''|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226216314|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=72|issue=3–4|pages=325–336|doi=10.1007/BF02988363|s2cid=128464147|issn=0031-0220}}</ref><ref name=Lamsdell2013>{{Cite journal|last=Lamsdell|first=James C.|date=2013-01-01|title=Revised systematics of Palaeozoic 'horseshoe crabs' and the myth of monophyletic Xiphosura|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|language=en|volume=167|issue=1|pages=1–27|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00874.x|issn=0024-4082|doi-access=free}}</ref> Howewer, the [[Devonian]] ''[[Maldybulakia]]'' reached nearly {{cvt|11.5|cm}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Edgecombe |first=Gregory D. |date=1998-11-25 |title=Early myriapodous arthropods from Australia: Maldybulakia from the Devonian of New South Wales |url=https://zenodo.org/record/4653146 |journal=Records of the Australian Museum |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=293–313 |doi=10.3853/j.0067-1975.50.1998.1288}}</ref> and was assigned to xiphosurans in 2013.<ref name=Lamsdell2013/>
+* ''[[Willwerathia]]'' reached {{cvt|9|cm}} in carapace width and was the largest species of basal ("[[Synziphosurina|synziphosurine]]") xiphosurans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Lyall I.|last2=Poschmann|first2=Markus|last3=Brauckmann|first3=Carsten|date=1998|title=On the Emsian (Lower Devonian) arthropods of the Rhenish Slate Mountains: 2. The synziphosurine ''Willwerathia''|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226216314|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|language=en|volume=72|issue=3–4|pages=325–336|doi=10.1007/BF02988363|s2cid=128464147|issn=0031-0220}}</ref><ref name="Lamsdell2013">{{Cite journal|last=Lamsdell|first=James C.|date=2013-01-01|title=Revised systematics of Palaeozoic 'horseshoe crabs' and the myth of monophyletic Xiphosura|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|language=en|volume=167|issue=1|pages=1–27|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00874.x|issn=0024-4082|doi-access=free}}</ref> Howewer, the [[Devonian]] ''[[Maldybulakia]]'' reached nearly {{cvt|11.5|cm}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Edgecombe |first=Gregory D. |date=1998-11-25 |title=Early myriapodous arthropods from Australia: Maldybulakia from the Devonian of New South Wales |url=https://zenodo.org/record/4653146 |journal=Records of the Australian Museum |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=293–313 |doi=10.3853/j.0067-1975.50.1998.1288}}</ref> and was assigned to xiphosurans in 2013.<ref name="Lamsdell2013" />
+* Horseshoe crab trackway [[Trace fossil|icnofossil]] [[Kouphichnium|''Kouphichnium lithographicum'']] from Cerin in [[Ain]] indicates length of animal {{cvt|77.4-85.1|cm}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gaillard |first=Christian |date=2011-12-01 |title=A giant limulid trackway (Kouphichnium lithographicum) from the lithographic limestones of Cerin (Late Kimmeridgian, France): ethological and environmental implications |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00015-010-0032-2 |journal=Swiss Journal of Geosciences |language=en |volume=104 |issue=1 |pages=57–72 |doi=10.1007/s00015-010-0032-2 |issn=1661-8734}}</ref>
 ==== Chasmataspidids ([[Chasmataspidida]]) ====
@@ Line 459: / Line 476: @@
 ==== Eurypterids ([[Eurypterida]]) ====
 [[File:Mega-Eurypterids.svg|thumb|Size comparison of the largest known [[eurypterid]]s]]
-The largest known eurypterid was ''[[Jaekelopterus rhenaniae]]'' at {{cvt|2.5|m}} in length, which is also the largest arthropod known to exist.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Braddy|first1=Simon J|last2=Poschmann|first2=Markus|last3=Tetlie|first3=O. Erik|date=23 February 2008|title=Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod|journal=Biology Letters|volume=4|issue=1|pages=106–109|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0491|pmc=2412931|pmid=18029297}}</ref> A close contender was the [[Silurian]] ''[[Pterygotus]] grandidentatus'' at {{cvt|2.3|m}} in length.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/38010972|title=Cope's rule and Romer's theory: patterns of diversity and gigantism in eurypterids and Palaeozoic vertebrates|first1=James C.|last1=Lamsdell|first2=Simon J.|last2=Braddy|journal=[[Biology Letters]]|volume=6|issue=2|pages=265–269|year=2009|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0700|issn=1744-9561|pmid=19828493|pmc=2865068|id=[http://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/suppl/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0700 Supplemental material]}}</ref>
+The largest known eurypterid was ''[[Jaekelopterus rhenaniae]]'' at {{cvt|2.5|m}} in length, which is also the largest arthropod known to exist.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Braddy|first1=Simon J|last2=Poschmann|first2=Markus|last3=Tetlie|first3=O. Erik|date=23 February 2008|title=Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod|journal=Biology Letters|volume=4|issue=1|pages=106–109|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0491|pmc=2412931|pmid=18029297}}</ref> A close contender was [[Acutiramus|''Acutiramus bohemicus'']] at {{cvt|2.1|m}} in length.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/38010972|title=Cope's rule and Romer's theory: patterns of diversity and gigantism in eurypterids and Palaeozoic vertebrates|first1=James C.|last1=Lamsdell|first2=Simon J.|last2=Braddy|journal=[[Biology Letters]]|volume=6|issue=2|pages=265–269|year=2009|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0700|issn=1744-9561|pmid=19828493|pmc=2865068|id=[http://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/suppl/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0700 Supplemental material]}}</ref>
 ==== Arachnids ([[Arachnida]]) ====
@@ Line 524: / Line 541: @@
 == Ringed worms ([[Annelida]]) ==
-''[[Websteroprion]]'' is the largest known fossil [[eunicida]]n annelid, with estimated length {{cvt|1|-|2|m}}.<ref name=Erikssonetal2017>{{Cite journal |last1=Eriksson |first1=Mats E. |last2=Parry |first2=Luke A. |last3=Rudkin |first3=David M. |date=February 2017 |title=Earth's oldest 'Bobbit worm' – gigantism in a Devonian eunicidan polychaete
+''[[Websteroprion]]'' is the largest known fossil [[eunicida]]n annelid, with estimated length ranges {{cvt|0.42|-|8.3|m}}, however comparison with closely related extant taxa indicates length around {{cvt|1|-|2|m}}.<ref name=Erikssonetal2017>{{Cite journal |last1=Eriksson |first1=Mats E. |last2=Parry |first2=Luke A. |last3=Rudkin |first3=David M. |date=February 2017 |title=Earth's oldest 'Bobbit worm' – gigantism in a Devonian eunicidan polychaete
 |journal=Scientific Reports|volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=239–260 |language=en |doi=10.1038/srep43061|pmid=28220886 |pmc=5318920 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It also had the biggest [[scolecodont]]s of any prehistoric [[polychaete]], up to {{cvt|13.2|mm}} in length and possibly larger.<ref name=Erikssonetal2017/>
@@ Line 544: / Line 561: @@
 ==== Ammonites ([[Ammonoidea]]) ====
-The largest known ammonite was ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Payne |first1=Jonathan L. |last2=Boyer |first2=Alison G. |last3=Brown |first3=James H. |last4=Finnegan |first4=Seth |last5=Kowalewski |first5=Michał |last6=Krause |first6=Richard A. |last7=Lyons |first7=S. Kathleen |last8=McClain |first8=Craig R. |last9=McShea |first9=Daniel W. |last10=Novack-Gottshall |first10=Philip M. |last11=Smith |first11=Felisa A. |last12=Stempien |first12=Jennifer A. |last13=Wang |first13=Steve C. |title=Two-phase increase in the maximum size of life over 3.5 billion years reflects biological innovation and environmental opportunity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=6 January 2009 |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=24–27 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0806314106 |pmid=19106296 |pmc=2607246 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106...24P |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref> A partial fossil specimen found in [[Germany]] had a shell diameter of {{cvt|1.95|m}}, but the [[living chamber]] was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about {{cvt|3.5|m}} and weighed about 705&nbsp;kg (1,554&nbsp;lb) when it was alive.<ref>Teichert, C. & B. Kummel 1960. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3199542 Size of endoceroid cephalopods]. ''Breviora Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''128''': 1–7.</ref>
+The largest known ammonite was ''[[Parapuzosia seppenradensis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Payne |first1=Jonathan L. |last2=Boyer |first2=Alison G. |last3=Brown |first3=James H. |last4=Finnegan |first4=Seth |last5=Kowalewski |first5=Michał |last6=Krause |first6=Richard A. |last7=Lyons |first7=S. Kathleen |last8=McClain |first8=Craig R. |last9=McShea |first9=Daniel W. |last10=Novack-Gottshall |first10=Philip M. |last11=Smith |first11=Felisa A. |last12=Stempien |first12=Jennifer A. |last13=Wang |first13=Steve C. |title=Two-phase increase in the maximum size of life over 3.5 billion years reflects biological innovation and environmental opportunity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=6 January 2009 |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=24–27 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0806314106 |pmid=19106296 |pmc=2607246 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106...24P |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref> A partial fossil specimen found in [[Germany]] had a shell diameter of {{cvt|1.95|m}}, but the [[living chamber]] was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about {{cvt|3.5|m}} and weighed about 705&nbsp;kg (1,554&nbsp;lb) when it was alive.<ref>Teichert, C. & B. Kummel 1960. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3199542 Size of endoceroid cephalopods]. ''Breviora Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''128''': 1–7.</ref> However, later study estimates shell diameter up to around {{cvt|2|m}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ifrim |first=Christina |last2=Stinnesbeck |first2=Wolfgang |last3=González |first3=Arturo H. González |last4=Schorndorf |first4=Nils |last5=Gale |first5=Andrew S. |date=2021-11-10 |title=Ontogeny, evolution and palaeogeographic distribution of the world’s largest ammonite Parapuzosia (P.) seppenradensis (Landois, 1895) |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0258510 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=11 |pages=e0258510 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0258510 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC8580234 |pmid=34758037}}</ref>
 ==== Belemnites ([[Belemnoidea]]) ====
@@ Line 550: / Line 567: @@
 ==== Squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes and allies ([[Neocoleoidea]]) ====
-Both ''[[Tusoteuthis]]'' and ''[[Yezoteuthis]]'' are estimated to be similar in size to the modern-day [[giant squid]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.tonmo.com/science/fossils/cretaceousGS.php |title = Tusoteuthis and Cretaceous Giant Squid}}</ref>
+* [[Octopus|Octopod]] [[Enchoteuthis|''Enchoteuthis melanae'']] (considered as specimen of [[Tusoteuthis|''Tusoteuthis longa'']]) had mantle length up to {{convert|2|m}}, comparable to the modern-day [[giant squid]]. Originally, this taxon is considered as animal like giant squid, with total length including arms over {{convert|10|m}}. However, considering other fossil relatives, total length including arms is estimated to be around {{convert|3|m}}.
+* Both non-octopod ''[[Yezoteuthis]]'' and [[Squid|teuthid]] ''[[Haboroteuthis]]'' are estimated to be similar in size to the modern-day [[giant squid]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tanabe |first=Kazushige |last2=Hikida |first2=Yoshinori |last3=Iba |first3=Yasuhiro |date=2006 |title=TWO COLEOID JAWS FROM THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF HOKKAIDO, JAPAN |url=https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-paleontology/volume-80/issue-1/0022-3360_2006_080_0138_TCJFTU_2.0.CO_2/TWO-COLEOID-JAWS-FROM-THE-UPPER-CRETACEOUS-OF-HOKKAIDO-JAPAN/10.1666/0022-3360(2006)080[0138:TCJFTU]2.0.CO;2.full |journal=Journal of Paleontology |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=138–145 |doi=10.1666/0022-3360(2006)080[0138:TCJFTU]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0022-3360}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tanabe |first=Kazushige |last2=Misaki |first2=Akihiro |last3=Ubukata |first3=Takao |date=2014 |title=Late Cretaceous record of large soft-bodied coleoids based on lower jaw remains from Hokkaido, Japan |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4202/app.00052.2013 |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |language=en |doi=10.4202/app.00052.2013 |issn=0567-7920}}</ref>
 == Brachiopods ([[Brachiopoda]]) ==
-The largest brachiopod ever evolved was the [[Carboniferous]] ''[[Gigantoproductus giganteus]]'', with shell width of {{convert|30|cm}}.<ref>{{cite book
+The largest brachiopod ever evolved was the [[Carboniferous]] ''[[Gigantoproductus giganteus]]'', with shell width of {{convert|35|cm}}.<ref>{{cite book
 | url         = https://www.google.com/books/edition/Convergent_Evolution_on_Earth/bL60DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=largest+Gigantoproductus+giganteus&pg=PA47&printsec=frontcover
 | title       = Convergent Evolution on Earth. Lessons for the Search for Extraterrestrial Life
@@ Line 561: / Line 580: @@
 | page        = 47
 | author      = George R. McGhee, Jr.
+}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Vermeij |first=Geerat J. |date=2016-01-15 |title=Gigantism and Its Implications for the History of Life |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0146092 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=e0146092 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0146092 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC4714876 |pmid=26771527}}</ref> However, [[Striatifera|''Striatifera striata'']] from [[Akkermanovka Quarry]], [[Russia]] had height up to {{convert|0.5|m}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mychko |first=Eduard V. |last2=Feldmann |first2=Rodney M. |last3=Schweitzer |first3=Carrie E. |last4=Alekseev |first4=Alexander S. |date=2019-10-25 |title=New genus of Cyclida (Crustacea) from Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian, Viséan) of Russia and England and new species from Viséan of Russia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336582704_New_genus_of_Cyclida_Crustacea_from_Lower_Carboniferous_Mississippian_Visean_of_Russia_and_England_and_new_species_from_Visean_of_Russia |journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen |language=en |pages=81–90 |doi=10.1127/njgpa/2019/0847}}</ref>
-}}</ref>
+== Hyoliths ([[Hyolitha]]) ==
+The largest hyolith is [[Macrotheca almgreeni|''Macrotheca almgreeni'']], with length about {{convert|50|cm}}.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peel |first=John S. |last2=Yochelson |first2=Ellis L. |date=1984 |title=Permian Toxeumorphorida from Greenland: an appraisal of the molluscan class Xenoconchia |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1984.tb01619.x |journal=Lethaia |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=211–221 |doi=10.1111/j.1502-3931.1984.tb01619.x |issn=0024-1164}}</ref>
 == Cnidarians (Cnidaria) ==
 === Jellyfishes and allies ([[Medusozoa]]) ===
-The largest fossil jellyfishes are specimens from the [[Cambrian]] of [[Wisconsin]]. Their colonies reached 70 cm in length.<ref>Tom Clarke. [https://www.nature.com/articles/news020128-5# Jellies roll back time]. Nature (2002).</ref>
+The largest fossil jellyfish is [[Cambrian]] [[Cordubia|''Cordubia gigantea'']], with diameter of {{convert|88|cm}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mayoral |first=Eduardo |last2=Liñán |first2=Eladio |last3=Vintaned |first3=José Antonio Gámez |last4=Muñiz |first4=Fernando |last5=Gozalo |first5=Rodolfo |date=2021-03-03 |title=Stranded jellyfish in the lowermost Cambrian (Corduban) of Spain |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233777752_Stranded_jellyfish_in_the_lowermost_Cambrian_Corduban_of_Spain |journal=Spanish Journal of Palaeontology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=191–198 |doi=10.7203/sjp.19.2.20531 |issn=2660-9568}}</ref> Specimens from the Cambrian of [[Wisconsin]] reached 70 cm in length.<ref>Tom Clarke. [https://www.nature.com/articles/news020128-5# Jellies roll back time]. Nature (2002).</ref>
 == Vendobionts ([[Vendobionta]]) ==