Climate change and infectious diseases: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 16:16, 12 October 2023

Global climate change has resulted in a wide range of impacts on the spread of infectious diseases. Like other ways in which climate change affects on human health, climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and challenges in managing infectious disease. Infectious diseases whose transmission can be impacted by climate change include for example the vector-borne diseases dengue fever, malaria, tick-borne diseases, leishmaniasis, zika fever, chikungunya and Ebola virus disease. One of the mechanisms for increased disease transmission is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the insects that can carry the diseases.

There is also a very high risk of increase in waterborne diseases worldwide due to climate change, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).^[1] These are diseases caused by a pathogen transmitted through water. The symptoms of waterborne diseases typically include diarrhea, fever and other flu-like symptoms, neurological disorders, and liver damage.^[1] Changes in climate have a large effect on the distribution of microbial species. These communities are very complex and can be extremely sensitive to external climate stimuli.^[2] One of the most commonly transmitted waterborne disease categories are the diarrhea diseases.^[1] These diseases are transmitted through unsafe drinking water or recreational water contact.^[3] Diarrheal diseases account for 10–12% of deaths in children under five, as the second leading cause of death in children this age. They are also the second leading cause of death in low and middle income countries. Diarrhea diseases account for an estimated 1.4–1.9 million deaths worldwide.^[4]

Public health context

In 1988, little was known about the effects of climate change on human health.^[5] As of 2023, the evidence has grown significantly and is for example summarised in the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.^[6] The scientific understanding about the potential health risks and observed health impacts caused by climate change is now better understood. One category of health risks is that of infectious diseases. A study concluded in 2022 that "58% (that is, 218 out of 375) of infectious diseases confronted by humanity worldwide have been at some point aggravated by climatic hazards".^[7]^[8] The World Health Organization considers climate change as one of the greatest threats to human health.^[9]

Infectious diseases have played a significant role in human history, impacting the rise and fall of civilizations and facilitating the conquest of new territories.^[9] During recent decades, there are significant regional changes in vector and pathogen distribution reported in temperate, peri‐Arctic, Arctic, and tropical highland regions.

Climate change is only one factor in the spread of human diseases. Many other key factors affect the spread and severity of human diseases as well, including mobility of people, animals, and goods; control measures in place; availability of effective drugs; quality of public health services; human behavior; and political stability and conflicts.^[9]

The effects of climate change on health will impact most populations over the next few decades.^[10] However, Africa, and specifically, the African Highlands, are susceptible to being particularly negatively affected. For example, with regards to malaria, in 2010, 91% of the global burden due to malaria deaths occurred in Africa. Several spatiotemporal models have been studied to assess the potential effect of projected climate scenarios on malaria transmission in Africa. It is expected that the most significant climate change effects are confined to specific regions, including the African Highlands.^[11]

Climate change may lead to dramatic increases in prevalence of a variety of infectious diseases. Beginning in the mid-'70s, an "emergence, resurgence and redistribution of infectious diseases" has occurred.^[12] Reasons for this are likely multi-causal, dependent on a variety of social, environmental and climatic factors, however, many argue that the "volatility of infectious disease may be one of the earliest biological expressions of climate instability".^[12]

Mechanisms and pathways

Infectious diseases (also called pathogenic diseases) depend on "a pathogen and a person coming into contact, and the extent to which peoples’ resistance is diminished, or the pathogen is strengthened, by a climatic hazard."^[8] Climatic hazards, which can be strengthened by climate change, include for example warming of land and oceans, heatwaves and marine heatwaves, floods, drought, storms, land cover change, fires and so forth.^[8]

Possible pathways that can increase the infectious disease occurrence and which are affected by climate change include:^[8]

Climatic hazards bringing pathogens closer to people (e.g. shifts in the geographical range of species)
Climatic hazards bringing people closer to pathogens (e.g. heatwaves bringing more people to recreational water activities)
Pathogens strengthened by climatic hazards (e.g. "improved climate suitability for reproduction, acceleration of the life cycle, increasing seasons/length of likely exposure", for example ocean warming can lead to increased Vibriosis outbreaks)
People impaired by climatic hazards (e.g. from malnutrition due to drought conditions)

Though many infectious diseases are affected by changes in climate, vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever and leishmaniasis, present the strongest causal relationship. One reason for that is that temperature and rainfall play a key role in the distribution, magnitude, and viral capacity of mosquitoes, who are primary vectors for many vectors borne diseases. Observation and research detect a shift of pests and pathogens in the distribution away from the equator and towards Earth's poles.^[13]

Changes to the distribution of vectors

Climate change affects vector-borne diseases by affecting the survival, distribution and behavior of vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks and rodents.^[14]^: 29 The viruses, bacteria and protozoa are carried by these vectors transferring them from one carrier to another.^[15] Vector and pathogen can adapt to the climate fluctuations by shifting and expanding their geographic ranges, which can alter the rate of new cases of disease depending on vector-host interaction, host immunity and pathogen evolution.^[16] This means that climate change affects infectious diseases by changing the length of the transmission season and their geographical range.^[9]

Climate change is leading to latitudinal and altitudinal temperature increases. Global warming projections indicate that surface air warming for a "high scenario" is 4 C, with a likely range of 2.4–6.4 C by 2100.^[17] A temperature increase of this size would alter the biology and the ecology of many mosquito vectors and the dynamics of the diseases they transmit such as malaria.

Changes in climate and global warming have significant influences on the biology and distribution of vector-borne diseases, parasites, fungi, and their associated illnesses. Regional changes resulting from changing weather conditions and patterns within temperate climates will stimulate the reproduction of certain insect species that are vectors for disease.

One major disease-spreading insect is the mosquito, which can carry diseases like malaria, West Nile virus, and dengue fever. With regional temperatures changing due to climate change the range of mosquitos will change as well.^[18] The range of mosquitoes will move farther north and south, and places will have a longer period of mosquito habitability than at present, leading to an increase in the mosquito population in these areas. This range shift has already been seen in highland Africa. Since 1970, the incidence of malaria in high elevation areas in East Africa has increased greatly. This has been proven to be caused by the warming of regional climates.^[19]^[20]

The vectors of transmission are the major reason for the increased ranges and infection of these diseases. If the vector has a range shift, so do the associated diseases; if the vector increases in activity due to changes in climate, then there is an effect on the transmission of disease.^[19] However it will be hard to classify exactly why the range shifts or an increase in infection rates occurs as there are many other factors to consider besides climate change, such as human migration, poverty, infrastructure quality, and land usage; but climate change is still potentially a key factor.^[21]

Environmental changes, climate variability, and climate change are such factors that could affect biology and disease ecology of Anopheles vectors and their disease transmission potential.^[22]

Anopheles mosquitoes in highland areas are to experience a larger shift in their metabolic rate due to climate change. This climate change is due to the deforestation in the highland areas where these mosquitos' dwell. When the temperature rises, the larvae take a shorter time to mature^[23] and, consequently, a greater capacity to produce more offspring. In turn this could potentially lead to an increase in malaria transmission when infected humans are available.

Environmental changes such as deforestation could also increase local temperatures in the highlands thus could enhance the vectorial capacity of the anopheles.^[22] Anopheles mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of a number of diseases in the world, such as, malaria, lymphatic filariasis and viruses that can cause such ailments, like the O'nyong'nyong virus.^[22]

Increased water temperature

High temperatures can alter the survival, replication, and virulence of a pathogen.^[1] Higher temperatures can also increase the pathogen yields in animal reservoirs. During the warmer summer months an increase in yield of bacteria from drinking water delivery systems has been recorded. During times of warmer temperatures water consumption rates are also typically higher. These together increase the probability of pathogen ingestion and infection.^[4]

With an increase in not only temperature, but also higher nutrient concentrations due to runoff there will be an increase in cyanobacterial blooms.^[3]

Changes in precipitation and water cycle

Climate change is forecast to have substantial effects on the water cycle, with an increase in both frequency and intensity of droughts and heavy precipitation events.^[1]

A literature review in 2016 found that generally there is an increase in diarrheal disease (except for viral diarrheal disease) during or after certain weather conditions: elevated ambient temperature, heavy rainfall, and flooding.^[24] These three weather conditions are predicted to increase (or to intensify) with climate change in future. There is already now a high current baseline rate of the diarrheal diseases in developing countries. Climate change therefore poses a real risk of an uptick in these diseases for those regions.^[24]

Due to an increase in heavy rainfall events, floods are likely to become more severe when they do occur.^[25]^: 1155 The interactions between rainfall and flooding are complex. There are some regions in which flooding is expected to become rarer. This depends on several factors. These include changes in rain and snowmelt, but also soil moisture.^[25]^: 1156 Climate change leaves soils drier in some areas, so they may absorb rainfall more quickly. This leads to less flooding. Dry soils can also become harder. In this case heavy rainfall runs off into rivers and lakes. This increases risks of flooding.^[25]^: 1155

Examples of specific diseases in humans

Malaria

Increased rainfall could increase the number of mosquitos indirectly by expanding larval habitat and food supply. Malaria, which kills about 300,000 children (under age 5) annually, poses an imminent threat through temperature increase.^[26] Models suggest, conservatively, that the risk of malaria will increase 5–15% by 2100 due to climate change.^[27] In Africa alone, according to the MARA Project (Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa),^[28] there is a projected increase of 16–28% in person-month exposures to malaria by 2100.^[29]

Climate is an influential driving force of vector-borne diseases such as malaria. Malaria is especially susceptible to the effects of climate change because mosquitoes lack the mechanisms to regulate their internal temperature. This implies that there is a limited range of climatic conditions within which the pathogen (malaria) and vector (a mosquito) can survive, reproduce, and infect hosts.^[30] Vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, have distinctive characteristics that determine pathogenicity. These include the survival and reproduction rate of the vector, the level of vector activity (i.e. the biting or feeding rate), and the development and reproduction rate of the pathogen within the vector or host.^[30] Changes in climate factors substantially affect reproduction, development, distribution, and seasonal transmissions of malaria.

Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic disease that infects humans and other animals caused by microorganisms in the Plasmodium family. It begins with a bite from an infected female mosquito, which introduces the parasite through its saliva and into the infected host's circulatory system. It then travels through the bloodstream into the liver, where it can mature and reproduce.^[31]

Dengue fever

Dengue fever is an infectious disease caused by dengue viruses known to be in the tropical regions.^[32] It is transmitted by the mosquito Aedes, or A. aegypti.^[33] Dengue incidence has increased in the last few decades and is projected to continue to do so with changing climate conditions.^[34]> Dengue can be fatal.^[35]^[36] Dengue fever is spread by the bite of the female mosquito known as Aedes aegypti. The female mosquito is a highly effective vector of this disease.^[37]

The evidence for the spread of dengue fever is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the mosquito that can carry dengue. Because there are multiple drivers of transmission, it is easier to model and project changes in the geographic range and seasonality. The drivers for the recent spread of this disease are globalization, trade, urbanization, population growth, increased international travel, and climate change.^[38]^[39] The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas, and to the emergence of dengue hemorrhagic fever.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has reported an increase from a thousand to one million confirmed cases between 1955 and 2007.^[36] The presence and number of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes is strongly influenced by the amount of water-bearing containers or pockets of stagnant water in an area, daily temperature and variation in temperature, moisture, and solar radiation.^[29] While dengue fever is primarily considered a tropical and subtropical disease, the geographic ranges of the Aedes aegypti are expanding. The cases of dengue fever have increased dramatically since the 1970s and it continues to become more prevalent.^[32]

Dengue is ranked as the most important vector-borne viral disease in the world. An estimated 50–100 million dengue fever infections occur annually. In just the past 50 years, transmission has increased drastically with new cases of the disease (incidence) increasing 30-fold.^[38] The number of reported cases has continually increased along with dengue spreading to new areas.

Tick borne disease

Tick-borne disease, which affect humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents transmitted by tick bites. A high humidity of greater than 85% is ideal for a tick to start and finish its life cycle.^[40] Studies have indicated that temperature and vapor play a significant role in determining the range for tick population. More specifically, maximum temperature has been found to play the most influential variable in sustaining tick populations.^[41] Higher temperatures augment both hatching and developmental rates while hindering overall survival. Temperature is so important to overall survival that an average monthly minimum temperature of below -7 °C in the winter can prevent an area from maintaining established populations.^[41]

The effect of climate on the tick life cycle is one of the more difficult projections to make in relation to climate and vector-borne disease. Unlike other vectors, tick life cycles span multiple seasons as they mature from larva to nymph to adult.^[42] Further, infection and spread of diseases such as Lyme disease happens across the multiple stages and different classes of vertebrate hosts, adding additional variables to consider. Although it is a European species from the Lyme borreliosis spirochetes, Borrelia garinii was documented from infected ticks on seabirds in North America.^[43] Further research is needed to improve evolutionary models predicting distributional changes in this tick-borne system in the face of climate change.^[44] Infection of ticks happen in the larval/nymph stage (after the first blood meal) when they are exposed to Borrelia burgdorferi (the spirochete responsible for Lyme disease^[44]), but transmission to humans doesn't occur until the adult stages.

The expansion of tick populations is concurrent with global climatic change. Species distribution models of recent years indicate that the deer tick, known as I. scapularis, is pushing its distribution to higher latitudes of the Northeastern United States and Canada, as well as pushing and maintaining populations in the South Central and Northern Midwest regions of the United States.^[45] Climate models project further expansion of tick habit north into Canada as progressing Northwest from the Northeastern United States. Additionally, however, tick populations are expected to retreat from the Southeastern coast of the U.S., but this has not yet been observed.^[46] It's estimated that coinciding with this expansion, increased average temperatures may double tick populations by 2020 as well as bring an earlier start to the tick exposure season.^[47]^[45]

In the face of these expanding threats, strong collaboration between government officials and environmental scientists is necessary for advancing preventive and reactive response measures. Without acknowledging the climate changes that make environments more habitable for disease carriers, policy and infrastructure will lag behind vector borne disease spread.^[48]

In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is conducting a grant program called Building Resilience Against Climate Effects (BRACE) which details a 5 step process for combating climate effects like tick borne disease spread.^[49]

Leishmaniasis

As in other vector-borne diseases, one of the reasons climate changes can affect the incidence of leishmaniasis is the susceptibility of the sandfly vectors to changes in temperature, rainfall and humidity; these conditions will alter their range of distribution and seasonality.^[50] For example, modelling studies have predicted that climate change will increase suitable conditions for Phlebotomus vector species in Central Europe.^[51]^[52] Another model that looked at the distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis, an important visceral leishmaniasis vector, suggested an increased range of this species in the Amazon Basin.^[53] A different study model that factored data on climate, policy and socio-economic changes of land use, found that the effects were different for cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, emphasizing the importance of considering each disease and region separately.^[54]

Parasite development inside the sandfly can also be affected by temperature changes. For instance, Leishmania peruviana infections were lost during sandfly defecation when the infected vector was kept at higher temperatures, whereas in the same experiment Leishmania infantum and Leishmania braziliensis temperature seemed to make no difference.^[55]

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease, caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania and transmitted by sandflies; it is distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, wherever the sand fly vector and reservoir hosts are present.^[56] The WHO estimates 12 million people around the world are living with leishmaniasis.^[56] Risk factors for the spread of this this disease include poverty, urbanization, deforestation, and climate change.^[50]^[57]

Ebola

The Ebola virus has been infecting people from time to time, leading to outbreaks in several African countries. The average case fatality rate of the Ebola virus is approximately 40% and there have been more than 28,600 cases with 11,310 deaths.^[58] Many researchers are linking deforestation to the disease, observing that change in the landscape increases wildlife contact with humans.^[59]

Recent studies are holding climate change indirectly liable for the uptick in Ebola: Seasonal droughts alongside strong winds, thunderstorms, heat waves, floods, landslides, and a change in rainfall patterns also impact wildlife migration. These conditions pull them away from their natural environment and closer to human proximity.^[60] One example of an Ebola outbreak caused by climate change or a shift in nature was seen during the drought of Central Africa. This ultimately amplified food insecurity leading West African communities to eat animals such as bats who were infected with the virus.^[59]

Zika fever

Zika virus, a vector-borne virus was historically presented in cluster outbreaks in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia.^[61] Zika fever epidemics have affected larger populations including Micronesia and South Pacific Islands in 2007, and the Americas in 2013.^[62] Brazil has experienced one of the largest outbreaks of Zika virus with approximately 1.5 million cases reported in 2015.^[63] Pregnant women infected with Zika virus are at a higher risk of giving birth to children with congenital malformations, including microcephaly.^[64]

In the context of climate change and temperature rise, it is predicted that Zika virus will affect more than 1.3 billion people by 2050.^[65] This is largely due to the expansion of environments conducive to vector growth and life cycles, such as those with temperatures ranging from 23.9 °C to 34 °C.^[66] Mosquito behaviors are also affected by the change in temperature including increased breeding and biting rates.^[67] Furthermore, extreme climate patterns, including drought, floods and heatwaves are known to exacerbate the proliferation of mosquito breeding ground and as a result, escalate the rate of virus-borne diseases.^[68]

COVID-19

There is no direct evidence that the spread of COVID-19 is worsened or is caused by climate change, although investigations continue. As of 2020^[update], the World Health Organization summarized the current knowledge about the issue as follows: "There is no evidence of a direct connection between climate change and the emergence or transmission of COVID-19 disease. [...] However, climate change may indirectly affect the COVID-19 response, as it undermines environmental determinants of health, and places additional stress on health systems."^[69]

A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 by bats.^[70] The authors found that climate-driven changes in the distribution and richness of bat species increased the likelihood of bat-borne coronaviruses in the Yunnan province, Myanmar, and Laos.^[70] This region was also the habitat of Sunda pangolins and masked palm civits which were suspected as intermediate hosts of COVID-19 between bats and humans.^[70] The authors suggest, therefore, that climate change possibly contributed to some extent to the emergence of the pandemic.^[70]^[71]

Climate changed might induce changes to bat habitats which may have driven them closer to populated areas.^[72] Increased aridity and drought periods are predicted to push bats out of their endemic areas and into populated areas.^[72] This creates a knock-on effect of increasing their interactions with humans and hence the likelihood of zoonotic disease transfer.^[72]

Vibrio infections

Vibrio illnesses are a waterborne disease and are increasing worldwide. In the United States it has increased by an estimated 41% between 1996 and 2005. Vibrio infections are recently being reported where historically it did not occur. The warming climate seems to be playing a substantial role in the increase in cases and area of occurrence.^[73]

Vibrio infections are caused by consuming raw or undercooked seafood, or by exposing an open wound to contaminated sea water. Vibrio infections are most likely to occur during the warm season, May through October.^[74]

Fungal infections

Fungal infections will also see an increase due to the warming of certain climates.^[19] For example, the fungus Cryptococcus gattii has been found in Canada but is normally found in warmer climates such as in Australia. There are now two strains of this fungus in the northwestern part of North America, affecting many terrestrial animals. The spread of this fungus is hypothesized to be linked to climate change.^[21]

Emergence of new infectious diseases

There is concern about the emergence of new diseases from the fungal kingdom. Mammals have endothermy and homeothermy, which allows them to maintain elevated body temperature through life; but it can be defeated if the fungi were to adapt to higher temperatures and survive in the body.^[75] Fungi that are pathogenic for insects can be experimentally adapted to replicate at mammalian temperatures through cycles of progressive warming. This demonstrates that fungi are able to adapt rapidly to higher temperatures. The emergence of Candida auris on three continents is proposed to be as a result of global warming and has raised the danger that increased warmth by itself will trigger adaptations on certain microbes to make them pathogenic for humans.^[76]

It is projected that interspecies viral sharing, that can lead to novel viral spillovers, will increase due to ongoing climate change-caused geographic range-shifts of mammals (most importantly bats). Risk hotspots would mainly be located at "high elevations, in biodiversity hotspots, and in areas of high human population density in Asia and Africa".^[77]

Climate change may also lead to new infectious diseases due to changes in microbial and vector geographic range. Microbes that are harmful to humans can adapt to higher temperatures, which will allow them to build better tolerance against human endothermy defences.^[78]

Infectious diseases in wild animals

Climate change and increasing temperatures will also impact the health of wildlife animals as well. Specifically, climate change will impact wildlife disease, specifically affecting "geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases, plant and animal phenology, wildlife host-pathogen interactions, and disease patterns in wildlife".^[79]

The health of wild animals, particularly birds, is assumed to be a better indicator of early climate change effects because very little or no control measures are undertaken to protect them.^[9]

Geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases

Northern geographic shifts of disease vectors and parasitic disease in the Northern Hemisphere have likely been due to global warming. The geographic range of a lung parasite that impacts ungulates like caribou and mountain goats, Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei, has been shifting northward since 1995, and a tick vector for Lyme disease and other tick-borne zoonotic diseases known as Ixodes scapularis has been expanding its presence northward as well. It is also predicted that climate warming will also lead to changes in disease distribution at certain altitudes. At high elevation in the Hawaiian Islands, for example, it is expected that climate warming will allow for year-round transmission of avian malaria. This increased opportunity for transmission will likely be devastating to endangered native Hawaiian birds at those altitudes that have little or no resistance to the disease.^[79]

Phenology and wildlife diseases

Phenology is the study of seasonal cycles, and with climate change the seasonal biologic cycles of many animals have already been affected. For example, the transmission of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is higher to humans when early spring temperatures are warmer. The warmer temperatures result in an overlap in feeding activity of ticks who are infected with the virus (nymphal) with ticks who aren't (larval). This overlapped feeding leads to more of the uninfected larval ticks acquiring the infection and therefore increases the risk of humans being infected with TBE. On the other hand, cooler spring temperatures would result in less overlapped feeding activity, and would therefore decrease the risk of zoonotic transmission of TBE.^[79]

Wildlife host-to-pathogen interaction

The transmission of pathogens can be achieved through either direct contact from a diseased animal to another, or indirectly through a host like infected prey or a vector. Higher temperatures as a result of climate change results in an increased presence of disease producing agents in hosts and vectors, and also increases the "survival of animals that harbor disease".^[79] Survival of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, a brain worm of white-tailed deer that affects moose, could be increased due to the higher temperatures and milder winters that are caused by climate change. In moose, this brain causes neurological disease and eventually ends up being fatal. Moose are already facing heat stress due to climate change, and may have increased susceptibility to parasitic and infectious diseases like the brain worm.^[79]

Wildlife disease patterns

Predicting the impact climate change might have on disease patterns in different geographic regions can be difficult, because its effects likely have high variability. This has been more evident in marine ecosystems than terrestrial environments, where massive decline in coral reefs has been observed due to disease spread.^[79]

Infectious diseases in domestic animals and livestock

Vector-borne diseases seriously affect the health of domestic animals and livestock (e.g., trypanosomiasis, Rift Valley Fever, and bluetongue). Therefore, climate change will also indirectly affect the health of humans through its multifaceted impacts on food security, including livestock and plant crops.^[9]

Mosquitoes also carry diseases like Dirofilaria immitis which affect dogs (dog heartworm). Therefore, tropical diseases will probably migrate and become endemic in many other ecosystems due to an increase in mosquito range.^[80]

While climate-induced heat stress can directly reduce domestic animals' immunity against all diseases,^[81] climatic factors also impact the distribution of many livestock pathogens themselves. For instance, Rift Valley fever outbreaks in East Africa are known to be more intense during the times of drought or when there is an El Nino.^[82] Another example is that of helminths in Europe which have now spread further towards the poles, with higher survival rate and higher reproductive capacity (fecundity).^[83]^: 231 Detailed long-term records of both livestock diseases and various agricultural interventions in Europe mean that demonstrating the role of climate change in the increased helminth burden in livestock is actually easier than attributing the impact of climate change on diseases which affect humans.^[83]^: 231

Temperature increases are also likely to benefit Culicoides imicola, a species of midge which spreads bluetongue virus.^[82] Without a significant improvement in epidemiological control measures, what is currently considered an once-in-20-years outbreak of bluetongue would occur as frequently as once in five or seven years by midcentury under all but the most optimistic warming scenario. Rift Valley Fever outbreaks in East African livestock are also expected to increase.^[84]^: 747 Ixodes ricinus, a tick which spreads pathogens like Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis, is predicted to become 5–7% more prevalent on livestock farms in Great Britain, depending on the extent of future climate change.^[85]

The impacts of climate change on leptospirosis are more complicated: its outbreaks are likely to worsen wherever flood risk increases,^[82] yet the increasing temperatures are projected to reduce its overall incidence in the Southeast Asia, particularly under the high-warming scenarios.^[86] Tsetse flies, the hosts of trypanosoma parasites, already appear to be losing habitat and thus affect a smaller area than before.^[84]^: 747

Responses

The policy implications of climate change and infectious diseases fall into two categories:^[87]

Enacting policy that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus slowing down climate change, and
Mitigating problems that have already arisen, and will inevitably continue to develop, due to climate change.

Addressing both of these areas is of importance, as those in the poorest countries face the greatest burden. Additionally, when countries are forced to contend with a disease like malaria (for example), their prospects for economic growth are slowed. This contributes to continued and worsening global inequality.^[88]

Policies are required that will significantly increase investments in public health in developing countries. This achieves two goals, the first being better outcomes related to diseases like malaria in the affected area, and the second being an overall better health environment for populations.^[87] It is also important to focus on "one-health approaches."^[87] This means collaborating on an interdisciplinary level, across various geographic areas, to come up with workable solutions. As is the case when responding to the effects of climate change, vulnerable populations including children and the elderly will need to be prioritized by any intervention.

The United Nations Environment Programme states that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from zoonotic diseases is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and bio-diverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases."^[89]

Monitoring and research

Significant progress has been achieved in terms of surveillance systems, disease and vector control measures, vaccine development, diagnostic tests, and mathematical risk modeling/mapping in recent decades.^[9]

A tool that has been used to predict this distribution trend is the Dynamic Mosquito Simulation Process (DyMSiM). DyMSiM uses epidemiological and entomological data and practices to model future mosquito distributions based upon climate conditions and mosquitos living in the area.^[90] This modeling technique helps identify the distribution of specific species of mosquito, some of which are more susceptible to viral infection than others.^{[citation needed]}

Scientists are carrying out attribution studies, to find the degree to which climate change affects the spread of infectious diseases. There is also a need for scenario modeling which can help further our understanding of future climate change consequences on infectious disease rates.^[88] Surveillance and monitoring of infectious diseases and their vectors is important to better understand these diseases.^[87] Governments should accurately model changes in vector populations as well as the burden of disease, educate the public on ways to mitigate infection, and prepare health systems for the increasing disease load.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Levy K, Smith SM, Carlton EJ (June 2018). "Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases: Moving Toward Designing Interventions". Current Environmental Health Reports. 5 (2): 272–282. doi:10.1007/s40572-018-0199-7. PMC 6119235. PMID 29721700.
^ Walker JT (September 2018). "The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review". Perspectives in Public Health. 138 (5): 282–286. doi:10.1177/1757913918791198. PMID 30156484. S2CID 52115812.
^ ^a ^b Hunter PR (2003). "Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 94 (s1): 37S–46S. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x. PMID 12675935.
^ ^a ^b Levy K, Woster AP, Goldstein RS, Carlton EJ (May 2016). "Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought". Environmental Science & Technology. 50 (10): 4905–4922. Bibcode:2016EnST...50.4905L. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b06186. PMC 5468171. PMID 27058059.
^ WHO, WMO, UNEP (2003). "International consensus on the science of climate and health: the IPCC Third Assessment Report". Climate change and human health – risks and responses. Summary (PDF) (Summary of other published book). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. ISBN 9241590815. Retrieved 28 Jun 2020.
^ Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041–1170, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009.
^ "Climate impacts have worsened vast range of human diseases". The Guardian. 8 August 2022. Retrieved 15 Sep 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Mora C, McKenzie T, Gaw IM, Dean JM, von Hammerstein H, Knudson TA, et al. (September 2022). "Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change". Nature Climate Change. 12 (9): 869–875. Bibcode:2022NatCC..12..869M. doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01426-1. PMC 9362357. PMID 35968032.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Caminade C, McIntyre KM, Jones AE (January 2019). "Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1436 (1): 157–173. Bibcode:2019NYASA1436..157C. doi:10.1111/nyas.13950. PMC 6378404. PMID 30120891. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
^ Costello A, Abbas M, Allen A, Ball S, Bell S, Bellamy R, et al. (May 2009). "Managing the health effects of climate change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission". Lancet. 373 (9676): 1693–1733. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1. PMID 19447250. S2CID 205954939.
^ Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, et al. (March 2014). "Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (9): 3286–3291. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.3286C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302089111. PMC 3948226. PMID 24596427.
^ ^a ^b Epstein PR (July 2002). "Climate change and infectious disease: stormy weather ahead?". Epidemiology. 13 (4): 373–375. doi:10.1097/00001648-200207000-00001. PMID 12094088. S2CID 19299458.
^ Bebber DP, Ramotowski MA, Gurr SJ (2013). "Crop pests and pathogens move polewards in a warming world". Nature Climate Change. 3 (11): 985–988. Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..985B. doi:10.1038/nclimate1990.
^ Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC (2016). "Ch. 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health" (PDF). The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program. doi:10.7930/J0VX0DFW. Retrieved 28 Jun 2020.
^ Beard C, Eisen R, Barker C, Garofalo J, Hahn M, Hayden M, et al. (2016). "Ch. 5: Vectorborne Diseases. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment". Climate and Health Assessment. doi:10.7930/j0765c7v.
^ "Climate Change and Public Health – Disease Vectors | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 9 September 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
^ IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Jordan R (15 March 2019). "How dose climate change affect disease". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2 Jun 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ostfeld RS (April 2009). "Climate change and the distribution and intensity of infectious diseases". Ecology. 90 (4): 903–905. doi:10.1890/08-0659.1. JSTOR 25592576. PMID 19449683.
^ Deischstetter P (2017). "The Effect of Climate Change on Mosquito-Borne Diseases". The American Biology Teacher. 79 (3): 169–173. doi:10.1525/abt.2017.79.3.169. ISSN 0002-7685. JSTOR 26411199. S2CID 90364501.
^ ^a ^b Cooney CM (September 2011). "Climate change & infectious disease: is the future here?". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (9): a394–a397. doi:10.1289/ehp.119-a394. JSTOR 41263126. PMC 3230419. PMID 21885367.
^ ^a ^b ^c Afrane YA, Githeko AK, Yan G (February 2012). "The ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes under climate change: case studies from the effects of deforestation in East African highlands". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1249 (1): 204–210. Bibcode:2012NYASA1249..204A. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06432.x. PMC 3767301. PMID 22320421.
^ Munga S, Minakawa N, Zhou G, Githeko AK, Yan G (September 2007). "Survivorship of immature stages of Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in natural habitats in western Kenya highlands". Journal of Medical Entomology. 44 (5): 758–764. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[758:SOISOA]2.0.CO;2. PMID 17915505. S2CID 10278388.
^ ^a ^b Levy K, Woster AP, Goldstein RS, Carlton EJ (May 2016). "Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought". Environmental Science & Technology. 50 (10): 4905–4922. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b06186. PMC 5468171. PMID 27058059.
^ ^a ^b ^c Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: Chapter 8: Water Cycle Changes. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010
^ Patz JA, Olson SH (April 2006). "Malaria risk and temperature: influences from global climate change and local land use practices". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (15): 5635–5636. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.5635P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0601493103. PMC 1458623. PMID 16595623.
^ Bhattacharya S, Sharma C, Dhiman R, Mitra A (2006). "Climate Change and Malaria in India". Current Science. 90 (3): 369–375.
^ "Nigeria: Duration of the Malaria Transmission Season" (PDF). mara.org.za. MARA/ARMA (Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa / Atlas du Risque de la Malaria en Afrique). July 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 Dec 2005. Retrieved 24 Jan 2007.
^ ^a ^b Patz JA, Campbell-Lendrum D, Holloway T, Foley JA (November 2005). "Impact of regional climate change on human health". Nature. 438 (7066): 310–317. Bibcode:2005Natur.438..310P. doi:10.1038/nature04188. PMID 16292302. S2CID 285589.
^ ^a ^b Rawshan AB, Er A, Raja D, Pereira JJ (2010). "Malaria and Climate Change: Discussion on Economic Impacts". American Journal of Environmental Sciences. 7 (1): 65–74. doi:10.3844/ajessp.2011.73.82.
^ Greenwood BM, Bojang K, Whitty CJ, Targett GA (23 April 2005). "Malaria". Lancet. 365 (9469): 1487–1498. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66420-3. PMID 15850634. S2CID 208987634.
^ ^a ^b "Dengue and Severe Dengue, Fact Sheet". Media Centre. World Health Organization. 2012.
^ Simmons CP, Farrar JJ, Nguyen VV, Wills B (April 2012). "Dengue". The New England Journal of Medicine. 366 (15): 1423–1432. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1110265. hdl:11343/191104. PMID 22494122.
^ Banu S, Hu W, Guo Y, Hurst C, Tong S (February 2014). "Projecting the impact of climate change on dengue transmission in Dhaka, Bangladesh". Environment International. 63: 137–42. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.11.002. PMID 24291765.
^ "WHO | The human". WHO. Retrieved 25 Jul 2019.
^ ^a ^b "Dengue and severe dengue". www.who.int. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
^ "WHO | Dengue/Severe dengue frequently asked questions". WHO. Archived from the original on 25 Oct 2012. Retrieved 25 Jul 2019.
^ ^a ^b Ebi KL, Nealon J (November 2016). "Dengue in a changing climate". Environmental Research. 151: 115–123. Bibcode:2016ER....151..115E. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.026. PMID 27475051.
^ Gubler DJ (2010). "Human and Medical Virology: Dengue Viruses". In Mahy BW, van Regenmortel MH (eds.). Desk Encyclopedia of Human and Medical Virology. Academic Press. pp. 372–382. ISBN 978-0-12-378559-6.
^ Süss J, Klaus C, Gerstengarbe FW, Werner PC (1 January 2008). "What makes ticks tick? Climate change, ticks, and tick-borne diseases". Journal of Travel Medicine. 15 (1): 39–45. doi:10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x. PMID 18217868.
^ ^a ^b Brownstein JS, Holford TR, Fish D (July 2003). "A climate-based model predicts the spatial distribution of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis in the United States". Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (9): 1152–1157. doi:10.1289/ehp.6052. PMC 1241567. PMID 12842766.
^ USGCRP. "Life Cycle of Blacklegged Ticks, Ixodes scapularis | Climate and Health Assessment". health2016.globalchange.gov. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.
^ Munro HJ, Ogden NH, Mechai S, Lindsay LR, Robertson GJ, Whitney H, Lang AS (October 2019). "Genetic diversity of Borrelia garinii from Ixodes uriae collected in seabird colonies of the northwestern Atlantic Ocean". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 10 (6): 101255. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.06.014. PMID 31280947. S2CID 195829855.
^ ^a ^b Wolcott KA, Margos G, Fingerle V, Becker NS (September 2021). "Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: A review". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 12 (5): 101766. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101766. PMID 34161868.
^ ^a ^b Esteve-Gassent MD, Castro-Arellano I, Feria-Arroyo TP, Patino R, Li AY, Medina RF, et al. (May 2016). "TRANSLATING ECOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY, AND POPULATION GENETICS RESEARCH TO MEET THE CHALLENGE OF TICK AND TICK-BORNE DISEASES IN NORTH AMERICA". Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology. 92 (1): 38–64. doi:10.1002/arch.21327. PMC 4844827. PMID 27062414.
^ Luber G, Lemery J (2 November 2015). Global Climate Change and Human Health: From Science to Practice. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-50557-1.
^ Monaghan AJ, Moore SM, Sampson KM, Beard CB, Eisen RJ (July 2015). "Climate change influences on the annual onset of Lyme disease in the United States". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 6 (5): 615–622. Bibcode:2015AGUFMGC13L..07M. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.05.005. PMC 4631020. PMID 26025268.
^ "As disease-bearing ticks head north, weak government response threatens public health". Center for Public Integrity. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.
^ "CDC – Climate and Health – CDC's Building Resilience Against Climate Effects (BRACE) Framework". National Center for Environmental Health. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.
^ ^a ^b "Leishmaniasis". World Health Organization. March 2020. Retrieved 25 Nov 2020.
^ Fischer D, Moeller P, Thomas SM, Naucke TJ, Beierkuhnlein C (November 2011). "Combining climatic projections and dispersal ability: a method for estimating the responses of sandfly vector species to climate change". PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 5 (11): e1407. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001407. PMC 3226457. PMID 22140590.
^ Koch LK, Kochmann J, Klimpel S, Cunze S (October 2017). "Modeling the climatic suitability of leishmaniasis vector species in Europe". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 13325. Bibcode:2017NatSR...713325K. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13822-1. PMC 5645347. PMID 29042642.
^ Peterson AT, Campbell LP, Moo-Llanes DA, Travi B, González C, Ferro MC, et al. (September 2017). "Influences of climate change on the potential distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis sensu lato (Psychodidae: Phlebotominae)". International Journal for Parasitology. 47 (10–11): 667–674. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.04.007. PMID 28668326.
^ Purse BV, Masante D, Golding N, Pigott D, Day JC, Ibañez-Bernal S, et al. (2017). "How will climate change pathways and mitigation options alter incidence of vector-borne diseases? A framework for leishmaniasis in South and Meso-America". PloS One. 12 (10): e0183583. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1283583P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183583. PMC 5636069. PMID 29020041.
^ Hlavacova J, Votypka J, Volf P (September 2013). "The effect of temperature on Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) development in sand flies". Journal of Medical Entomology. 50 (5): 955–958. doi:10.1603/ME13053. PMID 24180098.
^ ^a ^b "Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases – Leishmaniasis". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 18 Jul 2004. Retrieved 25 Nov 2020.
^ González C, Wang O, Strutz SE, González-Salazar C, Sánchez-Cordero V, Sarkar S (January 2010). "Climate change and risk of leishmaniasis in north america: predictions from ecological niche models of vector and reservoir species". PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 4 (1): e585. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000585. PMC 2799657. PMID 20098495.
^ "Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 5 February 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
^ ^a ^b Christensen J (15 October 2019). "Climate crisis raises risk of more Ebola outbreaks". CNN. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
^ "Ebola and Climate Change: How Are They Connected?". EcoWatch. 14 August 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
^ Plourde AR, Bloch EM (July 2016). "A Literature Review of Zika Virus". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 22 (7): 1185–1192. doi:10.3201/eid2207.151990. PMC 4918175. PMID 27070380.
^ Zhang Q, Sun K, Chinazzi M, Pastore Y, Piontti A, Dean NE, et al. (May 2017). "Spread of Zika virus in the Americas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (22): E4334–E4343. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E4334Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.1620161114. PMC 5465916. PMID 28442561.
^ Moghadam SR, Bayrami S, Moghadam SJ, Golrokhi R, Pahlaviani FG, SeyedAlinaghi S (1 December 2016). "Zika virus: A review of literature". Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 6 (12): 989–994. doi:10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.09.007. ISSN 2221-1691. S2CID 79313409.
^ "Zika virus". www.who.int. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.
^ "Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050". CEID. 11 March 2021. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.
^ "Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050". CEID. 11 March 2021. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.
^ Epstein PR (October 2005). "Climate change and human health". The New England Journal of Medicine. 353 (14): 1433–1436. doi:10.1056/NEJMp058079. PMID 16207843.
^ "Explainer: How climate change is amplifying mosquito-borne diseases". World Mosquito Program. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.
^ "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Climate change". World Health Organization. Retrieved 24 Nov 2020.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Beyer RM, Manica A, Mora C (May 2021). "Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2". The Science of the Total Environment. 767: 145413. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.767n5413B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145413. PMC 7837611. PMID 33558040.
^ Bressan D. "Climate Change Could Have Played A Role In The Covid-19 Outbreak". Forbes. Retrieved 9 Feb 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c Gudipati S, Zervos M, Herc E (September 2020). "Can the One Health Approach Save Us from the Emergence and Reemergence of Infectious Pathogens in the Era of Climate Change: Implications for Antimicrobial Resistance?". Antibiotics. 9 (9): 599. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9090599. PMC 7557833. PMID 32937739.
^ Walker JT (September 2018). "The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review". Perspectives in Public Health. 138 (5): 282–286. doi:10.1177/1757913918791198. PMID 30156484. S2CID 52115812.
^ "Vibrio Species Causing Vibriosis | Vibrio Illness (Vibriosis) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 8 March 2019. Retrieved 17 Jan 2021.
^ Casadevall A (February 2020). "Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 130 (2): 553–555. doi:10.1172/JCI135003. PMC 6994111. PMID 31904588.
^ Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, Farooqi J, Chowdhary A, Govender NP, et al. (January 2017). "Simultaneous Emergence of Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris on 3 Continents Confirmed by Whole-Genome Sequencing and Epidemiological Analyses". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 64 (2): 134–140. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw691. PMC 5215215. PMID 27988485.
^ Carlson CJ, Albery GF, Merow C, Trisos CH, Zipfel CM, Eskew EA, et al. (July 2022). "Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk". Nature. 607 (7919): 555–562. Bibcode:2022Natur.607..555C. bioRxiv 10.1101/2020.01.24.918755. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04788-w. PMID 35483403. S2CID 248430532.
^ Casadevall A (February 2020). "Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 130 (2): 553–555. doi:10.1172/JCI135003. PMC 6994111. PMID 31904588.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Hofmeister EK, Rogall GM, Wesenberg K, Abbott RC, Work TM, Schuler K, Sleeman JM, Winton J (2010). "Climate change and wildlife health: direct and indirect effects". Fact Sheet: 4. doi:10.3133/fs20103017. ISSN 2327-6932.
^ Lacetera N (January 2019). "Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare". Animal Frontiers. 9 (1): 26–31. doi:10.1093/af/vfy030. PMC 6951873. PMID 32002236.
^ Lacetera, Nicola (3 January 2019). "Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare". Animal Frontiers. 9 (1): 26–31. doi:10.1093/af/vfy030. ISSN 2160-6056. PMC 6951873. PMID 32002236.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bett, B.; Kiunga, P.; Gachohi, J.; Sindato, C.; Mbotha, D.; Robinson, T.; Lindahl, J.; Grace, D. (23 January 2017). "Effects of climate change on the occurrence and distribution of livestock diseases". Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 137 (Pt B): 119–129. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.11.019. PMID 28040271.
^ ^a ^b Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257–260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004
^ ^a ^b Kerr R.B., Hasegawa T., Lasco R., Bhatt I., Deryng D., Farrell A., Gurney-Smith H., Ju H., Lluch-Cota S., Meza F., Nelson G., Neufeldt H., Thornton P., 2022: Chapter 5: Food, Fibre and Other Ecosystem Products. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012
^ Lihou, Katie; Wall, Richard (15 September 2022). "Predicting the current and future risk of ticks on livestock farms in Britain using random forest models". Veterinary Parasitology. 311: 109806. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2022.109806. hdl:1983/991bf7a4-f59f-4934-8608-1d2122e069c8. PMID 36116333. S2CID 252247062.
^ Douclet, Lea; Goarant, Cyrille; Mangeas, Morgan; Menkes, Cristophe; Hinjoy, Soawapak; Herbreteau, Vincent (7 April 2022). "Unraveling the invisible leptospirosis in mainland Southeast Asia and its fate under climate change". Science of the Total Environment. 832: 155018. Bibcode:2022ScTEn.832o5018D. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155018. PMID 35390383. S2CID 247970053.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Watts N, Adger WN, Agnolucci P, Blackstock J, Byass P, Cai W, et al. (November 2015). "Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health". Lancet. 386 (10006): 1861–1914. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6. hdl:10871/17695. PMID 26111439. S2CID 205979317.
^ ^a ^b Campbell-Lendrum D, Manga L, Bagayoko M, Sommerfeld J (April 2015). "Climate change and vector-borne diseases: what are the implications for public health research and policy?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 370 (1665): 20130552. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0552. PMC 4342958. PMID 25688013.
^ "Science points to causes of COVID-19". United Nations Environmental Programm. United Nations. 22 May 2020. Retrieved 2 Jun 2020.
^ Butterworth MK, Morin CW, Comrie AC (April 2017). "An Analysis of the Potential Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in the Southeastern United States". Environmental Health Perspectives. 125 (4): 579–585. doi:10.1289/EHP218. PMC 5381975. PMID 27713106.

[(Levy_et_al.,_2018)-1] Levy K, Smith SM, Carlton EJ (June 2018). "Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases: Moving Toward Designing Interventions". Current Environmental Health Reports. 5 (2): 272–282. doi:10.1007/s40572-018-0199-7. PMC 6119235. PMID 29721700.

[(Walker,_2018)-2] Walker JT (September 2018). "The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review". Perspectives in Public Health. 138 (5): 282–286. doi:10.1177/1757913918791198. PMID 30156484. S2CID 52115812.

[(Hunter,_2003)-3] Hunter PR (2003). "Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 94 (s1): 37S–46S. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x. PMID 12675935.

[(Levy_et_al.,_2016)-4] Levy K, Woster AP, Goldstein RS, Carlton EJ (May 2016). "Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought". Environmental Science & Technology. 50 (10): 4905–4922. Bibcode:2016EnST...50.4905L. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b06186. PMC 5468171. PMID 27058059.

[WHO_Climate_Change_and_Human_Health_2003-5] WHO, WMO, UNEP (2003). "International consensus on the science of climate and health: the IPCC Third Assessment Report". Climate change and human health – risks and responses. Summary (PDF) (Summary of other published book). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. ISBN 9241590815. Retrieved 28 Jun 2020.

[6] Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041–1170, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009.

[7] "Climate impacts have worsened vast range of human diseases". The Guardian. 8 August 2022. Retrieved 15 Sep 2022.

[Mora_2022-8] Mora C, McKenzie T, Gaw IM, Dean JM, von Hammerstein H, Knudson TA, et al. (September 2022). "Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change". Nature Climate Change. 12 (9): 869–875. Bibcode:2022NatCC..12..869M. doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01426-1. PMC 9362357. PMID 35968032.

[Caminade219-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Caminade C, McIntyre KM, Jones AE (January 2019). "Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1436 (1): 157–173. Bibcode:2019NYASA1436..157C. doi:10.1111/nyas.13950. PMC 6378404. PMID 30120891. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

[10] Costello A, Abbas M, Allen A, Ball S, Bell S, Bellamy R, et al. (May 2009). "Managing the health effects of climate change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission". Lancet. 373 (9676): 1693–1733. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1. PMID 19447250. S2CID 205954939.

[11] Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, et al. (March 2014). "Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (9): 3286–3291. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.3286C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302089111. PMC 3948226. PMID 24596427.

[Epstein-12] Epstein PR (July 2002). "Climate change and infectious disease: stormy weather ahead?". Epidemiology. 13 (4): 373–375. doi:10.1097/00001648-200207000-00001. PMID 12094088. S2CID 19299458.

[13] Bebber DP, Ramotowski MA, Gurr SJ (2013). "Crop pests and pathogens move polewards in a warming world". Nature Climate Change. 3 (11): 985–988. Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..985B. doi:10.1038/nclimate1990.

[Impacts_of_Climate_Change_Ch_1_2016-14] Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC (2016). "Ch. 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health" (PDF). The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program. doi:10.7930/J0VX0DFW. Retrieved 28 Jun 2020.

[15] Beard C, Eisen R, Barker C, Garofalo J, Hahn M, Hayden M, et al. (2016). "Ch. 5: Vectorborne Diseases. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment". Climate and Health Assessment. doi:10.7930/j0765c7v.

[16] "Climate Change and Public Health – Disease Vectors | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 9 September 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2020.

[17] IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[18] Jordan R (15 March 2019). "How dose climate change affect disease". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2 Jun 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2021.

[Ostfeld_2009-19] Ostfeld RS (April 2009). "Climate change and the distribution and intensity of infectious diseases". Ecology. 90 (4): 903–905. doi:10.1890/08-0659.1. JSTOR 25592576. PMID 19449683.

[20] Deischstetter P (2017). "The Effect of Climate Change on Mosquito-Borne Diseases". The American Biology Teacher. 79 (3): 169–173. doi:10.1525/abt.2017.79.3.169. ISSN 0002-7685. JSTOR 26411199. S2CID 90364501.

[Cooney_2011-21] Cooney CM (September 2011). "Climate change & infectious disease: is the future here?". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (9): a394–a397. doi:10.1289/ehp.119-a394. JSTOR 41263126. PMC 3230419. PMID 21885367.

[Afrane-22] Afrane YA, Githeko AK, Yan G (February 2012). "The ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes under climate change: case studies from the effects of deforestation in East African highlands". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1249 (1): 204–210. Bibcode:2012NYASA1249..204A. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06432.x. PMC 3767301. PMID 22320421.

[23] Munga S, Minakawa N, Zhou G, Githeko AK, Yan G (September 2007). "Survivorship of immature stages of Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in natural habitats in western Kenya highlands". Journal of Medical Entomology. 44 (5): 758–764. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[758:SOISOA]2.0.CO;2. PMID 17915505. S2CID 10278388.

[Levy_2016-24] Levy K, Woster AP, Goldstein RS, Carlton EJ (May 2016). "Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought". Environmental Science & Technology. 50 (10): 4905–4922. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b06186. PMC 5468171. PMID 27058059.

[Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8-25] Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: Chapter 8: Water Cycle Changes. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010

[malaria-26] Patz JA, Olson SH (April 2006). "Malaria risk and temperature: influences from global climate change and local land use practices". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (15): 5635–5636. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.5635P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0601493103. PMC 1458623. PMID 16595623.

[Bhattacharya-27] Bhattacharya S, Sharma C, Dhiman R, Mitra A (2006). "Climate Change and Malaria in India". Current Science. 90 (3): 369–375.

[mara-28] "Nigeria: Duration of the Malaria Transmission Season" (PDF). mara.org.za. MARA/ARMA (Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa / Atlas du Risque de la Malaria en Afrique). July 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 Dec 2005. Retrieved 24 Jan 2007.

[Patz_2005-29] Patz JA, Campbell-Lendrum D, Holloway T, Foley JA (November 2005). "Impact of regional climate change on human health". Nature. 438 (7066): 310–317. Bibcode:2005Natur.438..310P. doi:10.1038/nature04188. PMID 16292302. S2CID 285589.

[infectious-30] Rawshan AB, Er A, Raja D, Pereira JJ (2010). "Malaria and Climate Change: Discussion on Economic Impacts". American Journal of Environmental Sciences. 7 (1): 65–74. doi:10.3844/ajessp.2011.73.82.

[Lancet-31] Greenwood BM, Bojang K, Whitty CJ, Targett GA (23 April 2005). "Malaria". Lancet. 365 (9469): 1487–1498. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66420-3. PMID 15850634. S2CID 208987634.

[Dengue_and_Severe_Dengue-32] "Dengue and Severe Dengue, Fact Sheet". Media Centre. World Health Organization. 2012.

[33] Simmons CP, Farrar JJ, Nguyen VV, Wills B (April 2012). "Dengue". The New England Journal of Medicine. 366 (15): 1423–1432. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1110265. hdl:11343/191104. PMID 22494122.

[34] Banu S, Hu W, Guo Y, Hurst C, Tong S (February 2014). "Projecting the impact of climate change on dengue transmission in Dhaka, Bangladesh". Environment International. 63: 137–42. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.11.002. PMID 24291765.

[35] "WHO | The human". WHO. Retrieved 25 Jul 2019.

[www.who.int-36] "Dengue and severe dengue". www.who.int. Retrieved 6 May 2020.

[37] "WHO | Dengue/Severe dengue frequently asked questions". WHO. Archived from the original on 25 Oct 2012. Retrieved 25 Jul 2019.

[Ebi_2016-38] Ebi KL, Nealon J (November 2016). "Dengue in a changing climate". Environmental Research. 151: 115–123. Bibcode:2016ER....151..115E. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.026. PMID 27475051.

[39] Gubler DJ (2010). "Human and Medical Virology: Dengue Viruses". In Mahy BW, van Regenmortel MH (eds.). Desk Encyclopedia of Human and Medical Virology. Academic Press. pp. 372–382. ISBN 978-0-12-378559-6.

[40] Süss J, Klaus C, Gerstengarbe FW, Werner PC (1 January 2008). "What makes ticks tick? Climate change, ticks, and tick-borne diseases". Journal of Travel Medicine. 15 (1): 39–45. doi:10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x. PMID 18217868.

[Brownstein_2003-41] Brownstein JS, Holford TR, Fish D (July 2003). "A climate-based model predicts the spatial distribution of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis in the United States". Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (9): 1152–1157. doi:10.1289/ehp.6052. PMC 1241567. PMID 12842766.

[42] USGCRP. "Life Cycle of Blacklegged Ticks, Ixodes scapularis | Climate and Health Assessment". health2016.globalchange.gov. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.

[43] Munro HJ, Ogden NH, Mechai S, Lindsay LR, Robertson GJ, Whitney H, Lang AS (October 2019). "Genetic diversity of Borrelia garinii from Ixodes uriae collected in seabird colonies of the northwestern Atlantic Ocean". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 10 (6): 101255. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.06.014. PMID 31280947. S2CID 195829855.

[sciencedirect.com-44] Wolcott KA, Margos G, Fingerle V, Becker NS (September 2021). "Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: A review". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 12 (5): 101766. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101766. PMID 34161868.

[Esteve-Gassent_38–64-45] Esteve-Gassent MD, Castro-Arellano I, Feria-Arroyo TP, Patino R, Li AY, Medina RF, et al. (May 2016). "TRANSLATING ECOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY, AND POPULATION GENETICS RESEARCH TO MEET THE CHALLENGE OF TICK AND TICK-BORNE DISEASES IN NORTH AMERICA". Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology. 92 (1): 38–64. doi:10.1002/arch.21327. PMC 4844827. PMID 27062414.

[46] Luber G, Lemery J (2 November 2015). Global Climate Change and Human Health: From Science to Practice. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-50557-1.

[47] Monaghan AJ, Moore SM, Sampson KM, Beard CB, Eisen RJ (July 2015). "Climate change influences on the annual onset of Lyme disease in the United States". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 6 (5): 615–622. Bibcode:2015AGUFMGC13L..07M. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.05.005. PMC 4631020. PMID 26025268.

[48] "As disease-bearing ticks head north, weak government response threatens public health". Center for Public Integrity. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.

[49] "CDC – Climate and Health – CDC's Building Resilience Against Climate Effects (BRACE) Framework". National Center for Environmental Health. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 29 Oct 2018.

[World_Health_Organization_2020-50] "Leishmaniasis". World Health Organization. March 2020. Retrieved 25 Nov 2020.

[51] Fischer D, Moeller P, Thomas SM, Naucke TJ, Beierkuhnlein C (November 2011). "Combining climatic projections and dispersal ability: a method for estimating the responses of sandfly vector species to climate change". PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 5 (11): e1407. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001407. PMC 3226457. PMID 22140590.

[52] Koch LK, Kochmann J, Klimpel S, Cunze S (October 2017). "Modeling the climatic suitability of leishmaniasis vector species in Europe". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 13325. Bibcode:2017NatSR...713325K. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13822-1. PMC 5645347. PMID 29042642.

[53] Peterson AT, Campbell LP, Moo-Llanes DA, Travi B, González C, Ferro MC, et al. (September 2017). "Influences of climate change on the potential distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis sensu lato (Psychodidae: Phlebotominae)". International Journal for Parasitology. 47 (10–11): 667–674. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.04.007. PMID 28668326.

[54] Purse BV, Masante D, Golding N, Pigott D, Day JC, Ibañez-Bernal S, et al. (2017). "How will climate change pathways and mitigation options alter incidence of vector-borne diseases? A framework for leishmaniasis in South and Meso-America". PloS One. 12 (10): e0183583. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1283583P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183583. PMC 5636069. PMID 29020041.

[55] Hlavacova J, Votypka J, Volf P (September 2013). "The effect of temperature on Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) development in sand flies". Journal of Medical Entomology. 50 (5): 955–958. doi:10.1603/ME13053. PMID 24180098.

[World_Health_Organization-56] "Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases – Leishmaniasis". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 18 Jul 2004. Retrieved 25 Nov 2020.

[57] González C, Wang O, Strutz SE, González-Salazar C, Sánchez-Cordero V, Sarkar S (January 2010). "Climate change and risk of leishmaniasis in north america: predictions from ecological niche models of vector and reservoir species". PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 4 (1): e585. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000585. PMC 2799657. PMID 20098495.

[58] "Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 5 February 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.

[Christensen_2019-59] Christensen J (15 October 2019). "Climate crisis raises risk of more Ebola outbreaks". CNN. Retrieved 6 May 2020.

[60] "Ebola and Climate Change: How Are They Connected?". EcoWatch. 14 August 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2020.

[61] Plourde AR, Bloch EM (July 2016). "A Literature Review of Zika Virus". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 22 (7): 1185–1192. doi:10.3201/eid2207.151990. PMC 4918175. PMID 27070380.

[62] Zhang Q, Sun K, Chinazzi M, Pastore Y, Piontti A, Dean NE, et al. (May 2017). "Spread of Zika virus in the Americas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (22): E4334–E4343. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E4334Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.1620161114. PMC 5465916. PMID 28442561.

[63] Moghadam SR, Bayrami S, Moghadam SJ, Golrokhi R, Pahlaviani FG, SeyedAlinaghi S (1 December 2016). "Zika virus: A review of literature". Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 6 (12): 989–994. doi:10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.09.007. ISSN 2221-1691. S2CID 79313409.

[64] "Zika virus". www.who.int. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.

[65] "Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050". CEID. 11 March 2021. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.

[66] "Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050". CEID. 11 March 2021. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.

[67] Epstein PR (October 2005). "Climate change and human health". The New England Journal of Medicine. 353 (14): 1433–1436. doi:10.1056/NEJMp058079. PMID 16207843.

[68] "Explainer: How climate change is amplifying mosquito-borne diseases". World Mosquito Program. Retrieved 27 Jan 2023.

[69] "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Climate change". World Health Organization. Retrieved 24 Nov 2020.

[Beyer_2021-70] Beyer RM, Manica A, Mora C (May 2021). "Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2". The Science of the Total Environment. 767: 145413. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.767n5413B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145413. PMC 7837611. PMID 33558040.

[71] Bressan D. "Climate Change Could Have Played A Role In The Covid-19 Outbreak". Forbes. Retrieved 9 Feb 2021.

[Gudipati_2020-72] Gudipati S, Zervos M, Herc E (September 2020). "Can the One Health Approach Save Us from the Emergence and Reemergence of Infectious Pathogens in the Era of Climate Change: Implications for Antimicrobial Resistance?". Antibiotics. 9 (9): 599. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9090599. PMC 7557833. PMID 32937739.

[(Walker,_2018)2-73] Walker JT (September 2018). "The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review". Perspectives in Public Health. 138 (5): 282–286. doi:10.1177/1757913918791198. PMID 30156484. S2CID 52115812.

[CDC2-74] "Vibrio Species Causing Vibriosis | Vibrio Illness (Vibriosis) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 8 March 2019. Retrieved 17 Jan 2021.

[75] Casadevall A (February 2020). "Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 130 (2): 553–555. doi:10.1172/JCI135003. PMC 6994111. PMID 31904588.

[76] Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, Farooqi J, Chowdhary A, Govender NP, et al. (January 2017). "Simultaneous Emergence of Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris on 3 Continents Confirmed by Whole-Genome Sequencing and Epidemiological Analyses". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 64 (2): 134–140. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw691. PMC 5215215. PMID 27988485.

[77] Carlson CJ, Albery GF, Merow C, Trisos CH, Zipfel CM, Eskew EA, et al. (July 2022). "Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk". Nature. 607 (7919): 555–562. Bibcode:2022Natur.607..555C. bioRxiv 10.1101/2020.01.24.918755. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04788-w. PMID 35483403. S2CID 248430532.

[78] Casadevall A (February 2020). "Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 130 (2): 553–555. doi:10.1172/JCI135003. PMC 6994111. PMID 31904588.

[Hofmeister_2010-79] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Hofmeister EK, Rogall GM, Wesenberg K, Abbott RC, Work TM, Schuler K, Sleeman JM, Winton J (2010). "Climate change and wildlife health: direct and indirect effects". Fact Sheet: 4. doi:10.3133/fs20103017. ISSN 2327-6932.

[80] Lacetera N (January 2019). "Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare". Animal Frontiers. 9 (1): 26–31. doi:10.1093/af/vfy030. PMC 6951873. PMID 32002236.

[Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Lacetera2018-81] Lacetera, Nicola (3 January 2019). "Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare". Animal Frontiers. 9 (1): 26–31. doi:10.1093/af/vfy030. ISSN 2160-6056. PMC 6951873. PMID 32002236.

[Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Bett2017-82] Bett, B.; Kiunga, P.; Gachohi, J.; Sindato, C.; Mbotha, D.; Robinson, T.; Lindahl, J.; Grace, D. (23 January 2017). "Effects of climate change on the occurrence and distribution of livestock diseases". Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 137 (Pt B): 119–129. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.11.019. PMID 28040271.

[Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter2-83] Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257–260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004

[Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter5-84] Kerr R.B., Hasegawa T., Lasco R., Bhatt I., Deryng D., Farrell A., Gurney-Smith H., Ju H., Lluch-Cota S., Meza F., Nelson G., Neufeldt H., Thornton P., 2022: Chapter 5: Food, Fibre and Other Ecosystem Products. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012

[85] Lihou, Katie; Wall, Richard (15 September 2022). "Predicting the current and future risk of ticks on livestock farms in Britain using random forest models". Veterinary Parasitology. 311: 109806. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2022.109806. hdl:1983/991bf7a4-f59f-4934-8608-1d2122e069c8. PMID 36116333. S2CID 252247062.

[86] Douclet, Lea; Goarant, Cyrille; Mangeas, Morgan; Menkes, Cristophe; Hinjoy, Soawapak; Herbreteau, Vincent (7 April 2022). "Unraveling the invisible leptospirosis in mainland Southeast Asia and its fate under climate change". Science of the Total Environment. 832: 155018. Bibcode:2022ScTEn.832o5018D. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155018. PMID 35390383. S2CID 247970053.

[Watts_2015-87] Watts N, Adger WN, Agnolucci P, Blackstock J, Byass P, Cai W, et al. (November 2015). "Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health". Lancet. 386 (10006): 1861–1914. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6. hdl:10871/17695. PMID 26111439. S2CID 205979317.

[Campbell-Lendrum_2015-88] Campbell-Lendrum D, Manga L, Bagayoko M, Sommerfeld J (April 2015). "Climate change and vector-borne diseases: what are the implications for public health research and policy?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 370 (1665): 20130552. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0552. PMC 4342958. PMID 25688013.

[89] "Science points to causes of COVID-19". United Nations Environmental Programm. United Nations. 22 May 2020. Retrieved 2 Jun 2020.

[90] Butterworth MK, Morin CW, Comrie AC (April 2017). "An Analysis of the Potential Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in the Southeastern United States". Environmental Health Perspectives. 125 (4): 579–585. doi:10.1289/EHP218. PMC 5381975. PMID 27713106.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 Global '''climate change''' has resulted in a wide range of impacts on the spread of '''infectious diseases'''. Like other ways in which [[Effects of climate change on human health|climate change affects on human health]], climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and challenges in managing infectious disease. Infectious diseases whose transmission can be impacted by climate change include for example the [[Vector-borne disease|vector-borne diseases]] [[#Dengue fever|dengue fever]], [[malaria]], [[tick-borne disease]]s, [[leishmaniasis]], [[zika fever]], [[chikungunya]] and [[Ebola|Ebola virus disease]]. One of the mechanisms for increased disease transmission is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the insects that can carry the diseases.
-There is also a very high risk of increase in [[waterborne diseases]] worldwide due to climate change, according to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC).<ref name="(Levy et al., 2018)">{{Cite journal |last1=Levy |first1=Karen |last2=Smith |first2=Shanon M. |last3=Carlton |first3=Elizabeth J. |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases: Moving Toward Designing Interventions |journal=Current Environmental Health Reports |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=272–282 |doi=10.1007/s40572-018-0199-7 |issn=2196-5412 |pmc=6119235 |pmid=29721700}}</ref> These are diseases caused by a pathogen transmitted through water. The symptoms of waterborne diseases typically include diarrhea, fever and other flu-like symptoms, neurological disorders, and liver damage.<ref name="(Levy et al., 2018)" /> Changes in climate have a large effect on the distribution of microbial species. These communities are very complex and can be extremely sensitive to external climate stimuli.<ref name="(Walker, 2018)">{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=J. T. |date=2018 |title=The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30156484 |journal=Perspectives in Public Health |volume=138 |issue=5 |pages=282–286 |doi=10.1177/1757913918791198 |issn=1757-9147 |pmid=30156484 |s2cid=52115812 |via=}}</ref> One of the most commonly transmitted waterborne disease categories are the [[diarrhea]] diseases.<ref name="(Levy et al., 2018)" /> These diseases are transmitted through unsafe drinking water or recreational water contact.<ref name="(Hunter, 2003)">{{Cite journal |last=Hunter |first=P. R. |date=2003 |title=Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease |journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology |language=en |volume=94 |issue=s1 |pages=37–46 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x |issn=1365-2672 |pmid=12675935 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Diarrheal diseases account for 10–12% of deaths in children under five, as the second leading cause of death in children this age. They are also the second leading cause of death in low and middle income countries. Diarrhea diseases account for an estimated 1.4–1.9&nbsp;million deaths worldwide.<ref name="(Levy et al., 2016)">{{Cite journal |last1=Levy |first1=Karen |last2=Woster |first2=Andrew P. |last3=Goldstein |first3=Rebecca S. |last4=Carlton |first4=Elizabeth J. |date=2016-05-17 |title=Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=4905–4922 |bibcode=2016EnST...50.4905L |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b06186 |issn=1520-5851 |pmc=5468171 |pmid=27058059}}</ref>
+There is also a very high risk of increase in [[waterborne diseases]] worldwide due to climate change, according to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC).<ref name="(Levy et al., 2018)">{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy K, Smith SM, Carlton EJ | title = Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases: Moving Toward Designing Interventions | journal = Current Environmental Health Reports | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 272–282 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29721700 | pmc = 6119235 | doi = 10.1007/s40572-018-0199-7 }}</ref> These are diseases caused by a pathogen transmitted through water. The symptoms of waterborne diseases typically include diarrhea, fever and other flu-like symptoms, neurological disorders, and liver damage.<ref name="(Levy et al., 2018)" /> Changes in climate have a large effect on the distribution of microbial species. These communities are very complex and can be extremely sensitive to external climate stimuli.<ref name="(Walker, 2018)">{{cite journal | vauthors = Walker JT | title = The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review | journal = Perspectives in Public Health | volume = 138 | issue = 5 | pages = 282–286 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30156484 | doi = 10.1177/1757913918791198 | s2cid = 52115812 }}</ref> One of the most commonly transmitted waterborne disease categories are the [[diarrhea]] diseases.<ref name="(Levy et al., 2018)" /> These diseases are transmitted through unsafe drinking water or recreational water contact.<ref name="(Hunter, 2003)">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunter PR | title = Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease | journal = Journal of Applied Microbiology | volume = 94 | issue = s1 | pages = 37S-46S | date = 2003 | pmid = 12675935 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x | doi-access = free }}</ref> Diarrheal diseases account for 10–12% of deaths in children under five, as the second leading cause of death in children this age. They are also the second leading cause of death in low and middle income countries. Diarrhea diseases account for an estimated 1.4–1.9&nbsp;million deaths worldwide.<ref name="(Levy et al., 2016)">{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy K, Woster AP, Goldstein RS, Carlton EJ | title = Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 50 | issue = 10 | pages = 4905–4922 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 27058059 | pmc = 5468171 | doi = 10.1021/acs.est.5b06186 | bibcode = 2016EnST...50.4905L }}</ref>
 {{TOC level|3}}
 == Public health context ==
-In 1988, little was known about the [[effects of climate change on human health]].<ref name="WHO Climate Change and Human Health 2003">{{Cite book |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42749/9241590815.pdf |title=Climate change and human health – risks and responses. Summary. |vauthors=WHO, WMO, UNEP |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2003 |isbn=9241590815 |location=Geneva, Switzerland |chapter=International consensus on the science of climate and health: the IPCC Third Assessment Report |type=Summary of other published book |access-date=28 June 2020 |chapter-url=https://www.who.int/globalchange/summary/en/index2.html}}</ref> As of 2023, the evidence has grown significantly and is for example summarised in the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]].<ref name=":162">Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter07.pdf Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041–1170, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009.</ref> The scientific understanding about the potential health risks and observed health impacts caused by climate change is now better understood. One category of health risks is that of [[infectious diseases]]. A study concluded in 2022 that "58% (that is, 218 out of 375) of infectious diseases confronted by humanity worldwide have been at some point aggravated by climatic hazards".<ref>{{cite news |date=8 August 2022 |title=Climate impacts have worsened vast range of human diseases |language=en |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/08/climate-crisis-study-human-diseases |access-date=15 September 2022}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Mora C, McKenzie T, Gaw IM, Dean JM, von Hammerstein H, Knudson TA, Setter RO, Smith CZ, Webster KM, Patz JA, Franklin EC |date=September 2022 |title=Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=869–875 |bibcode=2022NatCC..12..869M |doi=10.1038/s41558-022-01426-1 |pmc=9362357 |pmid=35968032}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] considers climate change as one of the greatest threats to human health.<ref name="Caminade219">{{cite journal |vauthors=Caminade C, McIntyre KM, Jones AE |date=January 2019 |title=Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1436 |issue=1 |pages=157–173 |bibcode=2019NYASA1436..157C |doi=10.1111/nyas.13950 |pmc=6378404 |pmid=30120891 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref>
+In 1988, little was known about the [[effects of climate change on human health]].<ref name="WHO Climate Change and Human Health 2003">{{Cite book |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42749/9241590815.pdf |title=Climate change and human health – risks and responses. Summary. |vauthors=WHO, WMO, UNEP |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2003 |isbn=9241590815 |location=Geneva, Switzerland |chapter=International consensus on the science of climate and health: the IPCC Third Assessment Report |type=Summary of other published book |access-date=28 June 2020 |chapter-url=https://www.who.int/globalchange/summary/en/index2.html}}</ref> As of 2023, the evidence has grown significantly and is for example summarised in the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]].<ref>Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter07.pdf Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041–1170, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009.</ref> The scientific understanding about the potential health risks and observed health impacts caused by climate change is now better understood. One category of health risks is that of [[infectious diseases]]. A study concluded in 2022 that "58% (that is, 218 out of 375) of infectious diseases confronted by humanity worldwide have been at some point aggravated by climatic hazards".<ref>{{cite news |date=8 August 2022 |title=Climate impacts have worsened vast range of human diseases |language=en |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/08/climate-crisis-study-human-diseases |access-date=15 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Mora_2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mora C, McKenzie T, Gaw IM, Dean JM, von Hammerstein H, Knudson TA, Setter RO, Smith CZ, Webster KM, Patz JA, Franklin EC | display-authors = 6 | title = Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change | journal = Nature Climate Change | volume = 12 | issue = 9 | pages = 869–875 | date = September 2022 | pmid = 35968032 | pmc = 9362357 | doi = 10.1038/s41558-022-01426-1 | bibcode = 2022NatCC..12..869M }}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] considers climate change as one of the greatest threats to human health.<ref name="Caminade219">{{cite journal | vauthors = Caminade C, McIntyre KM, Jones AE | title = Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1436 | issue = 1 | pages = 157–173 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30120891 | pmc = 6378404 | doi = 10.1111/nyas.13950 | bibcode = 2019NYASA1436..157C | doi-access = free }} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref>
 Infectious diseases have played a significant role in human history, impacting the rise and fall of civilizations and facilitating the conquest of new territories.<ref name="Caminade219" /> During recent decades, there are significant regional changes in [[Disease vector|vector]] and [[pathogen]] distribution reported in temperate, peri‐Arctic, Arctic, and tropical highland regions.
@@ Line 14: / Line 14: @@
 Climate change is only one factor in the spread of human diseases. Many other key factors affect the spread and severity of human diseases as well, including mobility of people, animals, and goods; control measures in place; availability of effective drugs; quality of public health services; human behavior; and political stability and conflicts.<ref name="Caminade219" />
-The effects of climate change on health will impact most populations over the next few decades.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Costello A, Abbas M, Allen A, Ball S, Bell S, Bellamy R, Friel S, Groce N, Johnson A, Kett M, Lee M, Levy C, Maslin M, McCoy D, McGuire B, Montgomery H, Napier D, Pagel C, Patel J, de Oliveira JA, Redclift N, Rees H, Rogger D, Scott J, Stephenson J, Twigg J, Wolff J, Patterson C |date=May 2009 |title=Managing the health effects of climate change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission |journal=Lancet |volume=373 |issue=9676 |pages=1693–1733 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1 |pmid=19447250 |s2cid=205954939}}</ref> However, Africa, and specifically, the African Highlands, are susceptible to being particularly negatively affected. For example, with regards to malaria, in 2010, 91% of the global burden due to malaria deaths occurred in Africa. Several spatiotemporal models have been studied to assess the potential effect of projected climate scenarios on malaria transmission in Africa. It is expected that the most significant climate change effects are confined to specific regions, including the African Highlands.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, Stenlund H, Martens P, Lloyd SJ |date=March 2014 |title=Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=3286–3291 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.3286C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1302089111 |pmc=3948226 |pmid=24596427 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+The effects of climate change on health will impact most populations over the next few decades.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Costello A, Abbas M, Allen A, Ball S, Bell S, Bellamy R, Friel S, Groce N, Johnson A, Kett M, Lee M, Levy C, Maslin M, McCoy D, McGuire B, Montgomery H, Napier D, Pagel C, Patel J, de Oliveira JA, Redclift N, Rees H, Rogger D, Scott J, Stephenson J, Twigg J, Wolff J, Patterson C | display-authors = 6 | title = Managing the health effects of climate change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission | journal = Lancet | volume = 373 | issue = 9676 | pages = 1693–1733 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19447250 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1 | s2cid = 205954939 }}</ref> However, Africa, and specifically, the African Highlands, are susceptible to being particularly negatively affected. For example, with regards to malaria, in 2010, 91% of the global burden due to malaria deaths occurred in Africa. Several spatiotemporal models have been studied to assess the potential effect of projected climate scenarios on malaria transmission in Africa. It is expected that the most significant climate change effects are confined to specific regions, including the African Highlands.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, Stenlund H, Martens P, Lloyd SJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 111 | issue = 9 | pages = 3286–3291 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24596427 | pmc = 3948226 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1302089111 | bibcode = 2014PNAS..111.3286C | doi-access = free }}</ref>
-Climate change may lead to dramatic increases in prevalence of a variety of infectious diseases. Beginning in the mid-'70s, an "emergence, resurgence and redistribution of infectious diseases" has occurred.<ref name="Epstein">{{cite journal |vauthors=Epstein PR |date=July 2002 |title=Climate change and infectious disease: stormy weather ahead? |journal=Epidemiology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=373–375 |doi=10.1097/00001648-200207000-00001 |pmid=12094088 |s2cid=19299458 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Reasons for this are likely multi-causal, dependent on a variety of social, environmental and climatic factors, however, many argue that the "volatility of infectious disease may be one of the earliest biological expressions of climate instability".<ref name="Epstein" />
+Climate change may lead to dramatic increases in prevalence of a variety of infectious diseases. Beginning in the mid-'70s, an "emergence, resurgence and redistribution of infectious diseases" has occurred.<ref name="Epstein">{{cite journal | vauthors = Epstein PR | title = Climate change and infectious disease: stormy weather ahead? | journal = Epidemiology | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 373–375 | date = July 2002 | pmid = 12094088 | doi = 10.1097/00001648-200207000-00001 | s2cid = 19299458 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Reasons for this are likely multi-causal, dependent on a variety of social, environmental and climatic factors, however, many argue that the "volatility of infectious disease may be one of the earliest biological expressions of climate instability".<ref name="Epstein" />
 == Mechanisms and pathways ==
 {{Climate change and society}}
-{{Further|Effects of climate change on human health}}Infectious diseases (also called [[Pathogen|pathogenic]] diseases) depend on "a pathogen and a person coming into contact, and the extent to which peoples’ resistance is diminished, or the pathogen is strengthened, by a climatic [[hazard]]."<ref name=":1" /> Climatic hazards, which can be strengthened by climate change, include for example warming of land and oceans, [[Heat wave|heatwaves]] and [[Marine heatwave|marine heatwaves]], floods, drought, storms, land cover change, fires and so forth.<ref name=":1" />
+{{Further|Effects of climate change on human health}}Infectious diseases (also called [[Pathogen|pathogenic]] diseases) depend on "a pathogen and a person coming into contact, and the extent to which peoples’ resistance is diminished, or the pathogen is strengthened, by a climatic [[hazard]]."<ref name="Mora_2022" /> Climatic hazards, which can be strengthened by climate change, include for example warming of land and oceans, [[Heat wave|heatwaves]] and [[Marine heatwave|marine heatwaves]], floods, drought, storms, land cover change, fires and so forth.<ref name="Mora_2022" />
-Possible pathways that can increase the infectious disease occurrence and which are affected by climate change include:<ref name=":1" />
+Possible pathways that can increase the infectious disease occurrence and which are affected by climate change include:<ref name="Mora_2022" />
 * Climatic hazards bringing pathogens closer to people (e.g. shifts in the geographical range of species)
@@ Line 40: / Line 40: @@
 Changes in climate and global warming have significant influences on the biology and distribution of [[Vector-borne disease|vector-borne diseases]], [[parasites]], [[Fungus|fungi]], and their associated illnesses. Regional changes resulting from changing weather conditions and patterns within temperate climates will stimulate the reproduction of certain insect species that are vectors for disease.
-One major disease-spreading insect is the [[mosquito]], which can carry diseases like [[malaria]], [[West Nile virus]], and [[dengue fever]]. With regional temperatures changing due to climate change the range of mosquitos will change as well.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jordan |first=Rob |date=March 15, 2019 |title=How dose climate change affect disease |url=https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-disease#gs.04lyyi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602101820/https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-disease |archive-date=2019-06-02 |access-date=May 6, 2021 |website=Stanford University}}</ref> The range of mosquitoes will move farther north and south, and places will have a longer period of mosquito habitability than at present, leading to an increase in the mosquito population in these areas. This range shift has already been seen in highland Africa. Since 1970, the incidence of malaria in high elevation areas in East Africa has increased greatly. This has been proven to be caused by the warming of regional climates.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Ostfeld |first=Richard |date=2009 |title=Climate Change and the Distribution and Intensity of Infectious Diseases |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25592576 |journal=Ecology |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=903–905 |doi=10.1890/08-0659.1 |jstor=25592576 |pmid=19449683 |via=JSTOR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=DEICHSTETTER |first=PEGGY |date=2017 |title=The Effect of Climate Change on Mosquito-Borne Diseases |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26411199 |journal=The American Biology Teacher |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=169–173 |doi=10.1525/abt.2017.79.3.169 |issn=0002-7685 |jstor=26411199 |s2cid=90364501}}</ref>
+One major disease-spreading insect is the [[mosquito]], which can carry diseases like [[malaria]], [[West Nile virus]], and [[dengue fever]]. With regional temperatures changing due to climate change the range of mosquitos will change as well.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Jordan R |date=March 15, 2019 |title=How dose climate change affect disease |url=https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-disease#gs.04lyyi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602101820/https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-disease |archive-date=2019-06-02 |access-date=May 6, 2021 |website=Stanford University}}</ref> The range of mosquitoes will move farther north and south, and places will have a longer period of mosquito habitability than at present, leading to an increase in the mosquito population in these areas. This range shift has already been seen in highland Africa. Since 1970, the incidence of malaria in high elevation areas in East Africa has increased greatly. This has been proven to be caused by the warming of regional climates.<ref name="Ostfeld_2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ostfeld RS | title = Climate change and the distribution and intensity of infectious diseases | journal = Ecology | volume = 90 | issue = 4 | pages = 903–905 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19449683 | doi = 10.1890/08-0659.1 | jstor = 25592576 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Deischstetter P |date=2017 |title=The Effect of Climate Change on Mosquito-Borne Diseases |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26411199 |journal=The American Biology Teacher |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=169–173 |doi=10.1525/abt.2017.79.3.169 |issn=0002-7685 |jstor=26411199 |s2cid=90364501}}</ref>
-The vectors of transmission are the major reason for the increased ranges and infection of these diseases. If the vector has a range shift, so do the associated diseases; if the vector increases in activity due to changes in climate, then there is an effect on the transmission of disease.<ref name=":33" /> However it will be hard to classify exactly why the range shifts or an increase in infection rates occurs as there are many other factors to consider besides climate change, such as [[human migration]], [[poverty]], [[infrastructure]] quality, and [[Land use|land usage]]; but climate change is still potentially a key factor.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last=Cooney |first=Catherine M. |date=2011 |title=Climate Change & Infectious Disease: Is the Future Here? |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=119 |issue=9 |pages=A394–A397 |doi=10.1289/ehp.119-a394 |issn=0091-6765 |jstor=41263126 |pmc=3230419 |pmid=21885367}}</ref>
+The vectors of transmission are the major reason for the increased ranges and infection of these diseases. If the vector has a range shift, so do the associated diseases; if the vector increases in activity due to changes in climate, then there is an effect on the transmission of disease.<ref name="Ostfeld_2009" /> However it will be hard to classify exactly why the range shifts or an increase in infection rates occurs as there are many other factors to consider besides climate change, such as [[human migration]], [[poverty]], [[infrastructure]] quality, and [[Land use|land usage]]; but climate change is still potentially a key factor.<ref name="Cooney_2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cooney CM | title = Climate change & infectious disease: is the future here? | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 119 | issue = 9 | pages = a394-a397 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21885367 | pmc = 3230419 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.119-a394 | jstor = 41263126 }}</ref>
-Environmental changes, [[climate variability]], and climate change are such factors that could affect biology and [[disease ecology]] of Anopheles vectors and their [[disease transmission]] potential.<ref name="Afrane">{{cite journal |vauthors=Afrane YA, Githeko AK, Yan G |date=February 2012 |title=The ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes under climate change: case studies from the effects of deforestation in East African highlands |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1249 |issue=1 |pages=204–210 |bibcode=2012NYASA1249..204A |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06432.x |pmc=3767301 |pmid=22320421}}</ref>
+Environmental changes, [[climate variability]], and climate change are such factors that could affect biology and [[disease ecology]] of Anopheles vectors and their [[disease transmission]] potential.<ref name="Afrane">{{cite journal | vauthors = Afrane YA, Githeko AK, Yan G | title = The ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes under climate change: case studies from the effects of deforestation in East African highlands | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1249 | issue = 1 | pages = 204–210 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22320421 | pmc = 3767301 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06432.x | bibcode = 2012NYASA1249..204A }}</ref>
-Anopheles mosquitoes in highland areas are to experience a larger shift in their metabolic rate due to climate change. This climate change is due to the deforestation in the highland areas where these mosquitos' dwell. When the temperature rises, the [[larvae]] take a shorter time to mature<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Munga S, Minakawa N, Zhou G, Githeko AK, Yan G |date=September 2007 |title=Survivorship of immature stages of Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in natural habitats in western Kenya highlands |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3dv6v5ff |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=758–764 |doi=10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[758:SOISOA]2.0.CO;2 |pmid=17915505 |s2cid=10278388}}</ref> and, consequently, a greater capacity to produce more offspring. In turn this could potentially lead to an increase in malaria transmission when infected humans are available.
+Anopheles mosquitoes in highland areas are to experience a larger shift in their metabolic rate due to climate change. This climate change is due to the deforestation in the highland areas where these mosquitos' dwell. When the temperature rises, the [[larvae]] take a shorter time to mature<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Munga S, Minakawa N, Zhou G, Githeko AK, Yan G | title = Survivorship of immature stages of Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in natural habitats in western Kenya highlands | journal = Journal of Medical Entomology | volume = 44 | issue = 5 | pages = 758–764 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17915505 | doi = 10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[758:SOISOA]2.0.CO;2 | s2cid = 10278388 }}</ref> and, consequently, a greater capacity to produce more offspring. In turn this could potentially lead to an increase in malaria transmission when infected humans are available.
 Environmental changes such as deforestation could also increase local temperatures in the highlands thus could enhance the vectorial capacity of the anopheles.<ref name="Afrane" /> Anopheles mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of a number of diseases in the world, such as, malaria, [[lymphatic filariasis]] and viruses that can cause such ailments, like the [[O'nyong'nyong virus]].<ref name="Afrane" />
@@ Line 59: / Line 59: @@
 Climate change is forecast to have substantial effects on the [[water cycle]], with an increase in both frequency and intensity of droughts and heavy precipitation events.<ref name="(Levy et al., 2018)" />
-A literature review in 2016 found that generally there is an increase in [[Diarrhea|diarrheal]] disease (except for viral diarrheal disease) during or after certain weather conditions: elevated ambient temperature, heavy rainfall, and flooding.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Levy |first=Karen |last2=Woster |first2=Andrew P. |last3=Goldstein |first3=Rebecca S. |last4=Carlton |first4=Elizabeth J. |date=2016 |title=Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.5b06186 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=4905–4922 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b06186 |issn=0013-936X |pmc=PMC5468171 |pmid=27058059}}</ref> These three weather conditions are predicted to increase (or to intensify) with climate change in future. There is already now a high current baseline rate of the diarrheal diseases in developing countries. Climate change therefore poses a real risk of an uptick in these diseases for those regions.<ref name=":3" />
+A literature review in 2016 found that generally there is an increase in [[Diarrhea|diarrheal]] disease (except for viral diarrheal disease) during or after certain weather conditions: elevated ambient temperature, heavy rainfall, and flooding.<ref name="Levy_2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy K, Woster AP, Goldstein RS, Carlton EJ | title = Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 50 | issue = 10 | pages = 4905–4922 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 27058059 | pmc = 5468171 | doi = 10.1021/acs.est.5b06186 }}</ref> These three weather conditions are predicted to increase (or to intensify) with climate change in future. There is already now a high current baseline rate of the diarrheal diseases in developing countries. Climate change therefore poses a real risk of an uptick in these diseases for those regions.<ref name="Levy_2016" />
 {{excerpt|Effects of climate change#Floods}}
@@ Line 74: / Line 74: @@
 === Dengue fever ===
-[[Dengue fever]] is an infectious disease caused by [[dengue virus]]es known to be in the tropical regions.<ref name="Dengue and Severe Dengue">{{cite web|year=2012|title=Dengue and Severe Dengue, Fact Sheet|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs117/en/|work=Media Centre|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> It is transmitted by the mosquito [[Aedes]], or A. aegypti.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Simmons CP, Farrar JJ, Nguyen V, Wills B | title = Dengue | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 366 | issue = 15 | pages = 1423–1432 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22494122 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra1110265 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 11343/191104 }}</ref> Dengue incidence has increased in the last few decades and is projected to continue to do so with changing climate conditions.<ref name=":5">Banu, S., Wenbiao H., Yuming G., Hurst, C.,  & Tong, S.(2014). "Projecting the Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in Dhaka, Bangladesh". Environment International (63): 137–142. DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.11.002
+[[Dengue fever]] is an infectious disease caused by [[dengue virus]]es known to be in the tropical regions.<ref name="Dengue and Severe Dengue">{{cite web|year=2012|title=Dengue and Severe Dengue, Fact Sheet|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs117/en/|work=Media Centre|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> It is transmitted by the mosquito [[Aedes]], or A. aegypti.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Simmons CP, Farrar JJ, Nguyen VV, Wills B | title = Dengue | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 366 | issue = 15 | pages = 1423–1432 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22494122 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra1110265 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 11343/191104 }}</ref> Dengue incidence has increased in the last few decades and is projected to continue to do so with changing climate conditions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Banu S, Hu W, Guo Y, Hurst C, Tong S | title = Projecting the impact of climate change on dengue transmission in Dhaka, Bangladesh | journal = Environment International | volume = 63 | issue = | pages = 137–42 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24291765 | doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2013.11.002 | url = }}</ref>> Dengue can be fatal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WHO {{!}} The human|url=https://www.who.int/denguecontrol/human/en/|access-date=25 July 2019|website=WHO}}</ref><ref name="www.who.int">{{Cite web|title=Dengue and severe dengue|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dengue-and-severe-dengue|access-date=6 May 2020|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> Dengue fever is spread by the bite of the female mosquito known as ''Aedes aegypti.'' The female mosquito is a highly effective vector of this disease.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WHO {{!}} Dengue/Severe dengue frequently asked questions|url=https://www.who.int/denguecontrol/faq/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025233710/http://www.who.int/denguecontrol/faq/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 October 2012|access-date=25 July 2019|website=WHO}}</ref>
-</ref> Dengue can be fatal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WHO {{!}} The human|url=https://www.who.int/denguecontrol/human/en/|access-date=25 July 2019|website=WHO}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=Dengue and severe dengue|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dengue-and-severe-dengue|access-date=6 May 2020|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> Dengue fever is spread by the bite of the female mosquito known as ''Aedes aegypti.'' The female mosquito is a highly effective vector of this disease.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WHO {{!}} Dengue/Severe dengue frequently asked questions|url=https://www.who.int/denguecontrol/faq/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025233710/http://www.who.int/denguecontrol/faq/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 October 2012|access-date=25 July 2019|website=WHO}}</ref>
-The evidence for the spread of dengue fever is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the mosquito that can carry dengue. Because there are multiple drivers of transmission, it is easier to model and project changes in the geographic range and seasonality. The drivers for the recent spread of this disease are globalization, trade, urbanization, population growth, increased international travel, and climate change.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ebi KL, Nealon J |date=November 2016 |title=Dengue in a changing climate |journal=Environmental Research |volume=151 |issue= |pages=115–123 |bibcode=2016ER....151..115E |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.026 |pmid=27475051 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2010 |title=Human and Medical Virology: Dengue Viruses |encyclopedia=Desk Encyclopedia of Human and Medical Virology |publisher=Academic Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nsh48WKIbhQC&pg=PA372 |pages=372–382 |isbn=978-0-12-378559-6 |vauthors=Gubler DJ |veditors=Mahy BW, van Regenmortel MH}}</ref> The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas, and to the emergence of [[dengue hemorrhagic fever]].
+The evidence for the spread of dengue fever is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the mosquito that can carry dengue. Because there are multiple drivers of transmission, it is easier to model and project changes in the geographic range and seasonality. The drivers for the recent spread of this disease are globalization, trade, urbanization, population growth, increased international travel, and climate change.<ref name="Ebi_2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ebi KL, Nealon J | title = Dengue in a changing climate | journal = Environmental Research | volume = 151 | issue =  | pages = 115–123 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27475051 | doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.026 | bibcode = 2016ER....151..115E | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2010 |title=Human and Medical Virology: Dengue Viruses |encyclopedia=Desk Encyclopedia of Human and Medical Virology |publisher=Academic Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nsh48WKIbhQC&pg=PA372 |pages=372–382 |isbn=978-0-12-378559-6 |vauthors=Gubler DJ |veditors=Mahy BW, van Regenmortel MH}}</ref> The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas, and to the emergence of [[dengue hemorrhagic fever]].
-The World Health Organization (WHO) has reported an increase from a thousand to one million confirmed cases between 1955 and 2007.<ref name=":24" /> The presence and number of ''Aedes aegypti'' mosquitoes is strongly influenced by the amount of water-bearing containers or pockets of stagnant water in an area, daily temperature and variation in temperature, moisture, and solar radiation.<ref name="Patz_2005" /> While dengue fever is primarily considered a [[Tropical disease|tropical and subtropical disease]], the geographic ranges of the Aedes aegypti are expanding. The cases of dengue fever have increased dramatically since the 1970s and it continues to become more prevalent.<ref name="Dengue and Severe Dengue" />
+The World Health Organization (WHO) has reported an increase from a thousand to one million confirmed cases between 1955 and 2007.<ref name="www.who.int" /> The presence and number of ''Aedes aegypti'' mosquitoes is strongly influenced by the amount of water-bearing containers or pockets of stagnant water in an area, daily temperature and variation in temperature, moisture, and solar radiation.<ref name="Patz_2005" /> While dengue fever is primarily considered a [[Tropical disease|tropical and subtropical disease]], the geographic ranges of the Aedes aegypti are expanding. The cases of dengue fever have increased dramatically since the 1970s and it continues to become more prevalent.<ref name="Dengue and Severe Dengue" />
-Dengue is ranked as the most important vector-borne viral disease in the world. An estimated 50–100&nbsp;million dengue fever infections occur annually. In just the past 50 years, transmission has increased drastically with new cases of the disease (incidence) increasing 30-fold.<ref name=":2" /> The number of reported cases has continually increased along with dengue spreading to new areas.
+Dengue is ranked as the most important vector-borne viral disease in the world. An estimated 50–100&nbsp;million dengue fever infections occur annually. In just the past 50 years, transmission has increased drastically with new cases of the disease (incidence) increasing 30-fold.<ref name="Ebi_2016" /> The number of reported cases has continually increased along with dengue spreading to new areas.
 === Tick borne disease ===
-[[Tick-borne disease]], which affect humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents [[Vector (epidemiology)|transmitted by]] [[tick]] bites. A high humidity of greater than 85% is ideal for a tick to start and finish its life cycle.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Süss J, Klaus C, Gerstengarbe FW, Werner PC | title = What makes ticks tick? Climate change, ticks, and tick-borne diseases | journal = Journal of Travel Medicine | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–45 | date = 1 January 2008 | pmid = 18217868 | doi = 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x | doi-access = free }}</ref> Studies have indicated that temperature and vapor play a significant role in determining the range for tick population. More specifically, maximum temperature has been found to play the most influential variable in sustaining tick populations.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brownstein JS, Holford TR, Fish D | title = A climate-based model predicts the spatial distribution of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis in the United States | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 111 | issue = 9 | pages = 1152–1157 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12842766 | pmc = 1241567 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.6052 }}</ref> Higher temperatures augment both hatching and developmental rates while hindering overall survival. Temperature is so important to overall survival that an average monthly minimum temperature of below -7&nbsp;°C in the winter can prevent an area from maintaining established populations.<ref name=":0" />
+[[Tick-borne disease]], which affect humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents [[Vector (epidemiology)|transmitted by]] [[tick]] bites. A high humidity of greater than 85% is ideal for a tick to start and finish its life cycle.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Süss J, Klaus C, Gerstengarbe FW, Werner PC | title = What makes ticks tick? Climate change, ticks, and tick-borne diseases | journal = Journal of Travel Medicine | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–45 | date = 1 January 2008 | pmid = 18217868 | doi = 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x | doi-access = free }}</ref> Studies have indicated that temperature and vapor play a significant role in determining the range for tick population. More specifically, maximum temperature has been found to play the most influential variable in sustaining tick populations.<ref name="Brownstein_2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brownstein JS, Holford TR, Fish D | title = A climate-based model predicts the spatial distribution of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis in the United States | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 111 | issue = 9 | pages = 1152–1157 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12842766 | pmc = 1241567 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.6052 }}</ref> Higher temperatures augment both hatching and developmental rates while hindering overall survival. Temperature is so important to overall survival that an average monthly minimum temperature of below -7&nbsp;°C in the winter can prevent an area from maintaining established populations.<ref name="Brownstein_2003" />
 The effect of climate on the tick life cycle is one of the more difficult projections to make in relation to climate and vector-borne disease. Unlike other vectors, tick life cycles span multiple seasons as they mature from larva to nymph to adult.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://health2016.globalchange.gov/climate-and-health-assessment/vectorborne-diseases/boxes/life-cycle-blacklegged-ticks-ixodes|title=Life Cycle of Blacklegged Ticks, Ixodes scapularis {{!}} Climate and Health Assessment|last=USGCRP|website=health2016.globalchange.gov|language=en|access-date=29 October 2018}}</ref> Further, infection and spread of diseases such as [[Lyme disease]] happens across the multiple stages and different classes of vertebrate hosts, adding additional variables to consider. Although it is a European species from the Lyme borreliosis spirochetes, ''Borrelia garinii'' was documented from infected ticks on seabirds in North America.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Munro HJ, Ogden NH, Mechai S, Lindsay LR, Robertson GJ, Whitney H, Lang AS | title = Genetic diversity of Borrelia garinii from Ixodes uriae collected in seabird colonies of the northwestern Atlantic Ocean | journal = Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 101255 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31280947 | doi = 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.06.014 | s2cid = 195829855 }}</ref> Further research is needed to improve evolutionary models predicting distributional changes in this tick-borne system in the face of climate change.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wolcott KA, Margos G, Fingerle V, Becker NS | title = Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: A review | journal = Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases | volume = 12 | issue = 5 | pages = 101766 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34161868 | doi = 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101766 }}</ref> Infection of ticks happen in the larval/nymph stage (after the first blood meal) when they are exposed to ''Borrelia burgdorferi'' (the spirochete responsible for Lyme disease<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/>), but transmission to humans doesn't occur until the adult stages.
-The expansion of tick populations is concurrent with global climatic change. Species distribution models of recent years indicate that the deer tick, known as ''I. scapularis,'' is pushing its distribution to higher latitudes of the Northeastern United States and Canada, as well as pushing and maintaining populations in the South Central and Northern Midwest regions of the United States.<ref name="Esteve-Gassent 38–64">{{cite journal | vauthors = Esteve-Gassent MD, Castro-Arellano I, Feria-Arroyo TP, Patino R, Li AY, Medina RF, de León AA, Rodríguez-Vivas RI | display-authors = 6 | title = Translating ecology, physiology, biochemistry, and population genetics research to meet the challenge of tick and tick-borne diseases in North America | journal = Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology | volume = 92 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–64 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 27062414 | pmc = 4844827 | doi = 10.1002/arch.21327 }}</ref> Climate models project further expansion of tick habit north into Canada as progressing Northwest from the Northeastern United States. Additionally, however, tick populations are expected to retreat from the Southeastern coast of the U.S., but this has not yet been observed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0E1CAAAQBAJ&q=luber+lemry+climate+health&pg=PR11|title=Global Climate Change and Human Health: From Science to Practice| vauthors = Luber G, Lemery J |date=2 November 2015|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-50557-1|language=en}}</ref> It's estimated that coinciding with this expansion, increased average temperatures may double tick populations by 2020 as well as bring an earlier start to the tick exposure season.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Monaghan AJ, Moore SM, Sampson KM, Beard CB, Eisen RJ | title = Climate change influences on the annual onset of Lyme disease in the United States | journal = Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases | volume = 6 | issue = 5 | pages = 615–622 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26025268 | pmc = 4631020 | doi = 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.05.005 | bibcode = 2015AGUFMGC13L..07M }}</ref><ref name="Esteve-Gassent 38–64"/>
+The expansion of tick populations is concurrent with global climatic change. Species distribution models of recent years indicate that the deer tick, known as ''I. scapularis,'' is pushing its distribution to higher latitudes of the Northeastern United States and Canada, as well as pushing and maintaining populations in the South Central and Northern Midwest regions of the United States.<ref name="Esteve-Gassent 38–64">{{cite journal | vauthors = Esteve-Gassent MD, Castro-Arellano I, Feria-Arroyo TP, Patino R, Li AY, Medina RF, de León AA, Rodríguez-Vivas RI | display-authors = 6 | title = TRANSLATING ECOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY, AND POPULATION GENETICS RESEARCH TO MEET THE CHALLENGE OF TICK AND TICK-BORNE DISEASES IN NORTH AMERICA | journal = Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology | volume = 92 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–64 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 27062414 | pmc = 4844827 | doi = 10.1002/arch.21327 }}</ref> Climate models project further expansion of tick habit north into Canada as progressing Northwest from the Northeastern United States. Additionally, however, tick populations are expected to retreat from the Southeastern coast of the U.S., but this has not yet been observed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0E1CAAAQBAJ&q=luber+lemry+climate+health&pg=PR11|title=Global Climate Change and Human Health: From Science to Practice| vauthors = Luber G, Lemery J |date=2 November 2015|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-50557-1|language=en}}</ref> It's estimated that coinciding with this expansion, increased average temperatures may double tick populations by 2020 as well as bring an earlier start to the tick exposure season.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Monaghan AJ, Moore SM, Sampson KM, Beard CB, Eisen RJ | title = Climate change influences on the annual onset of Lyme disease in the United States | journal = Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases | volume = 6 | issue = 5 | pages = 615–622 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26025268 | pmc = 4631020 | doi = 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.05.005 | bibcode = 2015AGUFMGC13L..07M }}</ref><ref name="Esteve-Gassent 38–64"/>
 In the face of these expanding threats, strong collaboration between government officials and environmental scientists is necessary for advancing preventive and reactive response measures. Without acknowledging the climate changes that make environments more habitable for disease carriers, policy and infrastructure will lag behind vector borne disease spread.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.publicintegrity.org/2018/08/06/21999/disease-bearing-ticks-head-north-weak-government-response-threatens-public-health|title=As disease-bearing ticks head north, weak government response threatens public health|work=Center for Public Integrity|access-date=29 October 2018}}</ref>
@@ Line 97: / Line 96: @@
 {{Further|Leishmaniasis}}
-As in other [[vector-borne disease]]s, one of the reasons climate changes can affect the incidence of [[leishmaniasis]] is the susceptibility of the [[sandfly]] vectors to changes in temperature, rainfall and humidity; these conditions will alter their range of distribution and seasonality.<ref name=":13">{{cite web |date=March 2020 |title=Leishmaniasis |url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis |access-date=25 November 2020 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref> For example, modelling studies have predicted that climate change will increase suitable conditions for ''[[Phlebotomus]]'' vector species in Central Europe.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fischer D, Moeller P, Thomas SM, Naucke TJ, Beierkuhnlein C | title = Combining climatic projections and dispersal ability: a method for estimating the responses of sandfly vector species to climate change | journal = PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = e1407 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 22140590 | pmc = 3226457 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001407 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Koch LK, Kochmann J, Klimpel S, Cunze S | title = Modeling the climatic suitability of leishmaniasis vector species in Europe | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 13325 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 29042642 | pmc = 5645347 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-13822-1 | bibcode = 2017NatSR...713325K }}</ref> Another model that looked at the distribution of ''[[Lutzomyia longipalpis]]'', an important visceral leishmaniasis vector, suggested an increased range of this species in the Amazon Basin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peterson AT, Campbell LP, Moo-Llanes DA, Travi B, González C, Ferro MC, Ferreira GE, Brandão-Filho SP, Cupolillo E, Ramsey J, Leffer AM, Pech-May A, Shaw JJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Influences of climate change on the potential distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis sensu lato (Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) | journal = International Journal for Parasitology | volume = 47 | issue = 10–11 | pages = 667–674 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28668326 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.04.007 }}</ref> A different study model that factored data on climate, policy and [[Socioeconomics|socio-economic]] changes of land use, found that the effects were different for cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, emphasizing the importance of considering each disease and region separately.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Purse BV, Masante D, Golding N, Pigott D, Day JC, Ibañez-Bernal S, Kolb M, Jones L | display-authors = 6 | title = How will climate change pathways and mitigation options alter incidence of vector-borne diseases? A framework for leishmaniasis in South and Meso-America | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 12 | issue = 10 | pages = e0183583 | date = 2017 | pmid = 29020041 | pmc = 5636069 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0183583 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2017PLoSO..1283583P }}</ref>
+As in other [[vector-borne disease]]s, one of the reasons climate changes can affect the incidence of [[leishmaniasis]] is the susceptibility of the [[sandfly]] vectors to changes in temperature, rainfall and humidity; these conditions will alter their range of distribution and seasonality.<ref name="World Health Organization_2020">{{cite web |date=March 2020 |title=Leishmaniasis |url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis |access-date=25 November 2020 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref> For example, modelling studies have predicted that climate change will increase suitable conditions for ''[[Phlebotomus]]'' vector species in Central Europe.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fischer D, Moeller P, Thomas SM, Naucke TJ, Beierkuhnlein C | title = Combining climatic projections and dispersal ability: a method for estimating the responses of sandfly vector species to climate change | journal = PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = e1407 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 22140590 | pmc = 3226457 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001407 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Koch LK, Kochmann J, Klimpel S, Cunze S | title = Modeling the climatic suitability of leishmaniasis vector species in Europe | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 13325 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 29042642 | pmc = 5645347 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-13822-1 | bibcode = 2017NatSR...713325K }}</ref> Another model that looked at the distribution of ''[[Lutzomyia longipalpis]]'', an important visceral leishmaniasis vector, suggested an increased range of this species in the Amazon Basin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peterson AT, Campbell LP, Moo-Llanes DA, Travi B, González C, Ferro MC, Ferreira GE, Brandão-Filho SP, Cupolillo E, Ramsey J, Leffer AM, Pech-May A, Shaw JJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Influences of climate change on the potential distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis sensu lato (Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) | journal = International Journal for Parasitology | volume = 47 | issue = 10-11 | pages = 667–674 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28668326 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.04.007 }}</ref> A different study model that factored data on climate, policy and [[Socioeconomics|socio-economic]] changes of land use, found that the effects were different for cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, emphasizing the importance of considering each disease and region separately.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Purse BV, Masante D, Golding N, Pigott D, Day JC, Ibañez-Bernal S, Kolb M, Jones L | display-authors = 6 | title = How will climate change pathways and mitigation options alter incidence of vector-borne diseases? A framework for leishmaniasis in South and Meso-America | journal = PloS One | volume = 12 | issue = 10 | pages = e0183583 | date = 2017 | pmid = 29020041 | pmc = 5636069 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0183583 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2017PLoSO..1283583P }}</ref>
 Parasite development inside the sandfly can also be affected by temperature changes. For instance, ''Leishmania peruviana'' infections were lost during sandfly defecation when the infected vector was kept at higher temperatures, whereas in the same experiment ''[[Leishmania infantum]]'' and ''[[Leishmania braziliensis]]'' temperature seemed to make no difference.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hlavacova J, Votypka J, Volf P | title = The effect of temperature on Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) development in sand flies | journal = Journal of Medical Entomology | volume = 50 | issue = 5 | pages = 955–958 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24180098 | doi = 10.1603/ME13053 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
-Leishmaniasis is a [[Neglected tropical diseases|neglected tropical disease]], caused by parasites of the genus ''[[Leishmania]]'' and transmitted by sandflies; it is distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, wherever the sand fly vector and reservoir hosts are present.<ref name=":12">{{cite web |title=Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases – Leishmaniasis |url=https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/CSR_ISR_2000_1leish/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718084120/http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/CSR_ISR_2000_1leish/en/ |archive-date=18 July 2004 |access-date=25 November 2020 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref> The WHO estimates 12 million people around the world are living with leishmaniasis.<ref name=":12" /> [[Risk factor]]s for the spread of this this disease include poverty, urbanization, [[deforestation]], and climate change.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=González C, Wang O, Strutz SE, González-Salazar C, Sánchez-Cordero V, Sarkar S |date=January 2010 |title=Climate change and risk of leishmaniasis in north america: predictions from ecological niche models of vector and reservoir species |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=e585 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000585 |pmc=2799657 |pmid=20098495 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+Leishmaniasis is a [[Neglected tropical diseases|neglected tropical disease]], caused by parasites of the genus ''[[Leishmania]]'' and transmitted by sandflies; it is distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, wherever the sand fly vector and reservoir hosts are present.<ref name="World Health Organization">{{cite web |title=Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases – Leishmaniasis |url=https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/CSR_ISR_2000_1leish/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718084120/http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/CSR_ISR_2000_1leish/en/ |archive-date=18 July 2004 |access-date=25 November 2020 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref> The WHO estimates 12 million people around the world are living with leishmaniasis.<ref name="World Health Organization" /> [[Risk factor]]s for the spread of this this disease include poverty, urbanization, [[deforestation]], and climate change.<ref name="World Health Organization_2020" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = González C, Wang O, Strutz SE, González-Salazar C, Sánchez-Cordero V, Sarkar S | title = Climate change and risk of leishmaniasis in north america: predictions from ecological niche models of vector and reservoir species | journal = PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = e585 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20098495 | pmc = 2799657 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000585 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
 === Ebola ===
-The [[Ebola virus]] has been infecting people from time to time, leading to outbreaks in several African countries. The average case fatality rate of the Ebola virus is approximately 40% and there have been more than 28,600 cases with 11,310 deaths.<ref name=":04">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2020 |title=Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/index.html |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> Many researchers are linking deforestation to the disease, observing that change in the landscape increases wildlife contact with humans.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=15 October 2019 |title=Climate crisis raises risk of more Ebola outbreaks |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/15/health/climate-crisis-ebola-risks/index.html |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=CNN |vauthors=Christensen J}}</ref>
+The [[Ebola virus]] has been infecting people from time to time, leading to outbreaks in several African countries. The average case fatality rate of the Ebola virus is approximately 40% and there have been more than 28,600 cases with 11,310 deaths.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2020 |title=Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/index.html |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> Many researchers are linking deforestation to the disease, observing that change in the landscape increases wildlife contact with humans.<ref name="Christensen_2019">{{Cite web |date=15 October 2019 |title=Climate crisis raises risk of more Ebola outbreaks |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/15/health/climate-crisis-ebola-risks/index.html |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=CNN |vauthors=Christensen J}}</ref>
-Recent studies are holding climate change indirectly liable for the uptick in Ebola: Seasonal droughts alongside strong winds, thunderstorms, heat waves, floods, landslides, and a change in rainfall patterns also impact wildlife migration. These conditions pull them away from their natural environment and closer to human proximity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2014 |title=Ebola and Climate Change: How Are They Connected? |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/ebola-and-climate-change-how-are-they-connected-1881942860.html |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=EcoWatch |language=en}}</ref> One example of an Ebola outbreak caused by climate change or a shift in nature was seen during the drought of Central Africa. This ultimately amplified food insecurity leading West African communities to eat animals such as bats who were infected with the virus.<ref name=":14" />
+Recent studies are holding climate change indirectly liable for the uptick in Ebola: Seasonal droughts alongside strong winds, thunderstorms, heat waves, floods, landslides, and a change in rainfall patterns also impact wildlife migration. These conditions pull them away from their natural environment and closer to human proximity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2014 |title=Ebola and Climate Change: How Are They Connected? |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/ebola-and-climate-change-how-are-they-connected-1881942860.html |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=EcoWatch |language=en}}</ref> One example of an Ebola outbreak caused by climate change or a shift in nature was seen during the drought of Central Africa. This ultimately amplified food insecurity leading West African communities to eat animals such as bats who were infected with the virus.<ref name="Christensen_2019" />
 === Zika fever ===
 {{Further|Zika virus|Zika fever}}
-[[Zika virus]], a vector-borne virus was historically presented in cluster outbreaks in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |vauthors=Plourde AR, Bloch EM |date=July 2016 |title=A Literature Review of Zika Virus |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=1185–1192 |doi=10.3201/eid2207.151990 |pmc=4918175 |pmid=27070380}}</ref> [[Zika fever]] epidemics have affected larger populations including Micronesia and South Pacific Islands in 2007, and the Americas in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Zhang Q, Sun K, Chinazzi M, Pastore Y, Piontti A, Dean NE, Rojas DP, Merler S, Mistry D, Poletti P, Rossi L, Bray M, Halloran ME, Longini IM, Vespignani A |date=May 2017 |title=Spread of Zika virus in the Americas |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=114 |issue=22 |pages=E4334–E4343 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1620161114 |pmc=5465916 |pmid=28442561|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E4334Z |doi-access=free }}</ref> Brazil has experienced one of the largest outbreaks of Zika virus with approximately 1.5&nbsp;million cases reported in 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Moghadam SR, Bayrami S, Moghadam SJ, Golrokhi R, Pahlaviani FG, SeyedAlinaghi S |date=1 December 2016 |title=Zika virus: A review of literature |journal=Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine |language=en |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=989–994 |doi=10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.09.007 |s2cid=79313409 |issn=2221-1691|doi-access=free }}</ref> Pregnant women infected with Zika virus are at a higher risk of giving birth to children with congenital malformations, including microcephaly.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zika virus |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref>
+[[Zika virus]], a vector-borne virus was historically presented in cluster outbreaks in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Plourde AR, Bloch EM | title = A Literature Review of Zika Virus | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 22 | issue = 7 | pages = 1185–1192 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27070380 | pmc = 4918175 | doi = 10.3201/eid2207.151990 }}</ref> [[Zika fever]] epidemics have affected larger populations including Micronesia and South Pacific Islands in 2007, and the Americas in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang Q, Sun K, Chinazzi M, Pastore Y, Piontti A, Dean NE, Rojas DP, Merler S, Mistry D, Poletti P, Rossi L, Bray M, Halloran ME, Longini IM, Vespignani A | display-authors = 6 | title = Spread of Zika virus in the Americas | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 114 | issue = 22 | pages = E4334-E4343 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28442561 | pmc = 5465916 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1620161114 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2017PNAS..114E4334Z }}</ref> Brazil has experienced one of the largest outbreaks of Zika virus with approximately 1.5&nbsp;million cases reported in 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Moghadam SR, Bayrami S, Moghadam SJ, Golrokhi R, Pahlaviani FG, SeyedAlinaghi S |date=1 December 2016 |title=Zika virus: A review of literature |journal=Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine |language=en |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=989–994 |doi=10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.09.007 |s2cid=79313409 |issn=2221-1691|doi-access=free }}</ref> Pregnant women infected with Zika virus are at a higher risk of giving birth to children with congenital malformations, including microcephaly.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zika virus |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref>
-In the context of climate change and temperature rise, it is predicted that Zika virus will affect more than 1.3&nbsp;billion people by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2021 |title=Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050 |url=https://www.ceid.uga.edu/2021/03/11/warming-temperatures-could-expose-more-than-1-3-billion-new-people-to-zika-virus-risk-by-2050/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=CEID |language=en-US}}</ref> This is largely due to the expansion of environments conducive to vector growth and life cycles, such as those with temperatures ranging from 23.9&nbsp;°C to 34&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2021 |title=Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050 |url=https://www.ceid.uga.edu/2021/03/11/warming-temperatures-could-expose-more-than-1-3-billion-new-people-to-zika-virus-risk-by-2050/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=CEID |language=en-US}}</ref> Mosquito behaviors are also affected by the change in temperature including increased breeding and biting rates.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Epstein PR |date=October 2005 |title=Climate change and human health |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=353 |issue=14 |pages=1433–1436 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp058079 |pmid=16207843|doi-access=free }}</ref> Furthermore, extreme climate patterns, including drought, floods and heatwaves are known to exacerbate the proliferation of mosquito breeding ground and as a result, escalate the rate of virus-borne diseases.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explainer: How climate change is amplifying mosquito-borne diseases |url=https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/en/news-stories/stories/explainer-how-climate-change-amplifying-mosquito-borne-diseases |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=World Mosquito Program |language=en}}</ref>
+In the context of climate change and temperature rise, it is predicted that Zika virus will affect more than 1.3&nbsp;billion people by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2021 |title=Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050 |url=https://www.ceid.uga.edu/2021/03/11/warming-temperatures-could-expose-more-than-1-3-billion-new-people-to-zika-virus-risk-by-2050/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=CEID |language=en-US}}</ref> This is largely due to the expansion of environments conducive to vector growth and life cycles, such as those with temperatures ranging from 23.9&nbsp;°C to 34&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2021 |title=Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050 |url=https://www.ceid.uga.edu/2021/03/11/warming-temperatures-could-expose-more-than-1-3-billion-new-people-to-zika-virus-risk-by-2050/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=CEID |language=en-US}}</ref> Mosquito behaviors are also affected by the change in temperature including increased breeding and biting rates.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Epstein PR | title = Climate change and human health | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 353 | issue = 14 | pages = 1433–1436 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16207843 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMp058079 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Furthermore, extreme climate patterns, including drought, floods and heatwaves are known to exacerbate the proliferation of mosquito breeding ground and as a result, escalate the rate of virus-borne diseases.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explainer: How climate change is amplifying mosquito-borne diseases |url=https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/en/news-stories/stories/explainer-how-climate-change-amplifying-mosquito-borne-diseases |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=World Mosquito Program |language=en}}</ref>
 === COVID-19 ===
@@ Line 120: / Line 119: @@
 There is no direct evidence that the spread of [[COVID-19]] is worsened or is caused by climate change, although investigations continue. {{As of|2020||}}, the [[World Health Organization]] summarized the current knowledge about the issue as follows: "There is no evidence of a direct connection between climate change and the emergence or transmission of COVID-19 disease. [...] However, climate change may indirectly affect the COVID-19 response, as it undermines environmental determinants of health, and places additional stress on health systems."<ref>{{cite web |title=Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Climate change |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/coronavirus-disease-covid-19-climate-change#:~:text=Will%20climate%20change%20make%20COVID,reducing%20transmission%20and%20treating%20patients. |access-date=24 November 2020 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref>
-A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 by bats.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal |vauthors=Beyer RM, Manica A, Mora C |date=May 2021 |title=Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |volume=767 |pages=145413 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.767n5413B |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145413 |pmc=7837611 |pmid=33558040 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The authors found that climate-driven changes in the distribution and richness of bat species increased the likelihood of bat-borne coronaviruses in the Yunnan province, Myanmar, and Laos.<ref name=":10" /> This region was also the habitat of Sunda pangolins and masked palm civits which were suspected as intermediate hosts of COVID-19 between bats and humans.<ref name=":10" /> The authors suggest, therefore, that climate change possibly contributed to some extent to the emergence of the pandemic.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Climate Change Could Have Played A Role In The Covid-19 Outbreak |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2021/02/08/climate-change-could-have-played-a-role-in-the-covid-19-outbreak/ |access-date=9 February 2021 |website=Forbes |vauthors=Bressan D}}</ref>
+A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 by bats.<ref name="Beyer_2021">{{cite journal | vauthors = Beyer RM, Manica A, Mora C | title = Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 767 | pages = 145413 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33558040 | pmc = 7837611 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145413 | bibcode = 2021ScTEn.767n5413B | doi-access = free }}</ref> The authors found that climate-driven changes in the distribution and richness of bat species increased the likelihood of bat-borne coronaviruses in the Yunnan province, Myanmar, and Laos.<ref name="Beyer_2021" /> This region was also the habitat of Sunda pangolins and masked palm civits which were suspected as intermediate hosts of COVID-19 between bats and humans.<ref name="Beyer_2021" /> The authors suggest, therefore, that climate change possibly contributed to some extent to the emergence of the pandemic.<ref name="Beyer_2021" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Climate Change Could Have Played A Role In The Covid-19 Outbreak |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2021/02/08/climate-change-could-have-played-a-role-in-the-covid-19-outbreak/ |access-date=9 February 2021 |website=Forbes |vauthors=Bressan D}}</ref>
-Climate changed might induce changes to bat habitats which may have driven them closer to populated areas.<ref name=":11">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gudipati S, Zervos M, Herc E |date=September 2020 |title=Can the One Health Approach Save Us from the Emergence and Reemergence of Infectious Pathogens in the Era of Climate Change: Implications for Antimicrobial Resistance? |journal=Antibiotics |volume=9 |issue=9 |page=599 |doi=10.3390/antibiotics9090599 |pmc=7557833 |pmid=32937739 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Increased aridity and drought periods are predicted to push bats out of their endemic areas and into populated areas.<ref name=":11" /> This creates a knock-on effect of increasing their interactions with humans and hence the likelihood of zoonotic disease transfer.<ref name=":11" />
+Climate changed might induce changes to bat habitats which may have driven them closer to populated areas.<ref name="Gudipati_2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gudipati S, Zervos M, Herc E | title = Can the One Health Approach Save Us from the Emergence and Reemergence of Infectious Pathogens in the Era of Climate Change: Implications for Antimicrobial Resistance? | journal = Antibiotics | volume = 9 | issue = 9 | page = 599 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32937739 | pmc = 7557833 | doi = 10.3390/antibiotics9090599 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Increased aridity and drought periods are predicted to push bats out of their endemic areas and into populated areas.<ref name="Gudipati_2020" /> This creates a knock-on effect of increasing their interactions with humans and hence the likelihood of zoonotic disease transfer.<ref name="Gudipati_2020" />
 === Vibrio infections ===
 {{See also|Vibrio}}
-[[Vibrio]] illnesses are a [[Waterborne diseases|waterborne disease]] and are increasing worldwide. In the United States it has increased by an estimated 41% between 1996 and 2005. Vibrio infections are recently being reported where historically it did not occur. The warming climate seems to be playing a substantial role in the increase in cases and area of occurrence.<ref name="(Walker, 2018)2">{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=J. T. |date=2018 |title=The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30156484 |journal=Perspectives in Public Health |volume=138 |issue=5 |pages=282–286 |doi=10.1177/1757913918791198 |issn=1757-9147 |pmid=30156484 |s2cid=52115812 |via=}}</ref>
+[[Vibrio]] illnesses are a [[Waterborne diseases|waterborne disease]] and are increasing worldwide. In the United States it has increased by an estimated 41% between 1996 and 2005. Vibrio infections are recently being reported where historically it did not occur. The warming climate seems to be playing a substantial role in the increase in cases and area of occurrence.<ref name="(Walker, 2018)2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Walker JT | title = The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review | journal = Perspectives in Public Health | volume = 138 | issue = 5 | pages = 282–286 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30156484 | doi = 10.1177/1757913918791198 | s2cid = 52115812 }}</ref>
 [[Vibrio]] infections are caused by consuming raw or undercooked seafood, or by exposing an open wound to contaminated sea water. Vibrio infections are most likely to occur during the warm season, May through October.<ref name="CDC2">{{Cite web |date=2019-03-08 |title=Vibrio Species Causing Vibriosis {{!}} Vibrio Illness (Vibriosis) {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vibrio/index.html |access-date=2021-01-17 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref>
 === Fungal infections ===
-[[Fungal infection|Fungal infections]] will also see an increase due to the warming of certain climates.<ref name=":33" /> For example, the fungus [[Cryptococcus gattii]] has been found in Canada but is normally found in warmer climates such as in [[Australia (continent)|Australia]]. There are now two [[Strain (biology)|strains]] of this fungus in the northwestern part of North America, affecting many terrestrial animals. The spread of this fungus is hypothesized to be linked to climate change.<ref name=":42" />
+[[Fungal infection|Fungal infections]] will also see an increase due to the warming of certain climates.<ref name="Ostfeld_2009" /> For example, the fungus [[Cryptococcus gattii]] has been found in Canada but is normally found in warmer climates such as in [[Australia (continent)|Australia]]. There are now two [[Strain (biology)|strains]] of this fungus in the northwestern part of North America, affecting many terrestrial animals. The spread of this fungus is hypothesized to be linked to climate change.<ref name="Cooney_2011" />
 === Emergence of new infectious diseases ===
 There is concern about the emergence of new diseases from the [[Fungal infection|fungal]] kingdom. Mammals have ''endothermy'' and ''homeothermy'', which allows them to maintain elevated body temperature through life; but it can be defeated if the fungi were to adapt to higher temperatures and survive in the body.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casadevall A | title = Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 130 | issue = 2 | pages = 553–555 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 31904588 | pmc = 6994111 | doi = 10.1172/JCI135003 }}</ref> Fungi that are pathogenic for insects can be experimentally adapted to replicate at mammalian temperatures through cycles of progressive warming. This demonstrates that fungi are able to adapt rapidly to higher temperatures. The emergence of ''[[Candida auris]]'' on three continents is proposed to be as a result of global warming and has raised the danger that increased warmth by itself will trigger adaptations on certain microbes to make them pathogenic for humans.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, Farooqi J, Chowdhary A, Govender NP, Colombo AL, Calvo B, Cuomo CA, Desjardins CA, Berkow EL, Castanheira M, Magobo RE, Jabeen K, Asghar RJ, Meis JF, Jackson B, Chiller T, Litvintseva AP | display-authors = 6 | title = Simultaneous Emergence of Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris on 3 Continents Confirmed by Whole-Genome Sequencing and Epidemiological Analyses | journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume = 64 | issue = 2 | pages = 134–140 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 27988485 | pmc = 5215215 | doi = 10.1093/cid/ciw691 }}</ref>
-It is projected that [[Cross-species transmission|interspecies viral sharing]], that can lead to [[Spillover infection#Spillover zoonoses|novel viral spillovers]], will increase due to ongoing climate change-caused geographic range-shifts of mammals (most importantly [[Bat|bats]]). [[Pandemic prevention|Risk hotspots would mainly be located at]] "high elevations, in biodiversity hotspots, and in areas of high human population density in Asia and Africa".<ref name=":16">{{cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Colin J. |last2=Albery |first2=Gregory F. |last3=Merow |first3=Cory |last4=Trisos |first4=Christopher H. |last5=Zipfel |first5=Casey M. |last6=Eskew |first6=Evan A. |last7=Olival |first7=Kevin J. |last8=Ross |first8=Noam |last9=Bansal |first9=Shweta |date=28 April 2022 |title=Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk |journal=Nature |volume=607 |issue=7919 |pages=555–562 |bibcode=2022Natur.607..555C |biorxiv=10.1101/2020.01.24.918755 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04788-w |pmid=35483403 |s2cid=248430532 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+It is projected that [[Cross-species transmission|interspecies viral sharing]], that can lead to [[Spillover infection#Spillover zoonoses|novel viral spillovers]], will increase due to ongoing climate change-caused geographic range-shifts of mammals (most importantly [[Bat|bats]]). [[Pandemic prevention|Risk hotspots would mainly be located at]] "high elevations, in biodiversity hotspots, and in areas of high human population density in Asia and Africa".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Carlson CJ, Albery GF, Merow C, Trisos CH, Zipfel CM, Eskew EA, Olival KJ, Ross N, Bansal S | display-authors = 6 | title = Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk | journal = Nature | volume = 607 | issue = 7919 | pages = 555–562 | date = July 2022 | pmid = 35483403 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-022-04788-w | bibcode = 2022Natur.607..555C | s2cid = 248430532 | doi-access = free | biorxiv = 10.1101/2020.01.24.918755 }}</ref>
-Climate change may also lead to new infectious diseases due to changes in microbial and vector geographic range. Microbes that are harmful to humans can adapt to higher temperatures, which will allow them to build better tolerance against human endothermy defences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Casadevall |first=Arturo |date=2020-02-03 |title=Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |volume=130 |issue=2 |pages=553–555 |doi=10.1172/JCI135003 |pmc=6994111 |pmid=31904588}}</ref>
+Climate change may also lead to new infectious diseases due to changes in microbial and vector geographic range. Microbes that are harmful to humans can adapt to higher temperatures, which will allow them to build better tolerance against human endothermy defences.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casadevall A | title = Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 130 | issue = 2 | pages = 553–555 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 31904588 | pmc = 6994111 | doi = 10.1172/JCI135003 }}</ref>
 == Infectious diseases in wild animals ==
 {{Further|Effects of climate change on ecosystems}}
-Climate change and increasing temperatures will also impact the health of wildlife animals as well. Specifically, climate change will impact wildlife disease, specifically affecting "geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases, plant and animal phenology, wildlife host-pathogen interactions, and disease patterns in wildlife".<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last1=Hofmeister |first1=Erik K. |last2=Moede Rogall |first2=Gail |last3=Wesenberg |first3=Katherine |last4=Abbott |first4=Rachel C. |last5=Work |first5=Thierry M. |last6=Schuler |first6=Krysten |last7=Sleeman |first7=Jonathan M. |last8=Winton |first8=James |date=2010 |title=Climate change and wildlife health: direct and indirect effects |journal=Fact Sheet |page=4 |doi=10.3133/fs20103017 |issn=2327-6932 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+Climate change and increasing temperatures will also impact the health of wildlife animals as well. Specifically, climate change will impact wildlife disease, specifically affecting "geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases, plant and animal phenology, wildlife host-pathogen interactions, and disease patterns in wildlife".<ref name="Hofmeister_2010">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Hofmeister EK, Rogall GM, Wesenberg K, Abbott RC, Work TM, Schuler K, Sleeman JM, Winton J |date=2010 |title=Climate change and wildlife health: direct and indirect effects |journal=Fact Sheet |page=4 |doi=10.3133/fs20103017 |issn=2327-6932 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
 The health of wild animals, particularly birds, is assumed to be a better indicator of early climate change effects because very little or no control measures are undertaken to protect them.<ref name="Caminade219" />
 === Geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases ===
-Northern geographic shifts of disease vectors and parasitic disease in the Northern Hemisphere have likely been due to global warming. The geographic range of a lung parasite that impacts ungulates like caribou and mountain goats, ''Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei'', has been shifting northward since 1995, and a tick vector for Lyme disease and other tick-borne zoonotic diseases known as ''[[Ixodes scapularis]]'' has been expanding its presence northward as well. It is also predicted that climate warming will also lead to changes in disease distribution at certain altitudes. At high elevation in the Hawaiian Islands, for example, it is expected that climate warming will allow for year-round transmission of [[avian malaria]]. This increased opportunity for transmission will likely be devastating to endangered native Hawaiian birds at those altitudes that have little or no resistance to the disease.<ref name=":23" />
+Northern geographic shifts of disease vectors and parasitic disease in the Northern Hemisphere have likely been due to global warming. The geographic range of a lung parasite that impacts ungulates like caribou and mountain goats, ''Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei'', has been shifting northward since 1995, and a tick vector for Lyme disease and other tick-borne zoonotic diseases known as ''[[Ixodes scapularis]]'' has been expanding its presence northward as well. It is also predicted that climate warming will also lead to changes in disease distribution at certain altitudes. At high elevation in the Hawaiian Islands, for example, it is expected that climate warming will allow for year-round transmission of [[avian malaria]]. This increased opportunity for transmission will likely be devastating to endangered native Hawaiian birds at those altitudes that have little or no resistance to the disease.<ref name="Hofmeister_2010" />
 === Phenology and wildlife diseases ===
-[[Phenology]] is the study of seasonal cycles, and with climate change the seasonal biologic cycles of many animals have already been affected. For example, the transmission of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is higher to humans when early spring temperatures are warmer. The warmer temperatures result in an overlap in feeding activity of ticks who are infected with the virus (nymphal) with ticks who aren't (larval). This overlapped feeding leads to more of the uninfected larval ticks acquiring the infection and therefore increases the risk of humans being infected with TBE. On the other hand, cooler spring temperatures would result in less overlapped feeding activity, and would therefore decrease the risk of zoonotic transmission of TBE.<ref name=":23" />
+[[Phenology]] is the study of seasonal cycles, and with climate change the seasonal biologic cycles of many animals have already been affected. For example, the transmission of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is higher to humans when early spring temperatures are warmer. The warmer temperatures result in an overlap in feeding activity of ticks who are infected with the virus (nymphal) with ticks who aren't (larval). This overlapped feeding leads to more of the uninfected larval ticks acquiring the infection and therefore increases the risk of humans being infected with TBE. On the other hand, cooler spring temperatures would result in less overlapped feeding activity, and would therefore decrease the risk of zoonotic transmission of TBE.<ref name="Hofmeister_2010" />
 === Wildlife host-to-pathogen interaction ===
-The transmission of pathogens can be achieved through either direct contact from a diseased animal to another, or indirectly through a host like infected prey or a vector. Higher temperatures as a result of climate change results in an increased presence of disease producing agents in hosts and vectors, and also increases the "survival of animals that harbor disease".<ref name=":23" /> Survival of ''[[Parelaphostrongylus tenuis]]'', a brain worm of white-tailed deer that affects moose, could be increased due to the higher temperatures and milder winters that are caused by climate change. In moose, this brain causes neurological disease and eventually ends up being fatal. Moose are already facing heat stress due to climate change, and may have increased susceptibility to parasitic and infectious diseases like the brain worm.<ref name=":23" />
+The transmission of pathogens can be achieved through either direct contact from a diseased animal to another, or indirectly through a host like infected prey or a vector. Higher temperatures as a result of climate change results in an increased presence of disease producing agents in hosts and vectors, and also increases the "survival of animals that harbor disease".<ref name="Hofmeister_2010" /> Survival of ''[[Parelaphostrongylus tenuis]]'', a brain worm of white-tailed deer that affects moose, could be increased due to the higher temperatures and milder winters that are caused by climate change. In moose, this brain causes neurological disease and eventually ends up being fatal. Moose are already facing heat stress due to climate change, and may have increased susceptibility to parasitic and infectious diseases like the brain worm.<ref name="Hofmeister_2010" />
 === Wildlife disease patterns ===
-Predicting the impact climate change might have on disease patterns in different geographic regions can be difficult, because its effects likely have high variability. This has been more evident in marine ecosystems than terrestrial environments, where massive decline in coral reefs has been observed due to disease spread.<ref name=":23" />
+Predicting the impact climate change might have on disease patterns in different geographic regions can be difficult, because its effects likely have high variability. This has been more evident in marine ecosystems than terrestrial environments, where massive decline in coral reefs has been observed due to disease spread.<ref name="Hofmeister_2010" />
 ==Infectious diseases in domestic animals and livestock==
 Vector-borne diseases seriously affect the health of domestic animals and [[livestock]] (e.g., [[trypanosomiasis]], [[Rift Valley fever|Rift Valley Fever]], and [[Bluetongue disease|bluetongue]]). Therefore, climate change will also indirectly affect the health of humans through its multifaceted impacts on food security, including livestock and plant crops.<ref name="Caminade219" />
-Mosquitoes also carry diseases like [[Dirofilaria immitis]] which affect dogs (dog heartworm). Therefore, [[tropical diseases]] will probably migrate and become [[endemic]] in many other ecosystems due to an increase in mosquito range.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lacetera |first1=Nicola |date=3 January 2019 |title=Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare |journal=Animal Frontiers |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=26–31 |doi=10.1093/af/vfy030 |issn=2160-6056 |pmc=6951873 |pmid=32002236 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on livestock#Pathogens and parasites}}
+Mosquitoes also carry diseases like [[Dirofilaria immitis]] which affect dogs (dog heartworm). Therefore, [[tropical diseases]] will probably migrate and become [[endemic]] in many other ecosystems due to an increase in mosquito range.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lacetera N | title = Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare | journal = Animal Frontiers | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 26–31 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 32002236 | pmc = 6951873 | doi = 10.1093/af/vfy030 | doi-access = free }}</ref>{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on livestock#Pathogens and parasites}}
 == Responses ==
-The policy implications of climate change and infectious diseases fall into two categories:<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Watts N, Adger WN, Agnolucci P, Blackstock J, Byass P, Cai W, Chaytor S, Colbourn T, Collins M, Cooper A, Cox PM, Depledge J, Drummond P, Ekins P, Galaz V, Grace D, Graham H, Grubb M, Haines A, Hamilton I, Hunter A, Jiang X, Li M, Kelman I, Liang L, Lott M, Lowe R, Luo Y, Mace G, Maslin M, Nilsson M, Oreszczyn T, Pye S, Quinn T, Svensdotter M, Venevsky S, Warner K, Xu B, Yang J, Yin Y, Yu C, Zhang Q, Gong P, Montgomery H, Costello A |date=November 2015 |title=Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health |journal=Lancet |volume=386 |issue=10006 |pages=1861–1914 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6 |pmid=26111439 |s2cid=205979317 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/17695}}</ref>
+The policy implications of climate change and infectious diseases fall into two categories:<ref name="Watts_2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Watts N, Adger WN, Agnolucci P, Blackstock J, Byass P, Cai W, Chaytor S, Colbourn T, Collins M, Cooper A, Cox PM, Depledge J, Drummond P, Ekins P, Galaz V, Grace D, Graham H, Grubb M, Haines A, Hamilton I, Hunter A, Jiang X, Li M, Kelman I, Liang L, Lott M, Lowe R, Luo Y, Mace G, Maslin M, Nilsson M, Oreszczyn T, Pye S, Quinn T, Svensdotter M, Venevsky S, Warner K, Xu B, Yang J, Yin Y, Yu C, Zhang Q, Gong P, Montgomery H, Costello A | display-authors = 6 | title = Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health | journal = Lancet | volume = 386 | issue = 10006 | pages = 1861–1914 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26111439 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 205979317 | hdl = 10871/17695 }}</ref>
 # Enacting policy that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus slowing down climate change, and
 # Mitigating problems that have already arisen, and will inevitably continue to develop, due to climate change.
-Addressing both of these areas is of importance, as those in the poorest countries face the greatest burden. Additionally, when countries are forced to contend with a disease like malaria (for example), their prospects for economic growth are slowed. This contributes to continued and worsening global inequality.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |vauthors=Campbell-Lendrum D, Manga L, Bagayoko M, Sommerfeld J |date=April 2015 |title=Climate change and vector-borne diseases: what are the implications for public health research and policy? |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=370 |issue=1665 |pages=20130552 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0552 |pmc=4342958 |pmid=25688013}}</ref>
+Addressing both of these areas is of importance, as those in the poorest countries face the greatest burden. Additionally, when countries are forced to contend with a disease like malaria (for example), their prospects for economic growth are slowed. This contributes to continued and worsening global inequality.<ref name="Campbell-Lendrum_2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Campbell-Lendrum D, Manga L, Bagayoko M, Sommerfeld J | title = Climate change and vector-borne diseases: what are the implications for public health research and policy? | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 370 | issue = 1665 | pages = 20130552 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25688013 | pmc = 4342958 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2013.0552 }}</ref>
-Policies are required that will significantly increase investments in public health in developing countries. This achieves two goals, the first being better outcomes related to diseases like malaria in the affected area, and the second being an overall better health environment for populations.<ref name=":7" /> It is also important to focus on "[[One Health|one-health]] approaches."<ref name=":7" /> This means collaborating on an interdisciplinary level, across various geographic areas, to come up with workable solutions. As is the case when responding to the effects of climate change, vulnerable populations including children and the elderly will need to be prioritized by any intervention.
+Policies are required that will significantly increase investments in public health in developing countries. This achieves two goals, the first being better outcomes related to diseases like malaria in the affected area, and the second being an overall better health environment for populations.<ref name="Watts_2015" /> It is also important to focus on "[[One Health|one-health]] approaches."<ref name="Watts_2015" /> This means collaborating on an interdisciplinary level, across various geographic areas, to come up with workable solutions. As is the case when responding to the effects of climate change, vulnerable populations including children and the elderly will need to be prioritized by any intervention.
 The United Nations Environment Programme states that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from [[Zoonosis|zoonotic diseases]] is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and bio-diverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases."<ref>{{cite web |date=22 May 2020 |title=Science points to causes of COVID-19 |url=https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/science-points-causes-covid-19 |access-date=2 June 2020 |website=United Nations Environmental Programm |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>
@@ Line 177: / Line 176: @@
 Significant progress has been achieved in terms of surveillance systems, disease and vector control measures, vaccine development, diagnostic tests, and mathematical risk modeling/mapping in recent decades.<ref name="Caminade219" />
-A tool that has been used to predict this distribution trend is the Dynamic Mosquito Simulation Process (DyMSiM). DyMSiM uses [[Epidemiology|epidemiological]] and [[Entomology|entomological]] data and practices to model future mosquito distributions based upon climate conditions and mosquitos living in the area.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Butterworth MK, Morin CW, Comrie AC |date=April 2017 |title=An Analysis of the Potential Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in the Southeastern United States |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=125 |issue=4 |pages=579–585 |doi=10.1289/EHP218 |pmc=5381975 |pmid=27713106}}</ref> This modeling technique helps identify the distribution of specific species of mosquito, some of which are more susceptible to viral infection than others.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
+A tool that has been used to predict this distribution trend is the Dynamic Mosquito Simulation Process (DyMSiM). DyMSiM uses [[Epidemiology|epidemiological]] and [[Entomology|entomological]] data and practices to model future mosquito distributions based upon climate conditions and mosquitos living in the area.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Butterworth MK, Morin CW, Comrie AC | title = An Analysis of the Potential Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in the Southeastern United States | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 125 | issue = 4 | pages = 579–585 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27713106 | pmc = 5381975 | doi = 10.1289/EHP218 }}</ref> This modeling technique helps identify the distribution of specific species of mosquito, some of which are more susceptible to viral infection than others.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
-Scientists are carrying out attribution studies, to find the degree to which climate change affects the spread of infectious diseases. There is also a need for scenario modeling which can help further our understanding of future climate change consequences on infectious disease rates.<ref name=":8" /> Surveillance and monitoring of infectious diseases and their vectors is important to better understand these diseases.<ref name=":7" /> Governments should accurately model changes in vector populations as well as the burden of disease, educate the public on ways to mitigate infection, and prepare health systems for the increasing disease load.
+Scientists are carrying out attribution studies, to find the degree to which climate change affects the spread of infectious diseases. There is also a need for scenario modeling which can help further our understanding of future climate change consequences on infectious disease rates.<ref name="Campbell-Lendrum_2015" /> Surveillance and monitoring of infectious diseases and their vectors is important to better understand these diseases.<ref name="Watts_2015" /> Governments should accurately model changes in vector populations as well as the burden of disease, educate the public on ways to mitigate infection, and prepare health systems for the increasing disease load.
 == See also ==