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Irish orthography

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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 194.125.94.89 (talk) at 19:55, 25 November 2022 (Moved info around in intro, shortened or expanded some points). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article uses the IPA to transcribe Irish. Readers familiar with other conventions may wish to see Help:IPA/Irish for a comparison of the IPA system with those used in learners' materials.

Irish orthography is very etymological which allows the same written form to represent all dialects of Irish and remain regular. For example, ceann ("head") may be read [cɑun̪ˠ] in Munster Irish, [cɑːn̪ˠ] in Galway Irish, or [can̪ˠ] in Mayo and Ulster Irish.

A spelling reform in the mid-20th century eliminated inter-dialectal silent letters and lead to An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, the modern standard written form used by the Government of Ireland, which regulates both spelling and grammar.[1]

Some words may have dialectal pronunciations not reflected by their standard spelling, some may have dialectal spellings to reflect this. The IPA transcriptions on this page are in Connacht Irish.

Alphabet

Gaelic type with Roman type equivalents and the additional lenited letters.

Latin script has been the writing system used to write Irish since the 8th century, when it replaced Ogham which was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish.[2] Gaelic type (cló Gaelach) was the main typeface used to write Irish until it was replaced by Roman type (cló Rómhánach) in the mid-20th century. The use of Ogham and Gaelic type today is restricted to decorative or self-consciously traditional contexts. The dot above a lenited letter in Gaelic type is usually replaced by a following ⟨h⟩ in Roman type (e.g. ⟨ċ⟩ → ⟨ch⟩).

Letters and letter names

The traditional Irish alphabet carved in Gaelic type on the National Archives of Ireland building in Dublin, with each type of diacritic (síneadh fada and ponc séimhithe) as well as the Tironian et.

The traditional Irish alphabet (Irish: áibítir, formerly Beith Luis Nion from the first three letters of the Ogham alphabet) consists of 18 letters: ⟨a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u⟩. It does not contain ⟨j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z⟩, although they are used in scientific terminology and modern loanwords/words of foreign origin. ⟨zs⟩ (capitalized ⟨zS⟩) occurs in the West Muskerry dialect as the eclipsis of ⟨s⟩.[3] ⟨v⟩ occurs in a small number of native words (e.g. vácarnach "to quack" and vrác "caw") and in a number of colloquial forms (e.g. víog for bíog "chirp" (all onomatopoeic) and vís for bís "screw").[4] ⟨h⟩, when not prefixed to an word initial vowel to show aspiration or after a consonant to show lenition, primarily occurs word initially in loanwords, e.g. hata "hat". ⟨k⟩ is the only letter not listed by Ó Dónaill.

Vowels may be accented with an acute accent (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩; see below), but it is ignored for purposes of alphabetisation.[5]

Tree names were once popularly used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of Ogham letters, though it is now known that only some of the earliest were named after trees. The modern letter names follow a similar pattern (based on the original Latin names) to other languages that use a Latin script alphabet. English letter names are generally used in colloquial and formal speech.

Letter Name

[6][7]

Name

(IPA)

Tree Name (Bríatharogam) Ogham equivalent Notes
Aa á 1 /aː/ ailm (pine) ᚐ
Bb bé /bʲeː/ beith (birch) ᚁ
Cc cé /ceː/ coll (hazel) ᚉ
Dd dé /dʲeː/ dair (oak) ᚇ
Ee é 1 /eː/ eadhadh (poplar) ᚓ
Ff eif /ɛfʲ/ fearn (alder) ᚃ
Gg gé /ɟeː/ gort (ivy) ᚌ
Hh héis /heːʃ/ uath (hawthorn) ᚆ
Ii í 1 /iː/ iodhadh (yew) ᚔ
Jj jé [dʒeː]
Kk cá /kaː/
Ll eil /ɛlʲ/ luis (rowan) ᚂ
Mm eim /ɛmʲ/ muin (vine) ᚋ
Nn ein /ɛnʲ/ nion (ash) ᚅ
Oo ó 1 /oː/ onn (gorse) ᚑ
Pp pé /pʲeː/ peith (dwarf alder) ᚚ both forfeda not present during peak Ogham usage, due to a lack in need to represent [p]
ifín (gooseberry or thorn) ᚘ
Qq cú /kuː/ ᚊ ⟨Q⟩ was traditionally used to transliterate ceirt (apple)
Rr ear /aɾˠ/ ruis (elder) ᚏ
Ss eas /asˠ/ sail (willow) ᚄ
Tt té /tʲeː/ tinne (holly) ᚈ
Uu ú 1 /uː/ úr (heather) ᚒ
Vv vé /vʲeː/
Ww wae /weː/
Xx eacs /ɛksˠ/
Yy yé /jeː/
Zz zae /zeː/ ᚎ ⟨Z⟩ was traditionally used to transliterate straif (blackthorn)

Consonants

The consonant letters generally correspond to the consonant phonemes as shown in this table. See Irish phonology for an explanation of the symbols used and Irish initial mutations for an explanation of eclipsis. In most cases, consonants are "broad" (velarised) when the nearest vowel letter is one of ⟨a, o, u⟩ and "slender" (palatalised) when the nearest vowel letter is one of ⟨e, i⟩.

Letter(s) Phoneme(s) Examples
U C M
b broad /bˠ/ bain /bˠanʲ/ "take" (imper.), scuab /sˠkuəbˠ/ "broom"
slender /bʲ/ béal /bʲeːl̪ˠ/ "mouth", cnáib /kn̪ˠaːbʲ/ "hemp"
bh broad /w/ bhain /wanʲ/ "took", ábhar /ˈaːwəɾˠ/ "material", Bhairbre /ˈwaɾʲəbʲɾʲə/ "Barbara" (genitive), tábhachtach /ˈt̪ˠaːwəxt̪ˠəx/ "important", dubhaigh /ˈd̪ˠʊwiː/ "blacken" (imper.), scríobh /ʃcrʲiːw/ "wrote", taobh /t̪ˠiːw/ "side", dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ "black"
slender /vʲ/ bhéal /vʲeːl̪ˠ/ "mouth" (lenited), cuibhreann /ˈkɪvʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ "common table", aibhneacha /ˈavʲnʲəxə/ "rivers", sibh /ʃɪvʲ/ "you" (pl.)
See [[#Followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩|below]] for ⟨abh, obh⟩
bhf
(eclipsis of ⟨f⟩) 		broad /w/ bhfuinneog /ˈwɪnʲoːɡ/ "window" (eclipsed)
slender /vʲ/ bhfíon /vʲiːn̪ˠ/ "wine" (eclipsed)
bp
(eclipsis of ⟨p⟩) 		broad /bˠ/ bpoll /bˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole" (eclipsed)
slender /bʲ/ bpríosún /ˈbʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ "prison" (eclipsed)
c broad /k/ cáis /kaːʃ/ "cheese", mac /mˠak/ "son"
slender /c/ ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ "question", mic /mʲɪc/ "sons"
ch broad
(always broad before ⟨t⟩) 		/x/ cháis /xaːʃ/ "cheese" (lenited), taoiseach /ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/ "chieftain" (also the term for the Prime Minister of Ireland), boichte /bˠɔxtʲə/ "poorer"
slender /ç/ cheist /çɛʃtʲ/ "question" (lenited), deich /dʲɛç/ "ten", oíche /ˈiːçə/ "night"
d broad /d̪ˠ/ dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist", nead /nʲad̪ˠ/ "nest"
slender /dʲ/ dearg /dʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red", cuid /kɪdʲ/ "part"
dh broad word-initially /ɣ/ dhorn /ɣoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist" (lenited)
after long vowels silent ádh /aː/ "luck"
slender /j/ dhearg /ˈjaɾˠəɡ/ "red" (lenited), fáidh /fˠaːj/ "prophet"
See [[#Followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩|below]] for ⟨adh, aidh, eadh, eidh, idh, oidh, odh⟩. See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -⟨dh⟩ at the end of verbs.
dt
(eclipsis of ⟨t⟩) 		broad /d̪ˠ/ dtaisce /ˈd̪ˠaʃcə/ "treasure" (eclipsed)
slender /dʲ/ dtír /dʲiːɾʲ/ "country" (eclipsed)
f broad /fˠ/ fós /fˠoːsˠ/ "still", graf /ɡɾˠafˠ/ "graph"
slender /fʲ/ fíon /fʲiːn̪ˠ/ "wine", stuif /sˠt̪ˠɪfʲ/ "stuff"
often in féin "-self" /h/ féin /heːnʲ/ "-self"
See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -⟨f⟩- in future and conditional tenses
fh silent fhuinneog /ˈɪnʲoːɡ/ "window" (lenited), fhíon /iːn̪ˠ/ "wine" (lenited)
g broad /ɡ/ gasúr /ˈɡasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy", bog /bˠɔɡ/ "soft"
slender /ɟ/ geata /ˈɟat̪ˠə/ "gate", carraig /ˈkaɾˠəɟ/ "rock"
gc
(eclipsis of ⟨c⟩) 		broad /ɡ/ gcáis /ɡaːʃ/ "cheese" (eclipsed)
slender /ɟ/ gceist /ɟɛʃtʲ/ "question" (eclipsed)
gh broad word-initially /ɣ/ ghasúr /ˈɣasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy" (lenited)
after long vowels silent Eoghan /ˈoːən̪ˠ/ (male name)
slender /j/ gheata /ˈjat̪ˠə/ "gate" (lenited), dóigh /d̪ˠoːj/ "way, manner"
See [[#Followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩|below]] for ⟨agh, aigh, eagh, eigh, igh, ogh, oigh⟩. See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -⟨(a)igh⟩ at the end of verbs.
h /h/ hata /ˈhat̪ˠə/ "hat", na héisc /nə heːʃc/ "the fish" (plural)
l broad /l/ luí /l̪ˠiː/ "lying (down)"
slender /lʲ/ leisciúil /ˈlʲɛʃcuːlʲ/ "lazy"
ll broad /l̪ˠ/ poll /poːl̪ˠ/ "hole"
slender /l̠ʲ/ coill /kəil̪ʲ/ "woods"
m broad /mˠ/ mór /mˠoːɾˠ/ "big", am /aːmˠ/ "time"
slender /mʲ/ milis /ˈmʲɪlʲəʃ/ "sweet", im /iːmʲ/ "butter"
mb
(eclipsis of ⟨b⟩) 		broad /mˠ/ mbaineann /ˈmˠanʲən̪ˠ/ "takes" (eclipsed)
slender /mʲ/ mbéal /mʲeːl̪ˠ/ "mouth" (eclipsed)
mh broad /w/ mhór /woːɾˠ/ "big" (lenited), lámha /ˈl̪ˠaːwə/ "hands", léamh /lʲeːw/ "reading"
slender /vʲ/ mhilis /ˈvʲɪlʲəʃ/ "sweet" (lenited), uimhir /ˈɪvʲəɾʲ/ "number", nimh /nʲɪvʲ/ "poison"
See [[#Followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩|below]] for ⟨amh, omh, umh⟩
n broad usually /nˠ/ naoi /n̪ˠiː/ "nine"
after non-sibilant consonants /ɾˠ/ /nˠ/ mná /mˠɾˠaː/ "women", cnaipe /ˈkɾˠapʲə/ "press"
slender usually /nʲ/ neart /nʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/ "strength", tinneas /ˈtʲɪnʲəsˠ/ "illness"
after non-sibilant consonants /ɾʲ/ /nʲ/ gnéas /ɟɾʲeːsˠ/ "sex", cníopaire /ˈcɾʲiːpˠəɾʲə/ "skinflint"
nc broad /ŋk/ ancaire /ˈaŋkəɾʲə/ "anchor"
slender /ɲc/ rinc /ɾˠɪɲc/ "dance"
nd
(eclipsis of ⟨d⟩) 		broad /nˠ/ ndorn /nˠoːɾˠnˠ/ "fist" (eclipsed)
slender /nʲ/ ndearg /ˈnʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red" (eclipsed)
ng broad (eclipsis of ⟨g⟩-) /ŋ/ ngasúr /ˈŋasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy" (eclipsed)
elsewhere /ŋ/ /ŋɡ/ long /l̪ˠuːŋɡ/ "ship", teanga /ˈtʲaŋɡə/ "tongue"
slender (eclipsis of ⟨g⟩-) /ɲ/ ngeata /ˈɲat̪ˠə/ "gate" (eclipsed)
elsewhere /ɲɟ/ cuing /kɪɲɟ/ "yoke", ingear /ˈɪɲɟəɾˠ/ "vertical"
nn broad /n̪ˠ/ ceann /caːn̪ˠ/ "head"
slender /n̠ʲ/ cinn {{ |/ciːn̠ʲ/}} "heads"
p broad /pˠ/ poll /pˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole", stop /sˠt̪ˠɔpˠ/ "stop"
slender /pʲ/ príosún /ˈpʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ "prison", truip /t̪ˠɾˠɪpʲ/ "trip"
ph broad /fˠ/ pholl /fˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole" (lenited)
slender /fʲ/ phríosún /ˈfʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ "prison" (lenited)
r broad
(always broad word-initially, before ⟨d, l, n, r, s, t, th⟩ and after ⟨s⟩) 		/ɾˠ/ rí /ɾˠiː/ "king", cuairt /kuəɾˠtʲ/ "visit", oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ "east", airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ "height", coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠnʲeːl̪ˠ/ "corner", carr /kaːɾˠ/ "car, cart", duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ "stony beach", sreang /sˠɾˠaŋɡ/ "string"
slender /ɾʲ/ tirim /ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ/ "dry"
rh (dialectal) slender /ɾʲ/ rhí /ɾʲiː/ "king" (lenited, Munster)
s broad
(always broad word-initially before ⟨f, m, p, r⟩) 		/sˠ/ Sasana /ˈsˠasˠən̪ˠə/ "England", tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ "beginning", sféar /sˠfʲeːɾˠ/ "sphere", speal /sˠpʲal̪ˠ/ "scythe", sméar /sˠmʲeːɾˠ/ "blackberry", sreang /sˠɾˠaŋɡ/ "string"
slender /ʃ/ sean /ʃan̪ˠ/ "old", cáis /kaːʃ/ "cheese"
sh broad /h/ Shasana /ˈhasˠən̪ˠə/ "England" (lenited)
slender usually /h/ shean /han̪ˠ/ "old" (lenited)
before back vowels [ç] Sheáin /çaːnʲ/ "John" (genitive), sheol /çoːl̪ˠ/ "sailed", shiúil /çuːlʲ/ "walked", shiopa /ˈçʊpˠə/ "shop" (lenited)
t broad /t̪ˠ/ taisce /ˈt̪ˠaʃcə/ "treasure", ceart /caɾˠt̪ˠ/ "correct"
slender /tʲ/ tír /tʲiːɾʲ/ "country", beirt /bʲɛɾˠtʲ/ "two (people)"
See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -⟨t⟩- in verbal adjectives
th broad /h/ thaisce /ˈhaʃcə/ "treasure" (lenited), athair /ˈahəɾʲ/ "father"
slender usually /h/ theanga /ˈhaŋɡə/ "tongue" (lenited)
before back vowels [ç] theann /çaːn̪ˠ/ "tight" (lenited), theocht /çoːxt̪ˠ/ "heat" (lenited), thiúilip /ˈçuːlʲəpʲ/ "tulip" (lenited), thiocfadh /ˈçʊkəx/ "would come", thiubh /çʊw/ "thick" (lenited)
syllable-finally silent bláth /bˠl̪ˠaː/ "blossom", cith /cɪ/ "shower", cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ "equal"
See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -⟨th⟩- in verbal adjectives
ts
(special lenition of ⟨s⟩- after an "the") 		broad /t̪ˠ/ an tsolais /ən̪ˠ ˈt̪ˠɔl̪ˠəʃ/ "of the light"
slender /tʲ/ an tSín /ənʲ tʲiːnʲ/ "China"
v (loan consonant) broad /w/ vóta /ˈwoːt̪ˠə/ "vote"
slender /vʲ/ veidhlín /ˈvʲəilʲiːnʲ/ "violin"
z (loan consonant) broad /zˠ/ zú /zˠuː/ "zoo"
slender /ʒ/ Zen /ʒɛnʲ/ "Zen"
zs (rare) broad /zˠ/ zsolas /zˠɔl̪ˠəsˠ/ "light" (eclipsed)
slender /ʒ/ zsean /ʒan̪ˠ/ "old" (eclipsed)

Vowels

Sequences of vowels are common in Irish spelling due to the "caol le caol agus leathan le leathan" ("slender with slender and broad with broad") rule. This rule states that the vowels on either side of any consonant must be both slender (⟨e, i⟩) or both broad (⟨a, o, u⟩), to unambiguously determine if the consonant(s) are broad or slender. An apparent exception is ⟨ae⟩, which is followed by a broad consonant despite the ⟨e⟩.

Pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from a few simple rules:

  • accented vowels (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩) are always long vowels and in digraphs and trigraphs containing them, surrounding unaccented vowels tend to be silent, but there are several exceptions, e.g. when preceded by two unaccented vowels.
  • accented vowels in succession are both pronounced, e.g. séú /ˈʃeːuː/ "sixth", ríúil /ˈɾˠiːuːlʲ/ "royal, kingly, majestic", báíocht /⁠ˈbˠaːiːxt̪ˠ/ "sympathy", etc.
  • ⟨i⟩ is silent after a broad vowel (except sometimes in ⟨oi, ui⟩) and before ⟨u⟩
  • ⟨e⟩ is silent before a broad vowel.
  • ⟨io, oi, ui⟩ have multiple pronunciations that depend on adjacent consonants.
  • a following ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ lengthens some vowels and in Munster and Connacht a following syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ or word-final ⟨m, ng⟩ may lengthen or diphthongise some vowels depending on dialect.

The following series of charts indicates how written vowels are generally pronounced. Each dialect has certain divergences from this general scheme, and may also pronounce some words in a way that does not agree with standard orthography.

Letter(s) Phoneme Examples
U C M
a stressed usually /a/ fan /fˠan̪ˠ/ "stay" (imper.)
before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ /aː/ tarlú /ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠl̪ˠuː/ "happening", carnán /ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ "(small) heap", garda /ˈɡaːɾˠd̪ˠə/ "policeman", barr /bˠaːɾˠ/ "tip, point"
before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and word final ⟨m⟩ /a/ /aː/ /əu/ mall /mˠaːl̪ˠ/ "slow, late", ann /aːn̪ˠ/ "there", barr /bˠaːɾˠ/ "tip, point", am /aːmˠ/ "time"
unstressed /ə/ ólann /ˈoːl̪ˠən̪ˠ/ "drink" (present), mála /ˈmˠaːl̪ˠə/ "bag"
ae, aei /eː/ Gaelach /ˈɡeːl̪ˠəx/ "Gaelic", Gaeilge /ˈɡeːlʲɟə/ "Irish (language)"
ai stressed usually /a/ baile /ˈbˠalʲə/ "home"
before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ /aː/ airne /aːɾˠnʲə/ "sloe", airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ "height"
before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ /a/ /aː/ /əi/ caillte /ˈkaːlʲtʲə/ "lost, ruined", crainn /kɾˠaːnʲ/ "trees"
in three words /ɛ/ daibhir /ˈd̪ˠɛvʲəɾʲ/ "poor", raibh /ɾˠɛvʲ/ "was" (dependent), saibhir /ˈsˠɛvʲərʲ/ "rich"
unstressed /ə/ eolais /ˈoːl̪ˠəʃ/ "knowledge" (genitive)
aí, aío /iː/ maígh /mˠiːj/ "claim" (imper.), gutaí /ˈɡʊt̪ˠiː/ "vowels", naíonán /ˈn̪ˠiːn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ "infant", beannaíonn /ˈbʲan̪ˠiːn̪ˠ/ "blesses"
ao usually /iː/ /eː/ saol /sˠiːlˠ/ "life"
in aon "any" and derivatives /eː/ aon /eːnˠ/ "any"
aoi /iː/ gaois /ɡiːʃ/ "shrewdness"
aoú /iː.uː/ /eː.uː/ naoú /ˈn̪ˠiːuː/ "ninth"
á, ái /aː/ bán /bˠaːn̪ˠ/ "white", dáil /d̪ˠaːlʲ/ "assembly", gabháil /ˈɡawaːlʲ/ "taking"
e stressed /ɛ/ te /tʲɛ/ "hot"
unstressed /ə/ míle /ˈmʲiːlʲə/ "thousand"
ea, eai stressed usually /a/ bean /bʲan̪ˠ/ "woman", veain /vʲanʲ/ "van"
before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ /aː/ bearna /ˈbʲaːɾˠn̪ˠə/ "gap", fearr /fʲaːɾˠ/ "better"
before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ /a/ /aː/ /əu/ feall /fʲaːl̪ˠ/ "treachery", feanntach /ˈfʲaːn̪ˠt̪ˠəx/ "severe"
unstressed /ə/ seisean /ˈʃɛʃən̪ˠ/ "he" (emphatic)
eá, eái /aː/ Seán /ʃaːn̪ˠ/ "John", caisleán /ˈkaʃlʲaːn̪ˠ/ "castle", meáin /mʲaːnʲ/ "middles", caisleáin /ˈkaʃlʲaːnʲ/ "castles"
ei usually /ɛ/ ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ "question"
before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ /eː/ eirleach /ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/ "destruction", ceirnín /ˈceːɾˠnʲiːnʲ/ "record album", ceird /ceːɾˠdʲ/ "trade, craft"
before ⟨m, mh, n⟩ /ɪ/ creimeadh /ˈcɾʲɪmʲə/ "corrosion, erosion", geimhreadh /ˈɟɪvʲrʲə/ "winter", seinm /ˈʃɪnʲəmʲ/ "playing"
before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and word final ⟨m⟩ /ɪ/ /iː/ /əi/ greim /ɟɾʲiːmʲ/ "grip"
eo, eoi usually /oː/ ceol /coːl̪ˠ/ "music", baileofar /ˈbˠalʲoːfˠəɾˠ/ "one will gather", dreoilín /ˈdʲɾʲoːlʲiːnʲ/ "wren", baileoimid /ˈbˠalʲoːmʲədʲ/ "we will gather"
in four words /ɔ/ anseo /ənʲˈʃɔ/ "here", deoch /dʲɔx/ "drink", eochair /ˈɔxəɾʲ/ "key", seo /ˈʃɔ/ "this"
é, éa, éi /eː/ sé /ʃeː/ "he", déanamh /ˈdʲeːn̪ˠəw/ "doing", buidéal /ˈbˠɪdʲeːl̪ˠ/ "bottle", scéimh /ʃceːvʲ/ "beauty", páipéir /ˈpˠaːpʲeːɾʲ/ "papers
i stressed usually /ɪ/ pic /pʲɪc/ "pitch", ifreann /ˈɪfʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ "hell"
before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and word final ⟨m⟩ /ɪ/ /iː/ cill /ciːlʲ/ "church", cinnte /ˈciːnʲtʲə/ "sure", im /iːmʲ/ "butter"
unstressed usually /ə/ faoistin /ˈfˠiːʃtʲənʲ/ "confession"
finally /ɪ/ aici /ˈɛcɪ/ "at her"
ia, iai /iə/ Diarmaid /dʲiərmədʲ/ "Dermot", bliain /bʲlʲiənʲ/ "year"
iá, iái /iː.aː/ bián /ˈbʲiːaːn̪ˠ/ "size", liáin /ˈlʲiːaːnʲ/ "trowel" (gen.)
io before coronals and ⟨th⟩ /ɪ/ fios /fʲɪsˠ/ "knowledge", bior /bʲɪɾˠ/ "spit, spike", cion /cɪn̪ˠ/ "affection", giota /ˈɟɪt̪ˠə/ "bit, piece", giodam /ˈɟɪd̪ˠəmˠ/ "restlessness", friotháil /ˈfʲɾʲɪhaːlʲ/ "attention"
before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ /ɪ/ /iː/ /uː/ fionn /fʲiːn̪ˠ/ "light-haired"
before noncoronals /ʊ/ siopa /ˈʃʊpˠə/ "shop", liom /lʲʊmˠ/ "with me", tiocfaidh /ˈtʲʊkiː/ "will come", Siobhán /ˈʃʊwaːn̪ˠ/ "Joan", briogáid /ˈbʲɾʲʊɡaːdʲ/ "brigade", tiomáin /ˈtʲʊmaːnʲ/ "drive" (imper.), ionga /ˈʊŋɡə/ "(finger)nail"
ió, iói /iː.oː/ sióg /ˈʃiːoːɡ/ "fairy", pióg /ˈpʲiːoːɡ/ "pie", grióir /ˈɟɾʲiːoːɾʲ/ "weakling"
iu /ʊ/ fliuch /fʲlʲʊx/ "wet"
iú, iúi /uː/ siúl /ʃuːl̪ˠ/ "walk", bailiú /ˈbˠalʲuː/ "gathering", ciúin /cuːnʲ/ "quiet", inniúil /ˈɪnʲuːlʲ/ "able, fit"
í, ío /iː/ gnímh /ɟnʲiːvʲ/ "act, deed" (gen.), cailín /ˈkalʲiːnʲ/ 'girl', síol /ʃiːl̪ˠ/ "seed"
o stressed usually /ɔ/ post /pˠɔsˠt̪ˠ/ "post"
before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ /oː/ bord /bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ/ "table", orlach /ˈoːɾˠl̪ˠəx/ "inch"
before ⟨n, m⟩ /ʊ/ Donncha /ˈd̪ˠʊn̪əxə/ (man's name), cromóg /ˈkɾˠʊmˠoːɡ/ "hooked nose"
before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and word final ⟨m, ng⟩ /ɔ/ /uː/ /əu/ fonn /fˠuːn̪ˠ/ "desire, inclination"
trom /t̪ˠɾˠuːmˠ/ "heavy", long /l̪ˠuːŋɡ/ "ship"
unstressed /ə/ mo /mˠə/ "my", cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ "equal"
oi stressed usually /ɛ/ scoil /sˠkɛlʲ/ "school", troid /t̪ˠɾˠɛdʲ/ "fight" (imper.), toitín /ˈt̪ˠɛtʲiːnʲ/ "cigarette", oibre /ˈɛbʲɾʲə/ "work" (gen.), thoir /hɛɾʲ/ "in the east", cloiche /ˈkl̪ˠɛçə/ "stone" (gen.)
before ⟨cht, rs, rt, rth, s⟩ /ɔ/ cois /kɔʃ/ "foot" (dat.), cloisfidh /ˈkl̪ˠɔʃiː/ "will hear", boicht /bˠɔxtʲ/ "poor" (gen. sg. masc.), doirse /ˈd̪ɔɾˠʃə/ "doors", goirt /ɡɔɾˠtʲ/ "salty", oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ "east"
before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ /oː/ coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠnʲeːl̪ˠ/ "corner", oird /oːɾˠdʲ/ "sledgehammers"
before syllable-final ⟨ll⟩ /ɔ/ /əi/ /iː/ coill /kəilʲ/ "forest, woods", coillte /ˈkəilʲtʲə/ "forests"
next to ⟨n, m, mh⟩ /ɪ/ anois /əˈn̪ˠɪʃ/ "now", gloine /ˈɡl̪ˠɪnʲə/ "glass", cnoic /kn̪ˠɪc/ "hills", roimh /ɾˠɪvʲ/ "before", coimeád /ˈkɪmʲaːd̪ˠ/ "keep" (imper.), loinge /ˈl̪ˠɪɲɟə/ "ship" (gen.)
before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and word final ⟨m⟩ /ɪ/ /iː/ foinn /fˠiːnʲ/ "wish" (gen.), droim /d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/ "back"
unstressed /ə/ éadroime /eːdrəmʲə/ "lightness"
oí, oío /iː/ croíleacán /ˈkɾˠiːlʲəkaːn̪ˠ/ "core", croíonna /ˈkɾˠiːn̪ˠə/ "hearts"
ó, ói /oː/ póg /pˠoːɡ/ "kiss", armónach /ˈaɾˠəmˠoːn̪əx/ "harmonic", móin /mˠoːnʲ/ "sod, turf", bádóir /ˈbˠaːd̪ˠoːrʲ/ "boatman"
u stressed usually /ʊ/ dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ "black"
before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ /uː/ burla /ˈbˠuːɾˠl̪ˠə/ "bundle", murnán /ˈmˠuːɾˠn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ "ankle", urlár /ˈuːɾˠl̪ˠaːɾˠ/ "floor"
in English loanwords when derived from /ʌ/ /ɔ/~/ʊ/ bus /bˠɔsˠ/, club /kl̪ˠɔbˠ/
unstressed usually /ə/ agus /ˈaɡəsˠ/ "and"
finally /ʊ/ orthu /ˈɔɾˠhʊ/ "on them"
ua, uai /uə/ fuar /fˠuəɾˠ/ "cold", fuair /fˠuəɾʲ/ "got"
uá, uái /uː.aː/ ruán /ˈɾˠuːaːn̪ˠ/ "buckwheat", duán /ˈd̪ˠuːaːn̪ˠ/ "kidney, fishhook", fuáil /ˈfˠuːaːlʲ/ "sewing, stitching"
ui stressed usually /ɪ/ duine /ˈd̪ˠɪnʲə/ "person"
before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and word final ⟨m⟩ /ɪ/ /iː/ tuillteanach /ˈt̪ˠiːlʲtʲən̪ˠəx/ "deserving", puinn /pˠiːnʲ/"much", suim /sˠiːmʲ/ "interest"
before ⟨cht, rs, rt⟩ /ʊ/ tuirseach /ˈt̪ˠʊɾˠʃəx/ "tired", cluichte /ˈkl̪ˠʊxtʲə/ "harassment" (gen.)
before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ /uː/ duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ "stony beach", tuirne /ˈt̪ˠuːɾˠnʲə/ "spinning wheel"
unstressed /ə/ aguisín /ˈaɡəʃiːnʲ/ "addition"
uí, uío /iː/ buígh /bˠiːj/ "turn yellow" (imper.), buíon /bˠiːn̪ˠ/ "band, troop"
uó, uói /uː.oː/ cruóg /ˈkɾˠuːoːɡ/ "urgent need", luóige /ˈl̪ˠuːoːɟə/ "pollock" (gen.)
ú, úi /uː/ tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ "beginning", súil /suːlʲ/ "eye", cosúil /ˈkɔsˠuːlʲ/ "like, resembling"

Followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩

When followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩, a stressed vowel usually forms a diphthong or lengthens.

For ⟨(a)idh, (a)igh, (e)adh⟩, see also Special pronunciations in verb forms.

Stressed

Letter(s) Phoneme Examples
U C M
(e)abh, (e)abha, (e)abhai /əu/~/oː/ leabhair /lʲəuɾʲ/ "books", Feabhra /ˈfʲəuɾˠə/ "February"
(e)amh, (e)amha, (e)amhai Samhain /sˠəunʲ/ "November", amhantar /ˈəun̪ˠt̪ˠəɾˠ/ "venture", ramhraigh /ˈɾˠəuɾˠiː/ "fattened"
(e)obh, (e)obha, (e)obhai lobhar /l̪ˠəuɾˠ/ "leper"
(e)odh, (e)odha, (e)odhai bodhar /bˠəuɾˠ/ "deaf"
(e)ogh, (e)ogha, (e)oghai rogha /ɾˠəu/ "choice"
(e)omh, (e)omha, (e)omhai tomhail /t̪ˠoːlʲ/ "consume" (imper.), Domhnach /ˈd̪ˠoːn̪ˠəx/ "Sunday"
(e)adh, (e)adha, (e)adhai /əi/~/eː/ /əi/ adhairt /əiɾˠtʲ/ "pillow", meadhg /mʲəiɡ/ "whey"
(e)agh, (e)agha, (e)aghai aghaidh /əij/ "face", saghsanna /ˈsˠəisˠən̪ˠə/ "sorts, kinds"
aidh, aidhe, aidhea aidhm /əimʲ/ "aim"
aigh, aighe, aighea aighneas /əinʲəsˠ/ "argument, discussion"
eidh, eidhea, eidhi feidhm /fʲəimʲ/ "function"
eigh, eighea, eighi leigheas /lʲəisˠ/ "healing"
oidh, oidhea, oidhi oidhre /əirʲə/ "heir"
oigh, oighea, oighi loighic /l̪ˠəic/ "logic"
(i)umh, (i)umha, (i)umhai /uː/ Mumhan /ˈmˠuːn̪ˠ/ "Munster" (gen.)

Unstressed

Letter(s) Phoneme Examples
U C M
M G
(e)adh /uː/ /ə/ briseadh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃə/ "breaking"
(e)agh margadh /ˈmˠaɾˠəɡə/ "market"
(a)idh /iː/ /ɪɟ/ tuillidh /ˈt̪ˠɪlʲiː/ "addition" (gen.), cleachtaidh /ˈclʲaxt̪ˠiː/ "practice" (gen.)
(a)igh coiligh /ˈkɛlʲiː/ "rooster" (gen.), bacaigh /ˈbˠakiː/ "beggar" (gen.)

Epenthesis

In the sequence of short vowel + /l, n, r/ + labial, palatal, or velar consonant (except for voiceless stops) within the same morpheme, an unwritten /ə/ gets inserted between the /l, n, r/ and the following consonant:

  • gorm /ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ/ "blue"
  • dearg /ˈdʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red"
  • dorcha /ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə/ "dark"
  • ainm /ˈanʲəmʲ/ "name"
  • deilgneach /ˈdʲɛlʲəɟnʲəx/ "prickly, thorny"
  • leanbh /ˈlʲan̪ˠəw/ "child"
  • airgead /ˈaɾʲəɟəd̪ˠ/ "silver, money"

But:

  • corp /kɔɾˠpˠ/ "body"
  • olc /ɔl̪ˠk/ "bad"

There is additionally no epenthesis after long vowels and diphthongs:

  • téarma /tʲeːɾˠmˠə/ "term"
  • dualgas /ˈd̪ˠuəl̪ˠɡəsˠ/ "duty"

The rules of epenthesis do not apply across morpheme boundaries (e.g. after prefixes and in compound words):

  • garmhac /ˈɡaɾˠwak/ "grandson" (from gar- ("close, near") + mac ("son"))
  • an-chiúin /ˈan̪ˠçuːnʲ/ "very quiet" (from an- ("very") + ciúin ("quiet"))
  • carrbhealach /ˈkaːɾˠvʲal̪ˠəx/ "carriageway, roadway" (from carr ("car") + bealach ("way, road"))

Special pronunciations in verb forms

In verb forms, some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere.

In the imperfect, conditional, and imperative, -⟨dh⟩ is pronounced /tʲ/ before a pronoun beginning with ⟨s⟩:

  • mholadh sé /ˈwɔl̪ˠətʲ ʃeː/ "he used to praise"
  • bheannódh sibh /ˈvʲan̪ˠoːtʲ ʃɪvʲ/ "you (pl.) would bless"
  • osclaíodh sí /ˈɔsˠkl̪ˠiːtʲ ʃiː/ "let her open"

Otherwise it is pronounced /x/:

  • mholadh an buachaill /ˈwɔl̪ˠəx ə ˈbˠuəxəlʲ/ "the boy used to praise"
  • bheannódh na cailíní /ˈvʲanoːx n̪ˠə ˈkalʲiːnʲiː/ "the girls would bless"
  • osclaíodh Siobhán /ˈɔsˠkl̪ˠiːx ˈʃʊwaːn̪ˠ/ "let Siobhán open"

In the preterite impersonal, -⟨dh⟩ is pronounced /w/:

  • moladh é /ˈmˠɔl̪ˠəw eː/ "he was praised"
  • beannaíodh na cailíní /ˈbʲan̪iːw nə ˈkalʲiːnʲiː/ "the girls were blessed"

-⟨(a)idh, (a)igh⟩ are pronounced /ə/ before a pronoun, otherwise /iː/:

  • molfaidh mé /ˈmˠɔl̪ˠhə mʲeː/ "I will praise"
  • molfaidh Seán /ˈmˠɔl̪ˠhiː ʃaːn/ "Seán will praise"
  • bheannaigh mé /ˈvʲan̪ˠə mʲeː/ "I blessed"
  • bheannaigh Seán /ˈvʲan̪ˠiː ʃaːn/ "Seán blessed"

In the future and conditional, -⟨f⟩- (broad or slender) has the following effects:

  1. Pronounced /h/ after vowels and sonorants (/l̪ˠ lʲ mˠ mʲ n̪ˠ nʲ ɾˠ ɾʲ/):
    • molfaidh /ˈmˠɔl̪ˠhiː/ "will praise"
    • dhófadh /ˈɣoːhəx/ "would burn"
    • déarfaidh /ˈdʲeːɾˠhiː/ "will say"
  2. Devoices (/bˠ bʲ vʲ d̪ˠ ɡ/); and makes /w/ turn into /fˠ/:
    • scuabfadh /ˈsˠkuəpəx/ "would sweep"
    • goidfidh /ˈɡɛtʲiː/ "will steal"
    • leagfadh /ˈlʲakəx/ "would lay"
    • scríobhfaidh /ˈʃcɾʲiːfˠiː/ "will write"
    • shnámhfadh /ˈhn̪ˠaːfˠəx/ "would swim"
  3. Silent after a voiceless obstruent (/k c x ç pˠ pʲ sˠ ʃ t̪ˠ tʲ/)
    • brisfidh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃiː/ "will break"
    • ghlacfadh /ˈɣl̪ˠakəx/ "would accept"
  4. But in the future and conditional impersonal ⟨f⟩ is often /fˠ, fʲ/
    • molfar /ˈmˠɔl̪ˠfˠəɾˠ/ "one will praise"
    • dhófaí /ˈɣoːfˠiː/ "one would burn"
    • scuabfar /ˈsˠkuəbˠfˠəɾˠ/ "one will sweep"
    • brisfear /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃfʲəɾˠ/ "one will break"

In the past participle -⟨th⟩- (also ⟨t⟩ after ⟨d⟩) is silent but devoices voiced obstruents:

  • scuabtha /ˈsˠkuəpˠə/ "swept"
  • troidte /ˈt̪ˠɾˠɛtʲə/ "fought"
  • ruaigthe /ˈɾˠuəcə/ "chased"

Diacritics

Road sign in the Donegal Gaeltacht: Note Comhaırle, obaır, maoınıú, Roınn, Oıdhreachta and Oıleán with dotless ı.

An Caighdeán Oifigiúil currently uses one diacritic, the acute accent, though traditionally a second was used, the overdot. Irish preserves diacritics in uppercase forms. If diacritics are unavailable, e.g. on a computer using ASCII, there is no official standard for replacing them, though the acute accent is generally substituted by an apostrophe in personal names, e.g. Dara Ó Briain → Dara O'Briain, and the overdot is replaced by a following ⟨h⟩, e.g. Ḃí sé → Bhí sé.

The acute accent (⟨◌́⟩; Irish: agúid; (síneadh) fada "long (sign)" when used in Irish)1 is used to indicate a long vowel, as in bád /bˠaːd̪ˠ/ "boat". However, there are other conventions to indicate a long vowel, such as:

  • a following ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩, e.g. ard /aːɾˠd̪ˠ/ "high", eirleach /ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/ "destruction", dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist"
  • ⟨ae, ao, eo⟩, e.g. aerach /ˈeːɾˠəx/ "gay", maol /mˠiːl̪ˠ/ "bare", ceol /coːl̪ˠ/ "music"
  • ⟨omh(a), umh(a)⟩, e.g. comharsa /ˈkoːɾˠsˠə/ "neighbour", Mumhain /mˠuːnʲ/ "Munster"
  • long /iː/ and /uː/ before /aː/ or /oː/, e.g. fiáin /ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/ "wild", ruóg /ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/ "twine"

The overdot (⟨◌̇⟩; Template:Lang-ga "dot of lenition", buailte "struck", or séimhiú "lenition") was traditionally used to indicate lenition, though An Caighdeán uses a following ⟨h⟩ for this purpose. Thus ⟨ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ⟩ are equivalent to ⟨bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th⟩. In Old Irish, it was only used for ⟨ḟ, ṡ⟩, while the following ⟨h⟩ was used for ⟨ch, ph, th⟩ and the lenition of other letters was not indicated. Later the two systems spread to the entire set of lenitable consonants and competed with each other. Eventually the standard practice was to use the dot in Gaelic type and the following ⟨h⟩ in Roman type.

Lowercase ⟨i⟩ has no tittle in Gaelic type, and road signs in the Republic of Ireland. However, as printed and electronic material like books, newspapers and web pages use Roman type almost invariably, the tittle is generally shown. Irish does not graphemically distinguish dotted i and dotless ı , i.e. they are not different letters as they are in, e.g. Turkish and Azeri.

Punctuation

Íoc ⁊ Taispeáin ("Pay & Display") sign in Dublin with the Tironian et for agus "and".

Generally, the use of punctuation marks is similar to English. An exception worth noting is the Tironian et (⟨⁊⟩; Irish: agus) which generally abbreviates the word agus "and", like the ampersand (⟨&⟩) abbreviates "and" in English.

A hyphen (Template:Lang-ga) is used in Irish after ⟨t, n⟩ when prefixed to a masculine vowel-initial word as an initial mutation, e.g. an t-arán "the bread", a n-iníon "their daughter". However, it is omitted when the vowel is capitalised, e.g. an tAlbanach "the Scotsman", Ár nAthair "Our Father". No hyphen is used when ⟨h⟩ is prefixed to a vowel-initial word: a hiníon "her daughter".

The hyphen is also used in compound words under certain circumstances:

  • between two vowels, e.g. mí-ádh "misfortune"
  • between two similar consonants, e.g. droch-chaint "bad language", grod-díol "prompt payment"
  • in a three-part compound, e.g. buan-chomhchoiste "permanent joint committee"
  • after the prefixes do-, fo-, so- before a word beginning with ⟨bha, bhla, bhra, dha, gha, ghla, ghra, mha⟩, e.g. do-bhlasta "bad tasting", fo-ghlac "subsume", so-mharfacht "mortality"
  • in capitalised titles, e.g. An Príomh-Bhreitheamh "the Chief Justice"
  • after an- "very" and dea- "good", e.g. an-mhór "very big", dea-mhéin "goodwill"

The apostrophe (Template:Lang-ga) is used to indicate an omitted vowel in the following cases:

  • the prepositions de "from" and do "to" both become d' before a vowel (or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, since ⟨fh⟩ is silent), as in Thit sí d'each "She fell from a horse" and Tabhair d'fhear an tí é "Give it to the landlord"
  • the possessive pronouns mo "my" and do "your (singular)" become m' and d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in m'óige "my youth", d'fhiacail "your tooth"
  • the preverbal particle do becomes d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in d'ardaigh mé "I raised", d'fhanfadh sé "he would wait"
  • the copular particle ba becomes b' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in B'ait liom é sin "I found that odd" and b'fhéidir "maybe". However, ba retains its vowel before the pronouns é, í, iad, as in Ba iad na ginearáil a choinnigh an chumhacht "It was the generals who kept the power"

Capitalisation

Bilingual sign in Ireland. The eclipsis of ⟨P⟩ to ⟨bP⟩ uses lowercase in an otherwise all-caps text.

Capitalisation rules are similar to English. However, a prefixed letter remains in lowercase when the base initial is capitalised (an tSín "China"). For text written in all caps, the prefixed letter is kept in lowercase, or small caps (STAIR NA HÉIREANN "THE HISTORY OF IRELAND").[8] An initial capital is used for:[9]

  • Start of sentence
  • Names of people, places (except the words an, na, de),[10] languages ,and adjectives of people and places (Micheál Ó Murchú "Michael Murphy"; Máire Mhac an tSaoi "Mary McEntee"; de Búrca "Burke"; Sliabh na mBan "Slievenamon"; Fraincis "French"; bia Iodálach "Italian food")
  • Names of months, weeks and feast-days (Meán Fómhair "September"; an Luan "Monday"; Oíche Nollag "Christmas Eve")
  • Dé "day" (Dé Luain "on Monday")
  • Definite titles[11]

Abbreviations

Most Irish abbreviations in are straightforward, e.g. leathanach → lch. ("page → p.") and mar shampla → m.sh. ("exempli gratia (for example) → e.g."), but two that require explanation are: eadhon → .i. ("that is → i.e.") and agus araile → ⁊rl./srl. ("et cetera (and so forth) → &c./etc.").

Spelling reform

The literary Classical Irish which survived till the 17th century was already archaic and its spelling reflected that; Theobald Stapleton's 1639 catechism was a first attempt at simplification.[12] The classical spelling represented a dialect continuum including distinctions lost in all surviving dialects by the Gaelic revival of the late 19th century. The issue of simplifying spelling, linked to the use of Roman or Gaelic type, was controversial in the early decades of the 20th century.[13] The Irish Texts Society's 1904 Irish–English bilingual dictionary by Patrick S. Dinneen used traditional spellings.[13] After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, all Acts of the Oireachtas were translated into Irish, initially using Dinneen's spellings, with a list of simplifications accruing over the years.[13] When Éamon de Valera became President of the Executive Council after the 1932 election, policy reverted to older spellings, which were used in the enrolled text of the 1937 Constitution.[13] In 1941, de Valera decided to publish a "popular edition" of the Constitution with simplified spelling and established a committee of experts, which failed to agree on recommendations.[13][14] Instead, the Oireachtas' own translation service prepared a booklet, Litriú na Gaeilge: Lámhleabhar an Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil, published in 1945.[14] The following are some old spellings criticised by T. F. O'Rahilly and their simplifications:[13]

Old spelling New spelling
beirbhiughadh beiriú
imthighthe imithe
faghbháil fáil
urradhas urrús
filidheacht filíocht

The booklet was expanded in 1947,[15] and republished as An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official Standard") in 1958, combined with the standard grammar of 1953.[16] It attracted initial criticism as unhistorical and artificial; some spellings fail to represent the pronunciation of some dialects, while others preserve letters unpronounced in any dialect.[16] Its status was reinforced by use in the civil service and as a guide for Tomás de Bhaldraithe's 1959 English–Irish dictionary and Niall Ó Dónaill's 1977 Irish–English dictionary.[16] A review of the written standard, including spelling, was announced in 2010, aiming to improve "simplicity, internal consistency, and logic".[17] The result was the 2017 update of An Caighdeán Oifigiúil.[18]

See also

Notes

  • ^1 Vowels with an acute accent are read as [á/é/í/ó/ú] fada "long [á/é/í/ó/ú]".

References

  1. ^ Oireachtas, Houses of the (2 February 2018). "Publications by the Houses of the Oireachtas – Houses of the Oireachtas". www.oireachtas.ie. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
  2. ^ "Ogham alphabet".
  3. ^ O. Cuiv, Brian (1988). The Irish of West Muskerry, Co. Cork: a phonetic study. Dublin: The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 978-0-901282-52-1. OCLC 794908503.
  4. ^ Ó Dónaill, Niall (2007). Tomás De Bhaldraithe (ed.). Foclóir Gaeilge-Béarla. An Gúm. ISBN 978-1-85791-038-4. OCLC 670042711.
  5. ^ Learn Irish Rosetta Stone. Retrieved: 2020-06-21.
  6. ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí. An Gúm. 22 September 1999. ISBN 9781857913279.
  7. ^ "Irish Orthography". www.nualeargais.ie. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
  8. ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí, §3.2
  9. ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí, §3.1
  10. ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí, §§ 3.1, 7.6, 10.2-10.3
  11. ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí, §§ 3.1, 3.4
  12. ^ Crowley, Tony (2005). "Encoding Ireland: Dictionaries and Politics in Irish History". Éire-Ireland. 40 (3): 119–139. doi:10.1353/eir.2005.0017. ISSN 1550-5162. S2CID 154134330.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Ó Cearúil, Micheál; Ó Murchú, Máirtín (1999). "Script and Spelling". Bunreacht na hÉireann: a study of the Irish text (PDF). Dublin: Stationery Office. pp. 27–41. ISBN 0-7076-6400-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011.
  14. ^ a b Dáil debates Vol.99 No.17 p.3 7 March 1946
  15. ^ Litriú na Gaeilge – Lámhleabhar An Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil (in Irish). Dublin: Stationery Office / Oifig an tSoláthair. 1947. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  16. ^ a b c Ó Laoire, Muiris (1997). "The Standardization of Irish Spelling: an Overview". Journal of the Spelling Society. 22 (2): 19–23. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011.
  17. ^ Central Translation Unit. "The Scope of the Process". Review of Caighdeán Oifigiúil na Gaeilge. Department of Community, Equality and Gaeltacht Affairs. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
  18. ^ "Rannóg an Aistriúcháin > An Caighdeán Oifigiúil". In September 2014, members of the public and other interested parties were asked to make submissions regarding An Caighdeán Oifigiúil. An Advisory Committee was also established, which worked tirelessly for a year and a half to identify issues and to make recommendations. The result of this work is the new edition of An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, published by the Houses of the Oireachtas Service in 2017.

Bibliography

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