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Added summary from five refereed journal articles on amaranth nutritional content. Included citations for verifiability. Added see also section for convenience of wiki readers.
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==Uses==
==Uses==
=== Amaranth seed ===
=== Amaranth seed ===
Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]]. This should more correctly be termed "[[pseudograin]]" (see below). Amaranth grain contains no gluten and is safe to consume for individuals with [[coeliac disease]].<ref>{{cite journal | title = Recent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products | journal = Trends in Food Science & Technology | first = E. | last = Gallagher | coauthors = T. R. Gormley, E. K. Arendt | volume = 15 | issue = 3-4 | pages = 143–152| id = {{doi | 10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012}} | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224403002590 | accessdate = 2011-06-26}}</ref>
Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]]. This should more correctly be termed "[[pseudograin]]" (see below). [[Amaranth grain]] contains no gluten and is safe to consume for individuals with [[coeliac disease]].<ref>{{cite journal | title = Recent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products | journal = Trends in Food Science & Technology | first = E. | last = Gallagher | coauthors = T. R. Gormley, E. K. Arendt | volume = 15 | issue = 3-4 | pages = 143–152| id = {{doi | 10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012}} | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224403002590 | accessdate = 2011-06-26}}</ref>


Ancient amaranth grains still used to this day include the three species, ''[[Amaranthus caudatus]]'', ''[[Amaranthus cruentus]]'', and ''[[Amaranthus hypochondriacus]]''.<ref>Costea et al. (2006). Delimitation of Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 53: 1625-1633.</ref> Although amaranth was (and still is) cultivated on a small scale in parts of Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, India, and Nepal, there is potential for further cultivation in the U.S and tropical countries. In a 1977 article in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', amaranth was described as "the crop of the future."<ref>Marx (1977). Speaking of Science: Amaranth: A Comeback for the Food of the Aztecs? Science 198(4312): 40.</ref> It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:
Ancient amaranth grains still used to this day include the three species, ''[[Amaranthus caudatus]]'', ''[[Amaranthus cruentus]]'', and ''[[Amaranthus hypochondriacus]]''.<ref>Costea et al. (2006). Delimitation of Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 53: 1625-1633.</ref> Although amaranth was (and still is) cultivated on a small scale in parts of Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, India, and Nepal, there is potential for further cultivation in the U.S and tropical countries. In a 1977 article in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', amaranth was described as "the crop of the future."<ref>Marx (1977). Speaking of Science: Amaranth: A Comeback for the Food of the Aztecs? Science 198(4312): 40.</ref> It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:
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[[Diego Duran]] described the festivities for [[Huitzilopochtli]], a blue hummingbird god. (Real hummingbirds feed on amaranth flowers.) The Aztec month of [[Aztec calendar|Panquetzaliztli]] (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; there were ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth (''huautli'') seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a little piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were [[:wikt:subsume|subsumed]] into the [[Christmas]] celebration.
[[Diego Duran]] described the festivities for [[Huitzilopochtli]], a blue hummingbird god. (Real hummingbirds feed on amaranth flowers.) The Aztec month of [[Aztec calendar|Panquetzaliztli]] (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; there were ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth (''huautli'') seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a little piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were [[:wikt:subsume|subsumed]] into the [[Christmas]] celebration.


Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very palatable, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human nutritional needs, interest in grain amaranth (especially ''A. cruentus'' and ''A. hypochondriacus'') revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold in [[Mexico City]] and other parts of Mexico, sometimes mixed with [[chocolate]] or [[puffed grain|puffed rice]], and its use has spread to [[Europe]] and parts of [[North America]]. Amaranth and [[quinoa]] are called [[pseudograin]]s because of their flavor and cooking similarities to grains. These are dicot plant seeds, and both contain exceptionally [[complete protein]] for plant sources. Besides [[protein]], [[amaranth grain]] provides a good source of [[dietary fiber]] and [[dietary mineral]]s such as [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[copper]], and especially [[manganese]].
Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very palatable, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human nutritional needs, interest in grain amaranth (especially ''A. cruentus'' and ''A. hypochondriacus'') revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold in [[Mexico City]] and other parts of Mexico, sometimes mixed with [[chocolate]] or [[puffed grain|puffed rice]], and its use has spread to [[Europe]] and parts of [[North America]]. Amaranth and [[quinoa]] are called [[pseudograin]]s because of their flavor and cooking similarities to grains. These are dicot plant seeds, and both contain exceptionally [[complete protein]] for plant sources{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}. Besides [[protein]], [[amaranth grain]] provides a good source of [[dietary fiber]] and [[dietary mineral]]s such as [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[copper]], and especially [[manganese]].

Some scientific studies suggest Amaranth grain is a good source of essential amino acid [[lysine]], but is not a complete source of [[essential amino acids|essential amino acid]]. For example, amaranth is limiting in [[leucine]] and [[threonine]]. Amaranth may therefore be a promising supplement to other foods.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ricardo Bressani, Luiz G. Elias and Arnoldo Garcia-Soto|year=1989|title=Limiting amino acids in raw and processed amaranth grain protein from biological tests|journal=Plant foods for human nutrition | volume=39|number=3|pages= 223-234| publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|doi= 10.1007/BF01091933}}</ref>,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Chemical Composition of the Above-ground Biomass of Amaranthus cruentus
and A. hypochondriacus|journal=ACTA VET. BRNO|volume=75|year=2006|pages=133-138|url=http://actavet.vfu.cz/pdf/200675010133.pdf}}</ref>,<ref>{{cite web|title=Amaranth - Alternative Field Crops Manual|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/amaranth.html|access date=September 2011|publisher=University of Wisconsin & University of Minneasota}}</ref>


Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the [[Himalayas]].
Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the [[Himalayas]].
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*Lenz, ''Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom.'' Botany of old. (1859)
*Lenz, ''Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom.'' Botany of old. (1859)
*J. Murr, ''Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol.'' Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890)
*J. Murr, ''Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol.'' Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890)

==See also==
[[Amaranth grain|Nutritional quality of amaranth]]


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 13:07, 19 September 2011

"Amarantus" redirects here. For the ancient Greek writer, see Amarantus of Alexandria. For other uses, see Amaranth (disambiguation).

Amaranthus
Amaranthus caudatus
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Core eudicots
Order:
Caryophyllales
Family:
Amaranthaceae
Subfamily:
Amaranthoideae
Genus:
Amaranthus

Species

See text.

Amaranthus, collectively known as amaranth, is a cosmopolitan genus of herbs. Approximately 60 species are recognized, with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple and red to gold. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus Celosia.

Although several species are often considered weeds, people around the world value amaranths as leaf vegetables, cereals, and ornamentals.

The ultimate root of "amaranth" is the Greek ἀμάραντος[1] (amarantos) "unfading" with the Greek word for "flower" ἄνθος (anthos) factoring into the word's development as "amaranth" - the more correct "amarant" is an archaic variant.

Systematics

Amaranthus shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 70 species included.[2] This complicates taxonomy and Amaranthus has generally been considered among systematists as a "difficult" genus.[3]

Formerly, Sauer (1955) classified the genus into 2 sub-genera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: Acnida (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and Amaranthus.[3] Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group.

Currently, Amaranthus includes 3 recognized sub-genera and 70 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridization and species concepts.[4] Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.[2] A modified infrageneric classification of Amaranthus was published by Mosyakin & Robertson (1996) and includes 3 subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia. The taxonomy is further differentiated by sections within each of the sub-genera.[5]

Species

Uses

Amaranth seed

Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in Asia and the Americas. This should more correctly be termed "pseudograin" (see below). Amaranth grain contains no gluten and is safe to consume for individuals with coeliac disease.[7]

Ancient amaranth grains still used to this day include the three species, Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus cruentus, and Amaranthus hypochondriacus.[8] Although amaranth was (and still is) cultivated on a small scale in parts of Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, India, and Nepal, there is potential for further cultivation in the U.S and tropical countries. In a 1977 article in Science, amaranth was described as "the crop of the future."[9] It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:

  1. It is easily harvested.
  2. It produces lots of fruit and thus seeds, which are used as grain.
  3. It is highly tolerant of arid environments, which are typical of most subtropical and some tropical regions, and
  4. its seeds contain large amounts of protein and essential amino acids, such as lysine.[10]
  5. Amaranthus species contain about thirty percent more protein than most common cereals, like rice, wheat, oats, and rye.[11]
  6. It requires little fuel to cook. As befits its weedy life history, amaranth grains grow very rapidly and their large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kilogram and contain a half-million seeds.[12]

Amaranth was one of the staple foodstuffs of the Incas, and it is known as kiwicha in the Andes today. It was also used by the ancient Aztecs, who called it huautli, and other Native America peoples in Mexico to prepare ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like popcorn and mixed with honey, molasses or chocolate to make a treat called alegría, meaning "joy" in Spanish. Diego Duran described the festivities for Huitzilopochtli, a blue hummingbird god. (Real hummingbirds feed on amaranth flowers.) The Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; there were ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth (huautli) seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a little piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were subsumed into the Christmas celebration.

Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very palatable, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human nutritional needs, interest in grain amaranth (especially A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus) revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold in Mexico City and other parts of Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and parts of North America. Amaranth and quinoa are called pseudograins because of their flavor and cooking similarities to grains. These are dicot plant seeds, and both contain exceptionally complete protein for plant sources[citation needed]. Besides protein, amaranth grain provides a good source of dietary fiber and dietary minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, and especially manganese.

Some scientific studies suggest Amaranth grain is a good source of essential amino acid lysine, but is not a complete source of essential amino acid. For example, amaranth is limiting in leucine and threonine. Amaranth may therefore be a promising supplement to other foods.[13],[14],[15]

Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the Himalayas.

Leaves, roots, and stems

Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world. There are four species of Amaranthus documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius, and Amaranthus tricolor.[16]

In Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is called bayam, while the Tagalogs in the Philippines call the plant alocon. In the state of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India, it is called Chaurai and is a popular green leafy vegetable( referred to in the class of vegetable preparations called Saga).In Karnataka state in India it is used to prepare curries like Hulee, palya, Majjigay-hulee and so on. In the state of Kerala, it's called 'Cheera' and is consumed by stir-frying the leaves with spices and red chillies to make 'Cheera Thoran'. In Tamilnadu State, it is called முளைக்கீரை and is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are steamed, and mashed, with light seasoning of salt, red chillis and cumin. It is called keerai masial (கீரை மசியல்). In Andhra Pradesh, India, this leaf is added in preparation of a popular dal called thotakura pappu తొట కూర పప్పు (Telugu). In Maharashtra, it is called as "Shravani Maath" (literally माठ grown in month of Shravan) and it is available in both red and white colour. In Orissa, it is called as "Khada saga", it is used to prepare 'Saga Bhaja', in which the leaf is fried with chillies and onions.

The root of mature amaranth is an excellent vegetable. It is white and cooked with tomatoes or tamarind gravy. It has a milky taste and is alkaline.

In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups, and called yin choi (苋菜; pinyin: xiàncài; and variations on this transliteration in various dialects). Amaranth greens are believed to help enhance eyesight. In Vietnam, it is called rau dền and is used to make soup. There are two species popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: dền đỏ- amaranthus tricolor and dền cơm or dền trắng- amaranthus viridis.

A traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.[17] In East Africa, Amaranth leaf is known in chewa as bonongwe, and in Swahili as mchicha, as terere in Kikuyu, Meru and Embu; and as telele in Kamba. In Bantu regions of Uganda it is known as doodo.[18] It is recommended by some doctors for people having low red blood cell count. It is also known among the Kalenjin as a drought crop (chepkerta). In Lingala (spoken in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of Congo), it is known as lɛngalɛnga or bítɛkutɛku.[19] In Nigeria, it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known in Yoruba as efo tete or arowo jeja (meaning "we have money left over for fish"). In the Caribbean, the leaves are called [bhaji in Trinidad) or(callaloo in Jamaica] and stewed with onions, garlic and tomatoes, or sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup.

In Greece, green amaranth (Amaranthus viridis) is a popular dish and is called vlita or vleeta. It's boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon like a salad, usually alongside fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the plant (which usually grows wild) when it starts to bloom at the end of August.

In Sri Lanka, it is called "koora thampala". Sri Lankans cook it and eat it with rice. Fiji Indians call it choraiya bhaji.

Dyes

The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi (a tribe in the western United States) as the source of a deep red dye. There is also a synthetic dye that has been named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigments known as betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union.[20]

Ornamentals

The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as Amaranthus caudatus (love-lies-bleeding), a native of India and a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, A. hypochondriacus (prince's feather), has deeply veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.

Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the nutmeg moth and various case-bearer moths of the genus Coleophora: C. amaranthella, C. enchorda (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. immortalis (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. lineapulvella and C. versurella (recorded on A. spinosus).

Nutritional value

Amaranth greens, also called Chinese spinach, hinn choy or yin tsoi (simplified Chinese: 苋菜; traditional Chinese: 莧菜; pinyin: xiàncài); callaloo, dhantinasoppu (Kannada); తోటకూర (Telugu); Rajgira (Marathi); முளைக் கீரை (Tamil), cheera ചീര (Malayalam); bayam (Indonesian); phak khom ผักโขม (Thai); tampala, or quelite, (Oriya); Khada Saga, are a common leaf vegetable throughout the tropics and in many warm temperate regions. It is very popular in India. They are a very good source of vitamins including vitamin A, vitamin K, vitamin B6, vitamin C, riboflavin, and folate, and dietary minerals including calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper, and manganese. Because of its valuable nutrition, some farmers grow amaranth today.

Amaranth seeds, like buckwheat and quinoa, contain protein that is unusually complete for plant sources.[21] Most fruits and vegetables do not contain a complete set of amino acids, and thus different sources of protein must be used. However, unlike the protein found in true grains (i.e. from grass seeds) its protein does not contain gluten, making it popular with people who are gluten sensitive.[22]

Several studies have shown that like oats, amaranth seed or oil may be of benefit for those with hypertension and cardiovascular disease; regular consumption reduces blood pressure and cholesterol levels, while improving antioxidant status and some immune parameters.[23][24][25] While the active ingredient in oats appears to be water-soluble fiber, amaranth appears to lower cholesterol via its content of plant stanols and squalene.

As a weed

Not all amaranth plants are cultivated. Most of the species from Amaranthus are summer annual weeds and are commonly referred to as pigweeds.[26] These species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production[26] and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in tillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often.[27] The following 9 species of Amaranthus are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S and Canada: A. albus, A. blitoides, A. hybridus, A. palmeri, A. powellii, A. retroflexus, A. spinosus, A. tuberculatus, and A. viridis.[28]

A new herbicide-resistant strain of Amaranthus palmeri or Palmer amaranth has appeared; it is Glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by the widely used Roundup herbicide. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. This could be of particular concern to cotton farmers using Roundup Ready cotton.[29] The species Amaranthus palmeri (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments.[26] Palmer amaranth is among the “top five most troublesome weeds” in the southeast and has already evolved resistances to dinitroanilines and acetolactate synthase inhibitors.[30] This makes the proper identification of Amaranthus species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions.

Beneficial weed

Pigweed can be a beneficial weed, as well as a companion plant, serving as a trap for leaf miners and some other pests, as well as sheltering ground beetles (which prey upon insect pests) and breaking up hard soil for more delicate neighboring plants.

Myth, legend and poetry

The word amaranth comes from the Greek word amarantos, meaning "unwithering". The word was applied to amaranth because it did not soon fade and so symbolized immortality. "Amarant" is a more correct, albeit archaic form, chiefly used in poetry. The current spelling, amaranth, seems to have come from folk etymology that assumed the final syllable derived from the Greek word anthos ("flower"), common in botanical names.

Aesop's Fables (6th century BC) compares the rose to the amaranth to illustrate the difference in fleeting and everlasting beauty:

A Rose and an Amaranth blossomed side by side in a garden,
and the Amaranth said to her neighbour,
"How I envy you your beauty and your sweet scent!
No wonder you are such a universal favourite."
But the Rose replied with a shade of sadness in her voice,
"Ah, my dear friend, I bloom but for a time:
my petals soon wither and fall, and then I die.
But your flowers never fade, even if they are cut;
for they are everlasting."

Or in story form:

An amaranth planted in a garden near a Rose-Tree, thus addressed it: "What a lovely flower is the Rose, a favorite alike with Gods and with men. I envy you your beauty and your perfume." The Rose replied, "I indeed, dear Amaranth, flourish but for a brief season! If no cruel hand pluck me from my stem, yet I must perish by an early doom. But thou art immortal and dost never fade, but bloomest for ever in renewed youth."

Thus, in John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), iii. 353:

"Immortal amarant, a flower which once
In paradise, fast by the tree of life,
Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence
To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows,
And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life,
And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven
Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream:
With these that never fade the spirits elect
Bind their resplendent locks."

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in Work Without Hope (1825), also refers to the herb, likely referencing Milton's earlier work. (ll 7-10 excerpted):

Yet well I ken the banks where Amaranths blow,
Have traced the fount whence streams of nectar flow.
Bloom, O ye Amaranths! bloom for whom ye may,
For me ye bloom not! Glide, rich streams, away!

In his dialogue ‘Aesop and Rhodopè’, published in 1844, Walter Savage Landor wrote:

There are no fields of amaranth on this side of the grave: there are no voices, O Rhodopè, that are not soon mute, however tuneful: there is no name, with whatever emphasis of passionate love repeated, of which the echo is not faint at last.

Joachim du Bellay mentioned the herb in his "A Vow To Heavenly Venus," ca. 1500.

We that with like hearts love, we lovers twain,
New wedded in the village by thy fane,
Lady of all chaste love, to thee it is
We bring these amaranths, these white lilies,
A sign, and sacrifice; may Love, we pray,
Like amaranthine flowers, feel no decay;
Like these cool lilies may our loves remain,
Perfect and pure, and know not any stain;
And be our hearts, from this thy holy hour,
Bound each to each, like flower to wedded flower.

In ancient Greece, the amaranth (also called chrysanthemum and helichrysum) was sacred to Ephesian Artemis. It was supposed to have special healing properties, and, as a symbol of immortality, was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In legend, Amarynthus (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of Euboea; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i. 31, p. 5). It was also widely used by the Chinese for its healing chemicals, curing illnesses such as infections, rashes, and migraines. The "Amarantos" is the name of a several-century-old popular Greek folk song:

Look at the amaranth:
on tall mountains it grows,
on the very stones and rocks
and places inaccessible.

Images

  • Loves-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus caudatus)
    Loves-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus caudatus)
  • Green Amaranth (A. hybridus)
    Green Amaranth (A. hybridus)
  • Seabeach amaranth (A. pumilus), an amaranth on the Federal Threatened species List
    Seabeach amaranth (A. pumilus), an amaranth on the Federal Threatened species List
  • Red-root Amaranth (A. retroflexus) - from Thomé, Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885
    Red-root Amaranth (A. retroflexus) - from Thomé, Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885
  • Spiny Amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus)
    Spiny Amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus)
  • Green Amaranth (Amaranthus viridis)
    Green Amaranth (Amaranthus viridis)
  • Popping Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)
    Popping Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)
  • Amaranth grain (left) and wheat (right)
    Amaranth grain (left) and wheat (right)
  • Southern Kerala-style traditional Thoran made with Cheera (Amaranth) leaves
    Southern Kerala-style traditional Thoran made with Cheera (Amaranth) leaves
  • Example from Chilpancingo
    Example from Chilpancingo

Notes

  1. ^ Liddell & Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, s.v. ἀμάραντος
  2. ^ a b Juan; et al. (2007). "Electrophoretic characterization of Amaranthus L. seed proteins and its systematic implication". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 155: 57–63. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00665.x. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  3. ^ a b Costea M, DeMason D (2001). "Stem morphology and anatomy in Amaranthus L. (Amaranthaceae)- Taxonomic significance". Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 128 (3): 254–281. doi:10.2307/3088717.
  4. ^ Judd et al. (2008). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, Third Edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland, MA
  5. ^ Mosyakin & Robertson (1996). "New infrageneric taxa and combinations in Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae)". Ann. Bot. Fennici. 33: 275–281.
  6. ^ The Plant List - Amaranthus acutilobus
  7. ^ Gallagher, E. "Recent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 15 (3–4): 143–152. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012. Retrieved 2011-06-26. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Costea et al. (2006). Delimitation of Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 53: 1625-1633.
  9. ^ Marx (1977). Speaking of Science: Amaranth: A Comeback for the Food of the Aztecs? Science 198(4312): 40.
  10. ^ De Macvean & Pöll (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo.
  11. ^ De Macvean & Pöll. (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo.
  12. ^ Tucker, J. (1986). Amaranth: the once and future crop. Bioscience 36(1): 9-13.
  13. ^ Ricardo Bressani, Luiz G. Elias and Arnoldo Garcia-Soto (1989). "Limiting amino acids in raw and processed amaranth grain protein from biological tests". Plant foods for human nutrition. 39 (3). Kluwer Academic Publishers: 223–234. doi:10.1007/BF01091933.
  14. ^ "Chemical Composition of the Above-ground Biomass of Amaranthus cruentus and A. hypochondriacus" (PDF). ACTA VET. BRNO. 75: 133–138. 2006. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 73 (help)
  15. ^ "Amaranth - Alternative Field Crops Manual". University of Wisconsin & University of Minneasota. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |access date= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ Costea (2003). Notes on Economic Plants. Economic Botany 57(4): 646-649
  17. ^ National Research Council (2006-10-27). "Amaranth". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables. Lost Crops of Africa. Vol. 2. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-10333-6. OCLC 34344933 79635740. Retrieved 2008-07-15. {{cite book}}: Check |oclc= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |origdate= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Goode,. Edible plants of Uganda. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  19. ^ Enama, M. (1994). "Culture: The missing nexus in ecological economics perspective". Ecological Economics. 10 (10): 93–95. doi:10.1016/0921-8009(94)00010-7.
  20. ^ "The following color additives are not authorized for use in food products in the United States: (1) Amaranth (C.I. 16185, EEC No. E123, formerly certifiable as FD&C red No. 2);" FDA/CFSAN Food Compliance Program: Domestic Food Safety Program
  21. ^ Reference Library | WholeHealthMD
  22. ^ 10 Reasons to Use Amaranth in Your Gluten-Free Recipes, by Teri Gruss, URL accessed Oct 2009.
  23. ^ Czerwiński J, Bartnikowska E, Leontowicz H; et al. (2004). "Oat (Avena sativa L.) and amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) meals positively affect plasma lipid profile in rats fed cholesterol-containing diets". J. Nutr. Biochem. 15 (10): 622–9. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2004.06.002. PMID 15542354. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Gonor KV, Pogozheva AV, Derbeneva SA, Mal'tsev GIu, Trushina EN, Mustafina OK (2006). "[The influence of a diet with including amaranth oil on antioxidant and immune status in patients with ischemic heart disease and hyperlipoproteidemia]". Vopr Pitan (in Russian). 75 (6): 30–3. PMID 17313043.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Martirosyan DM, Miroshnichenko LA, Kulakova SN, Pogojeva AV, Zoloedov VI (2007). "Amaranth oil application for coronary heart disease and hypertension". Lipids Health Dis. 6: 1. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-6-1. PMC 1779269. PMID 17207282.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  26. ^ a b c Bensch et al. (2003). Interference of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), Palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common waterhemp (A. rudis) in soybean. Weed Science 51: 37-43.
  27. ^ Wetzel et al. (1999). Use of PCR-based molecular markers to identify weedy Amaranthus species. Weed Science 47: 518-523.
  28. ^ USDA Plant Database. Plants Profile- Amaranthus L
  29. ^ Herbicide Resistant Weeds Causing Problems for US Cotton Growers
  30. ^ Culpepper et al. (2006). Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) confirmed in Georgia. Weed Science 54: 620-626.

Sources

  • Lenz, Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom. Botany of old. (1859)
  • J. Murr, Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol. Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890)

See also

Nutritional quality of amaranth

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amaranthus.

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