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* '''Kenneth Howse''' - UK Oxford philosopher and ethicist, expert on Longevity
* '''Kenneth Howse''' - UK Oxford philosopher and ethicist, expert on Longevity
* '''Thomas E. Johnson''' - discovered long-lived [[mutant]]s of [[Caenorhabditis elegans|C elegans]]
* '''Thomas E. Johnson''' - discovered long-lived [[mutant]]s of [[Caenorhabditis elegans|C elegans]]
* [[Matt Kaeberlein]] - discovered the anti-aging role of [[sirtuins]] <ref>1. Kaeberlein, M., M. McVey, and L. Guarente, The SIR2/3/4 complex and SIR2 alone promote longevity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by two different mechanisms. Genes Dev, 1999. 13(19): p. 2570-80.</ref> and proposed that the [[mammalian target of rapamycin]] (mTOR) mediates the beneficial effects of [[caloric restriction]] <ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |author=Kaeberlein M, Powers RW, Steffen KK, ''et al'' |title=Regulation of yeast replicative life span by TOR and Sch9 in response to nutrients |journal=Science |volume=310 |issue=5751 |pages=1193–6 |year=2005 |month=November |pmid=16293764 |doi=10.1126/science.1115535 }}</ref>
* [[Matt Kaeberlein]] - discovered the anti-aging role of sirtuins <ref>1. Kaeberlein, M., M. McVey, and L. Guarente, The SIR2/3/4 complex and SIR2 alone promote longevity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by two different mechanisms. Genes Dev, 1999. 13(19): p. 2570-80.</ref> and proposed that the [[mammalian target of rapamycin]] (mTOR) mediates the beneficial effects of caloric restriction <ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |author=Kaeberlein M, Powers RW, Steffen KK, ''et al'' |title=Regulation of yeast replicative life span by TOR and Sch9 in response to nutrients |journal=Science |volume=310 |issue=5751 |pages=1193–6 |year=2005 |month=November |pmid=16293764 |doi=10.1126/science.1115535 }}</ref>
* [[Brian K Kennedy|Brian Kennedy]] - challenges the hypothesis that [[sirtuins]] mediate the beneficial effects of [[caloric restriction]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kaeberlein M, Kirkland KT, Fields S, Kennedy BK |title=Sir2-independent life span extension by calorie restriction in yeast |journal=PLoS Biol. |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=E296 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15328540 |pmc=514491 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020296 }}</ref> instead proposing that the mediator is the [[mammalian target of rapamycin]] (mTOR) <ref name=autogenerated1 />
* [[Brian K Kennedy|Brian Kennedy]] - challenges the hypothesis that sirtuins mediate the beneficial effects of caloric restriction<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kaeberlein M, Kirkland KT, Fields S, Kennedy BK |title=Sir2-independent life span extension by calorie restriction in yeast |journal=PLoS Biol. |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=E296 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15328540 |pmc=514491 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020296 }}</ref> instead proposing that the mediator is the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) <ref name=autogenerated1 />
* [[Cynthia Kenyon]] - quadrupled the lifespan of specimens of the small worm ''[[Caenorhabitis elegans]]'' by altering a single gene
* [[Cynthia Kenyon]] - quadrupled the lifespan of specimens of the small worm ''[[Caenorhabitis elegans]]'' by altering a single gene
* [[Thomas Kirkwood]] - developed the disposable soma theory, contributing to the [[Evolution of ageing|evolutionary biogerontology]]
* [[Thomas Kirkwood]] - developed the disposable soma theory, contributing to the [[Evolution of ageing|evolutionary biogerontology]]
* [[Marios Kyriazis]] - proposed [[carnosine]] as a general anti-aging supplement, and disapproved the notion that cosmetics and beauty products form part of [[anti-aging medicine]]
* [[Marios Kyriazis]] - proposed [[carnosine]] as a general anti-aging supplement, and disapproved the notion that cosmetics and beauty products form part of [[anti-aging medicine]]
* [[Valter Longo]] - advanced research in the field of gene manipulation and its relation to life extension.
* [[Valter Longo]] - advanced research in the field of gene manipulation and its relation to life extension.
* [[Linda Partridge]] - works on Drosophila aging at [[University College London]]
* [[Linda Partridge]] - works on Drosophila aging at University College London
* [[Christian Pike]] - studies the role of neuronal apoptosis in neural diseases. Also leads research on testosterone's effects on the development of Alzheimer's disease.
* [[Christian Pike]] - studies the role of neuronal apoptosis in neural diseases. Also leads research on testosterone's effects on the development of Alzheimer's disease.
* [[Durk Pearson]] - mostly self-taught on biology research, published the book Life Extension
* [[Durk Pearson]] - mostly self-taught on biology research, published the book Life Extension
* [[Suresh Rattan]] - coined the terms gerontogenes and virtual-gerontogenes; is a pioneer of application of mild stress-induced [[hormesis]] as an aging modulatory strategy in human cells; and is the founding Editor-in-Chief of the journal "[Biogerontology]http://www.springer.com/life+sci/cell+biology/journal/10522".
* [[Suresh Rattan]] - coined the terms gerontogenes and virtual-gerontogenes; is a pioneer of application of mild stress-induced [[hormesis]] as an aging modulatory strategy in human cells; and is the founding Editor-in-Chief of the journal "[Biogerontology]http://www.springer.com/life+sci/cell+biology/journal/10522".
* [[Michael R. Rose]] -- bred long-lived [[Drosophila|fruit flies]], a founder of [[Evolution of ageing|evolutionary biogerontology]]
* [[Michael R. Rose]] -- bred long-lived [[Drosophila|fruit flies]], a founder of evolutionary biogerontology
* [[Edward L. Schneider]] - the former director of the NIA's Gerontology Research Center and the first recipient of the William and Sylvia Kugel Chair of Gerontology.
* [[Edward L. Schneider]] - the former director of the NIA's Gerontology Research Center and the first recipient of the William and Sylvia Kugel Chair of Gerontology.
* [[David Sinclair (biologist)|David Sinclair]] - proposed that [[resveratrol]] slows aging and mimics [[caloric restriction]] by activating [[Sirtuins]] <ref>{{cite journal |author=Howitz KT, Bitterman KJ, Cohen HY, ''et al'' |title=Small molecule activators of sirtuins extend ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' lifespan |journal=Nature |volume=425 |issue=6954 |pages=191–6 |year=2003 |month=September |pmid=12939617 |doi=10.1038/nature01960 }}</ref>
* [[David Sinclair (biologist)|David Sinclair]] - proposed that [[resveratrol]] slows aging and mimics caloric restriction by activating Sirtuins <ref>{{cite journal |author=Howitz KT, Bitterman KJ, Cohen HY, ''et al'' |title=Small molecule activators of sirtuins extend ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' lifespan |journal=Nature |volume=425 |issue=6954 |pages=191–6 |year=2003 |month=September |pmid=12939617 |doi=10.1038/nature01960 }}</ref>
* [[Helder Marcal]] - discovered that a combination of specific botanical constituents can be used to modulate epigenetic modifications and prolong the aging process of skin
* [[Helder Marcal]] - discovered that a combination of specific botanical constituents can be used to modulate epigenetic modifications and prolong the aging process of skin
* '''John Speakman''' - works on metabolism and aging at the [[University of Aberdeen]]
* '''John Speakman''' - works on metabolism and aging at the [[University of Aberdeen]]
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====Other notable non-biomedical biogerontologists ====
====Other notable non-biomedical biogerontologists ====


* [[Leonard Hayflick]] (born 1928) - discovered the Hayflick limit, asserts elimination of aging is neither possible nor desirable
* Leonard Hayflick (born 1928) - discovered the Hayflick limit, asserts elimination of aging is neither possible nor desirable
* [[Raymond Pearl]] (3 June 1879 - 17 November 1940) - considered one of the founders of biogerontology
* [[Raymond Pearl]] (3 June 1879 - 17 November 1940) - considered one of the founders of biogerontology
* [[Elizabeth Zelinski]] - studies memory and cognition in older adults.
* [[Elizabeth Zelinski]] - studies memory and cognition in older adults.
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Social gerontology is a multi-disciplinary sub-field that specializes in studying or working with older adults.
Social gerontology is a multi-disciplinary sub-field that specializes in studying or working with older adults.


Social gerontologists may have degrees or training in [[social work]], [[nursing]], [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[demography]], gerontology, or other [[social science]] disciplines. Social gerontologists are responsible for [[Education|educating]], researching, and advancing the broader causes of older people by giving informative presentations, publishing books and articles that pertain to the aging population, producing relevant films and television programs, and producing new graduates of these various disciplines in college and university settings.
Social gerontologists may have degrees or training in [[social work]], [[nursing]], psychology, [[sociology]], [[demography]], gerontology, or other [[social science]] disciplines. Social gerontologists are responsible for [[Education|educating]], researching, and advancing the broader causes of older people by giving informative presentations, publishing books and articles that pertain to the aging population, producing relevant films and television programs, and producing new graduates of these various disciplines in college and university settings.


Because issues of life span and life extension need numbers to quantify them, there is an overlap with [[demography]]. Those that study the demography of the human life span are different than those that study the social demographics of aging.
Because issues of life span and life extension need numbers to quantify them, there is an overlap with demography. Those that study the demography of the human life span are different than those that study the social demographics of aging.


===Social Work with Older Adults===
===Social Work with Older Adults===
[[Social work]] with older adults, known as geriatric social work, is considered to be both macro and micro practice with individuals over the age of 60 or 65, their families and communities, aging related policy, and [[aging research]]. [[Institute for Geriatric Social Work|Geriatric social workers]] typically provide [[counseling]], [[Direct Service|direct services]], [[Case management|care coordination]], [[community planning]], and [[advocacy]] in an array of organizations including [[home care|in home]], [[neighborhoods]], [[hospitals]], [[senior living|senior congregate living]] and [[Nursing home|nursing facilities]].
Social work with older adults, known as geriatric social work, is considered to be both macro and micro practice with individuals over the age of 60 or 65, their families and communities, aging related policy, and [[aging research]]. [[Institute for Geriatric Social Work|Geriatric social workers]] typically provide [[counseling]], [[Direct Service|direct services]], [[Case management|care coordination]], [[community planning]], and [[advocacy]] in an array of organizations including [[home care|in home]], [[neighborhoods]], [[hospitals]], [[senior living|senior congregate living]] and [[Nursing home|nursing facilities]].


====Prevalence====
====Prevalence====
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* '''Alexis Abramson'''
* '''Alexis Abramson'''
* '''Vern Bengston'''<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/d0vg7003dq11le7j/ SpringerLink - Journal Article<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> -- Professor emeritus at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. His research covers the sociology of life course, family sociology, social psychology, and ethnicity and aging.
* '''Vern Bengston'''<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/d0vg7003dq11le7j/ SpringerLink - Journal Article<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> -- Professor emeritus at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. His research covers the sociology of life course, family sociology, social psychology, and ethnicity and aging.
* [[James Birren]] - considered to be the "founding father" of gerontology. Dean emeritus at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. An expert in the areas of neurocognition and psychology, he established much of the framework of modern gerontological theory.
* James Birren - considered to be the "founding father" of gerontology. Dean emeritus at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. An expert in the areas of neurocognition and psychology, he established much of the framework of modern gerontological theory.
* [[Eileen Crimmins]] - Edna M. Jones Professor of Gerontology at the USC Davis School of Gerontology and director of the USC/UCLA Center on Biodemography and Population Health. Currently researches the links between education, income level, and health in old age.
* Eileen Crimmins - Edna M. Jones Professor of Gerontology at the USC Davis School of Gerontology and director of the USC/UCLA Center on Biodemography and Population Health. Currently researches the links between education, income level, and health in old age.
* '''Linda George'''
* '''Linda George'''
* '''Pearl German'''
* '''Pearl German'''
* [[Sarah Harper]] - Professor of Gerontology, University of Oxford
* Sarah Harper - Professor of Gerontology, University of Oxford
* [[Mara Mather]] - cognitive psychologist and gerontologist whose research focuses on memory, emotion, decision making and aging
* [[Mara Mather]] - cognitive psychologist and gerontologist whose research focuses on memory, emotion, decision making and aging
* '''Erdman Palmore''' - noted for the International Handbook on Aging
* '''Erdman Palmore''' - noted for the International Handbook on Aging
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* '''Alan Walker'''
* '''Alan Walker'''
* [[Kathleen Wilber]] - Mary Pickford Foundation Professor of Gerontology at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. Her research is focused on improving the quality of life of people with chronic physical and mental health conditions by improving the formal health and long term care delivery systems.
* [[Kathleen Wilber]] - Mary Pickford Foundation Professor of Gerontology at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. Her research is focused on improving the quality of life of people with chronic physical and mental health conditions by improving the formal health and long term care delivery systems.
* [[Elizabeth Zelinski]] - principal investigator of the Long Beach Longitudinal Study, which evaluates cognition, memory and language comprehension in older adults.
* Elizabeth Zelinski - principal investigator of the Long Beach Longitudinal Study, which evaluates cognition, memory and language comprehension in older adults.
* [[Dr Jane Preston]] - Research interests centre around physiology of ageing of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics and blood-brain barrier.King's College London.
* [[Dr Jane Preston]] - Research interests centre around physiology of ageing of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics and blood-brain barrier.King's College London.


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It may be said that the history of gerontology begins with agriculture; prior to this the hunter-gatherer societies that existed could only support a marginal existence: food supply was short; frequent movement a necessity. These and other reasons meant that extremely few reached 'old age'. However, it could be argued that in a society with a life expectancy of 14 (such as 10,000 BC), being '40' was 'old'.
It may be said that the history of gerontology begins with agriculture; prior to this the hunter-gatherer societies that existed could only support a marginal existence: food supply was short; frequent movement a necessity. These and other reasons meant that extremely few reached 'old age'. However, it could be argued that in a society with a life expectancy of 14 (such as 10,000 BC), being '40' was 'old'.


Things changed with the coming of agriculture. A more stable food supply and the lack of frequent movement meant that humans could now survive longer, and beginning perhaps around 4000 BC, a regular segment of the population began to attain 'old age' in places such as Mesopotamia and the Indus river valleys. Agriculture didn't simply bring a steady food supply; it also suddenly made older persons an economic benefit instead of a burden. Older persons could stay and watch the farm (or children); make pottery or jewelry, and perform social functions, such as story-telling (oral tradition, religion, etc). and teaching the younger generation techniques for farming, tool-making, etc.
Things changed with the coming of agriculture. A more stable food supply and the lack of frequent movement meant that humans could now survive longer, and beginning perhaps around 4000 BC, a regular segment of the population began to attain 'old age' in places such as Mesopotamia and the Indus river valleys. Agriculture didn't simply bring a steady food supply; it also suddenly made older persons an economic benefit instead of a burden. Older persons could stay and watch the farm (or children); make pottery or jewelry, and perform social functions, such as story-telling (oral tradition, religion, etc.). and teaching the younger generation techniques for farming, tool-making, etc.


After this change, the views of elder persons in societies waxed and waned, but generally the proportion of the population over 50 or 60 remained small. Note that in ancient Egypt, Pharaoh [[Pepi II]] was said to have lived to 100 years old. Certainly [[Ramses II]] lived to about 90; modern scientific testing of his mummy supports the written record. Ancient Greeks valued old persons for their wisdom (some reaching 80, 90, or 100 years old), while old age was devalued in Roman times.
After this change, the views of elder persons in societies waxed and waned, but generally the proportion of the population over 50 or 60 remained small. Note that in ancient Egypt, Pharaoh [[Pepi II]] was said to have lived to 100 years old. Certainly [[Ramses II]] lived to about 90; modern scientific testing of his mummy supports the written record. Ancient Greeks valued old persons for their wisdom (some reaching 80, 90, or 100 years old), while old age was devalued in Roman times.


In the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]], elderly people were valued by [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]]. [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1025) was the first book to offer instruction for the care of the [[Ageing|aged]], foreshadowing modern gerontology and [[geriatrics]]. In a chapter entitled "Regimen of Old Age", Avicenna was concerned with how "old folk need plenty of sleep", how their bodies should be [[Anointing|anointed]] with [[oil]], and recommended [[exercise]]s such as [[walking]] or [[Equestrianism|horse-riding]]. Thesis III of the ''Canon'' discussed the [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] suitable for [[Old age|old people]], and dedicated several sections to elderly patients who become [[Constipation|constipated]].<ref name=Howell87>{{Cite journal|last=Howell|first=Trevor H.|title=Avicenna and His Regimen of Old Age|journal=Age and Ageing|year=1987|volume=16|pages=58–59|doi=10.1093/ageing/16.1.58|pmid=3551552|issue=1}}</ref>
In the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]], elderly people were valued by [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]]. [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1025) was the first book to offer instruction for the care of the aged, foreshadowing modern gerontology and geriatrics. In a chapter entitled "Regimen of Old Age", Avicenna was concerned with how "old folk need plenty of sleep", how their bodies should be [[Anointing|anointed]] with [[oil]], and recommended [[exercise]]s such as [[walking]] or [[Equestrianism|horse-riding]]. Thesis III of the ''Canon'' discussed the [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] suitable for [[Old age|old people]], and dedicated several sections to elderly patients who become [[Constipation|constipated]].<ref name=Howell87>{{Cite journal|last=Howell|first=Trevor H.|title=Avicenna and His Regimen of Old Age|journal=Age and Ageing|year=1987|volume=16|pages=58–59|doi=10.1093/ageing/16.1.58|pmid=3551552|issue=1}}</ref>


''The Canon of Medicine'' recognized four periods of [[life]]: the period of [[Human development (biology)|growth]], [[Adult|prime of life]], period of [[Middle age|elderly decline]] (from forty to sixty), and [[Muscle weakness|decrepit]] age. He states that during the last period, "there is hardness of their [[bone]]s, roughness of the [[skin]], and the long time since they produced [[semen]], [[blood]] and vaporal [[Breathing|breath]]". However, he agreed with [[Galen]] that the [[Earth (classical element)|earth element]] is more prominent in the aged and decrepit than in other periods. Avicenna did not agree with the concept of infirmity, however, stating: "There is no need to assert that there are three states of the human body—sickness, health and a state which is neither health nor disease. The first two cover everything."<ref name=Howell87/>
''The Canon of Medicine'' recognized four periods of [[life]]: the period of [[Human development (biology)|growth]], [[Adult|prime of life]], period of [[Middle age|elderly decline]] (from forty to sixty), and [[Muscle weakness|decrepit]] age. He states that during the last period, "there is hardness of their [[bone]]s, roughness of the [[skin]], and the long time since they produced [[semen]], [[blood]] and vaporal [[Breathing|breath]]". However, he agreed with [[Galen]] that the [[Earth (classical element)|earth element]] is more prominent in the aged and decrepit than in other periods. Avicenna did not agree with the concept of infirmity, however, stating: "There is no need to assert that there are three states of the human body—sickness, health and a state which is neither health nor disease. The first two cover everything."<ref name=Howell87/>


The famous [[Islamic medicine|Arabic physician]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]] Al-Qayrawani (Algizar, circa 898-980), also wrote a special book on the medicine and health of the elderly, entitled ''Kitab Tibb al-Machayikh''<ref name="Al Jazzar">[http://www.islam.org.br/al_jazzar.htm Al Jazzar]</ref> or ''Teb al-Mashaikh wa hefz sehatahom''.<ref>[http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/ishm/vesalius/VESx1998x04x01.pdf ''Vesalius'' Official journal of the International Society for the History of Medicine]</ref> He also wrote a book on [[sleep disorder]]s and another one on [[Forgetting|forgetfulness]] and how to strengthen [[memory]], entitled ''Kitab al-Nissian wa Toroq Taqwiati Adhakira'',<ref>[http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/MedecinsTextes/al_jazzar.htm Algizar a web page in french]</ref><ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/bioI.html#jazzar Ibn Jazzar]</ref><ref>[Geritt Bos, ''Ibn al-Jazzar'', ''Risala fi l-isyan'' (Treatise on forgetfulness), London, 1995 ]</ref> and a treatise on causes of [[Death|mortality]] entitled ''Rissala Fi Asbab al-Wafah''.<ref name="Al Jazzar"/> Another Arabic physician in the 9th century, Ishaq ibn Hunayn (died 910), the son of [[Hunayn Ibn Ishaq]], wrote a ''Treatise on Drugs for Forgetfulness'' (''Risalah al-Shafiyah fi adwiyat al-nisyan'').<ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_08.html Islamic culture and medical arts]</ref>
The famous Arabic physician, [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]] Al-Qayrawani (Algizar, circa 898-980), also wrote a special book on the medicine and health of the elderly, entitled ''Kitab Tibb al-Machayikh''<ref name="Al Jazzar">[http://www.islam.org.br/al_jazzar.htm Al Jazzar]</ref> or ''Teb al-Mashaikh wa hefz sehatahom''.<ref>[http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/ishm/vesalius/VESx1998x04x01.pdf ''Vesalius'' Official journal of the International Society for the History of Medicine]</ref> He also wrote a book on [[sleep disorder]]s and another one on [[Forgetting|forgetfulness]] and how to strengthen [[memory]], entitled ''Kitab al-Nissian wa Toroq Taqwiati Adhakira'',<ref>[http://www.medarus.org/Medecins/MedecinsTextes/al_jazzar.htm Algizar a web page in french]</ref><ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/bioI.html#jazzar Ibn Jazzar]</ref><ref>[Geritt Bos, ''Ibn al-Jazzar'', ''Risala fi l-isyan'' (Treatise on forgetfulness), London, 1995 ]</ref> and a treatise on causes of [[Death|mortality]] entitled ''Rissala Fi Asbab al-Wafah''.<ref name="Al Jazzar"/> Another Arabic physician in the 9th century, Ishaq ibn Hunayn (died 910), the son of [[Hunayn Ibn Ishaq]], wrote a ''Treatise on Drugs for Forgetfulness'' (''Risalah al-Shafiyah fi adwiyat al-nisyan'').<ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_08.html Islamic culture and medical arts]</ref>


In [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] on the other hand, during its [[Dark Ages]], negative opinions of the elderly prevailed.{{Citation needed|reason=perpetuating insipient opinions about the "Dark Ages" which have largely been disproven.|date=November 2009}} However, with the coming of the [[Renaissance]] old age returned to favor in Europe, as persons such as [[Michelangelo]] and [[Andrea Doria]] exemplified the ideals of living long, active, productive lives.
In [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] on the other hand, during its [[Dark Ages]], negative opinions of the elderly prevailed.{{Citation needed|reason=perpetuating insipient opinions about the "Dark Ages" which have largely been disproven.|date=November 2009}} However, with the coming of the [[Renaissance]] old age returned to favor in Europe, as persons such as [[Michelangelo]] and [[Andrea Doria]] exemplified the ideals of living long, active, productive lives.
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While the number of aged humans, and the maximum ages lived to, tended to increase in every century since the 14th century, society tended to consider caring for an elderly relative as a family issue. It was not until the coming of the [[Industrial Revolution]] with its techniques of [[mass production]] that ideas shifted in favor of a societal care-system. Care homes for the aged emerged in the 19th century. Note that some early pioneers, such as [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]], who himself lived to be 102 in the 1880s, believed that aging itself should be a science to be studied. The word 'Gerontology' was coined circa 1903<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=gerontology Online Etymology Dictionary<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> by [[Elie Metchnikoff]].
While the number of aged humans, and the maximum ages lived to, tended to increase in every century since the 14th century, society tended to consider caring for an elderly relative as a family issue. It was not until the coming of the [[Industrial Revolution]] with its techniques of [[mass production]] that ideas shifted in favor of a societal care-system. Care homes for the aged emerged in the 19th century. Note that some early pioneers, such as [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]], who himself lived to be 102 in the 1880s, believed that aging itself should be a science to be studied. The word 'Gerontology' was coined circa 1903<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=gerontology Online Etymology Dictionary<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> by [[Elie Metchnikoff]].


It was not until the 1940s, however, that pioneers like [[James Birren]] began organizing 'gerontology' into its own field. Recognizing that there were experts in many fields all dealing with the elderly, it became apparent that a group like the [[Gerontological Society of America]] was needed (founded in 1945). Two decades later, [[James Birren]] was appointed as the founding director of the first academic research center devoted exclusively to the study of aging, the [[Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center]] at the [[University of Southern California]].<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/gero/research.shtml USC Andrus Gerontology Center]</ref><ref name=Liebig>{{cite journal |last=Liebig |first=Phoebe S. |last2=Birren |first2=James E. |authorlink2=James Birren |title=The Andrus Center: A tale of gerontological firsts |journal=Contemporary Gerontology |volume=10 |issue=1 |year=2003 |pages=7-12 |url=http://www-scf.usc.edu/~sga/documents/Liebig%20Birren.pdf |accessdate=2010-08-23}}</ref> In 1975, the [[University of Southern California|USC]] [[Leonard Davis School of Gerontology]] became the first academic gerontology department, with [[James Birren|Birren]] as its founding dean. Gerontological education in the U.S. and abroad has flourished since then, with 57 universities in the U.S. offering masters degrees in gerontology in 2007.<ref name=Haley>{{cite journal |last=Haley |first=William E. |last2=Zelinski |first2=Elizabeth |title=Progress and challenges in graduate education in gerontology: The U.S. experience |journal=Gerontology & Geriatrics Education |volume=27 |issue=3 |year=2007 |pages=11-26 |doi=10.1300/J021v27n03_02}}</ref>
It was not until the 1940s, however, that pioneers like James Birren began organizing 'gerontology' into its own field. Recognizing that there were experts in many fields all dealing with the elderly, it became apparent that a group like the [[Gerontological Society of America]] was needed (founded in 1945). Two decades later, James Birren was appointed as the founding director of the first academic research center devoted exclusively to the study of aging, the [[Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center]] at the [[University of Southern California]].<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/gero/research.shtml USC Andrus Gerontology Center]</ref><ref name=Liebig>{{cite journal |last=Liebig |first=Phoebe S. |last2=Birren |first2=James E. |authorlink2=James Birren |title=The Andrus Center: A tale of gerontological firsts |journal=Contemporary Gerontology |volume=10 |issue=1 |year=2003 |pages=7–12 |url=http://www-scf.usc.edu/~sga/documents/Liebig%20Birren.pdf |accessdate=2010-08-23}}</ref> In 1975, the USC [[Leonard Davis School of Gerontology]] became the first academic gerontology department, with Birren as its founding dean. Gerontological education in the U.S. and abroad has flourished since then, with 57 universities in the U.S. offering masters degrees in gerontology in 2007.<ref name=Haley>{{cite journal |last=Haley |first=William E. |last2=Zelinski |first2=Elizabeth |title=Progress and challenges in graduate education in gerontology: The U.S. experience |journal=Gerontology & Geriatrics Education |volume=27 |issue=3 |year=2007 |pages=11–26 |doi=10.1300/J021v27n03_02}}</ref>


In the 1950s to the 1970s, the field was mainly social and concerned with issues such as nursing homes and health care. However, research by [[Leonard Hayflick]] in the 1960s (showing that a cell line culture will only divide about 50 times) helped lead to a separate branch, [[biogerontology]]. It became apparent that simply 'treating' aging wasn't enough. Finding out about the aging process, and what could be done about it, became an issue.
In the 1950s to the 1970s, the field was mainly social and concerned with issues such as nursing homes and health care. However, research by Leonard Hayflick in the 1960s (showing that a cell line culture will only divide about 50 times) helped lead to a separate branch, biogerontology. It became apparent that simply 'treating' aging wasn't enough. Finding out about the aging process, and what could be done about it, became an issue.


The biogerontological field was also bolstered when research by [[Cynthia Kenyon]] and others demonstrated that life extension was possible in lower life forms such as [[fruit flies]], [[worm]]s, and [[yeast]]. So far, however, nothing more than incremental (marginal) increases in life span have been seen in any mammalian species.
The biogerontological field was also bolstered when research by Cynthia Kenyon and others demonstrated that life extension was possible in lower life forms such as [[fruit flies]], [[worm]]s, and [[yeast]]. So far, however, nothing more than incremental (marginal) increases in life span have been seen in any mammalian species.


Today, social gerontology remains the largest sector of the field, but the biogerontological side is seen as being the 'hot' side.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Effros RB |title=Roy Walford and the immunologic theory of aging |journal=Immun Ageing |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=7 |year=2005 |month=April |pmid=15850487 |pmc=1131916 |doi=10.1186/1742-4933-2-7 }}</ref>
Today, social gerontology remains the largest sector of the field, but the biogerontological side is seen as being the 'hot' side.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Effros RB |title=Roy Walford and the immunologic theory of aging |journal=Immun Ageing |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=7 |year=2005 |month=April |pmid=15850487 |pmc=1131916 |doi=10.1186/1742-4933-2-7 }}</ref>
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* ''Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics'', ISSN: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01674943 0167-4943], [[Elsevier]]
* ''Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics'', ISSN: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01674943 0167-4943], [[Elsevier]]
* ''Australasian Journal on Ageing'', eISSN: [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117981049/home 1741-6612] ISSN: 1440-6381, [[John Wiley & Sons]]
* ''Australasian Journal on Ageing'', eISSN: [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117981049/home 1741-6612] ISSN: 1440-6381, [[John Wiley & Sons]]
* ''Canadian Journal on Aging'', eISSN: [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=CJG 1469-1779] ISSN: 0144-686X, [[Cambridge University Press]]
* ''Canadian Journal on Aging'', eISSN: [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=CJG 1469-1779] ISSN: 0144-686X, Cambridge University Press
* ''Clinical Gerontologist'', eISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t792303983 1545-2301] ISSN: 0731-7115, [[Routledge]]
* ''Clinical Gerontologist'', eISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t792303983 1545-2301] ISSN: 0731-7115, [[Routledge]]
* ''Educational Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t713722877 1521-0472] ISSN: 0360-1277, [[Routledge]]
* ''Educational Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t713722877 1521-0472] ISSN: 0360-1277, Routledge
* ''Experimental Gerontology'', ISSN: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/05315565 0531-5565], [[Elsevier]]
* ''Experimental Gerontology'', ISSN: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/05315565 0531-5565], Elsevier
* ''Geriatrics & Gerontology International'', eISSN: [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118507634/home 1447-0594] ISSN: 1444-1586, [[Japan Geriatrics Society]]
* ''Geriatrics & Gerontology International'', eISSN: [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118507634/home 1447-0594] ISSN: 1444-1586, [[Japan Geriatrics Society]]
* ''The Gerontologist'', eISSN: [http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ 1758-5341] ISSN: 0016-9013, [[Oxford University Press]]
* ''The Gerontologist'', eISSN: [http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ 1758-5341] ISSN: 0016-9013, [[Oxford University Press]]
* ''Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=JournalHome&ProduktNr=224091 1423-0003] ISSN: 0304-324X, [[Karger]]
* ''Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=JournalHome&ProduktNr=224091 1423-0003] ISSN: 0304-324X, [[Karger]]
* ''Gerontology & Geriatrics Education'', eISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t792304009 1545-3847] ISSN: 0270-1960, [[Routledge]]
* ''Gerontology & Geriatrics Education'', eISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t792304009 1545-3847] ISSN: 0270-1960, Routledge
* ''International Journal of Gerontology'', ISSN: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/18739598 1873-9598], [[Elsevier]]
* ''International Journal of Gerontology'', ISSN: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/18739598 1873-9598], Elsevier
* ''International Journal of Lifelong Education'', eISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t713747968 1464-519X] ISSN: 0260-1370, [[Routledge]]
* ''International Journal of Lifelong Education'', eISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t713747968 1464-519X] ISSN: 0260-1370, Routledge
* ''Journal of Aging Studies'', ISSN: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/08904065 0890-4065], [[Elsevier]]
* ''Journal of Aging Studies'', ISSN: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/08904065 0890-4065], Elsevier
* ''Journal of Applied Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://jag.sagepub.com/ 1552-4523] ISSN: 0733-4648, [[SAGE Publications]]
* ''Journal of Applied Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://jag.sagepub.com/ 1552-4523] ISSN: 0733-4648, [[SAGE Publications]]
* ''Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://www.springerlink.com/content/102929/?p=4fb8321b02004800b5cd7d46c65ff874&pi=0 1573-0719] ISSN: 0169-3816, Springer
* ''Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://www.springerlink.com/content/102929/?p=4fb8321b02004800b5cd7d46c65ff874&pi=0 1573-0719] ISSN: 0169-3816, Springer
* ''Journal of Religious Gerontology'', ISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t904095645 1050-2289], [[Routledge]]
* ''Journal of Religious Gerontology'', ISSN: [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t904095645 1050-2289], Routledge
* ''[[Journals of Gerontology]]''
* ''[[Journals of Gerontology]]''
** ''The Journals of Gerontology: Series A'', eISSN: [http://biomedgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/ 1758-535X] ISSN: 1079-5006, [[Oxford University Press]]
** ''The Journals of Gerontology: Series A'', eISSN: [http://biomedgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/ 1758-535X] ISSN: 1079-5006, Oxford University Press
** ''The Journals of Gerontology: Series B'', eISSN: [http://psychsocgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/ 1758-5368] ISSN: 1079-5014, [[Oxford University Press]]
** ''The Journals of Gerontology: Series B'', eISSN: [http://psychsocgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/ 1758-5368] ISSN: 1079-5014, Oxford University Press
* ''Reviews in Clinical Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=RCG 1469-9036] ISSN: 0959-2598, [[Cambridge University Press]]
* ''Reviews in Clinical Gerontology'', eISSN: [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=RCG 1469-9036] ISSN: 0959-2598, Cambridge University Press


==See also==
==See also==
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* [[Buck Institute for Age Research]]
* [[Buck Institute for Age Research]]
* [[Elderly care]]
* [[Elderly care]]
* [[Geriatrics]]
* [[Gerontology Research Group]]
* [[Gerontology Research Group]]
* [[Institute for Geriatric Social Work]]
{{col-3}}
{{col-3}}
* [[Leonard Davis School of Gerontology]]
* [[Life Extension]]
* [[Life Extension]]
* [[List of life extension topics]]
* [[List of life extension topics]]
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* [[Nurses' Health Study]]
* [[Nurses' Health Study]]
{{col-2}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Oldest people]]
* [[Oldest people]]
* [[Reliability theory of aging and longevity]]
* [[Retirement]]
* [[Retirement]]
* [[Senescence]]
* [[Silver Alert]]
* [[Silver Alert]]
* [[Telemedicine]]
* [[Telemedicine]]

Revision as of 17:59, 5 September 2010

Gerontology (from Greek: γέρων, geron, "old man" and -λογία, -logy, "study of") is the study of the social, psychological and biological aspects of aging. It is distinguished from geriatrics, which is the branch of medicine that studies the disease of the elderly.

Gerontology encompasses the following:

  • studying physical, mental, and social changes in people as they age;
  • investigating the ageing process itself (biogerontology);
  • investigating the interface of normal ageing and age-related disease (geroscience);
  • investigating the effects of our ageing population on society, including the fiscal effects of pensions, entitlements, life and health insurance, and retirement planning;
  • applying this knowledge to policies and programs, including a macroscopic (i.e. government planning) and microscopic (i.e. running a nursing home) perspective.

The multidisciplinary focus of gerontology means that there are a number of sub-fields, as well as associated fields such as psychology and sociology that also cross over into gerontology. However, that there is an overlap should not imply that they are the same. For example, a psychologist may specialize in early adults (and not be a gerontologist) or specialize in older adults (and be a gerontologist).

The field of gerontology was developed relatively late, and as such often lacks the structural and institutional support needed. (For example, relatively few universities offer a Ph.D. in gerontology.) However, the huge increase in the elderly population in the post-industrial Western nations has led to this becoming one of the most rapidly growing fields. Gerontology is currently a well-paying field for many in the West.

Biogerontology

Main articles: Life extension and Anti-aging movement

Biogerontology is the subfield of gerontology dedicated to studying the biological processes of aging. Some skeptics have worked to show that aging is a biological process that we are far from being able to control. Conservative biogerontologists who have only an intellectual interest in the aging process, like Leonard Hayflick, have predicted that the human life expectancy numbers will top out at about 85 (88 for females, 82 for males), although the consensus now is that the numbers will continue to rise.

Biomedical gerontology, also known as experimental gerontology and life extension, is a sub discipline of biogerontology that endeavors to slow, prevent, and even reverse aging in both humans and animals. Curing age-related diseases is one approach, and slowing down the underlying processes of aging is another. Most "life extensionists" believe the human life span can be altered within the next century, if not sooner. "Optimists" such as Aubrey DeGrey are of the opinion that the first person to reach one thousand years of age has already been born.

Some biogerontologists take an intermediate position, emphasizing the study of the aging process as a means of mitigating aging-associated diseases, while either denying that maximum life span can be altered or denying that it is desirable to try.

Notable biogerontologists

Notable biomedical gerontologists

Notable biogerotechnologists (business/applied)

Notable demographic gerontologists

  • Eileen Crimmins - director of the USC/UCLA Center on Biodemography and Population Health. Currently researches the links between education, income level, and health in old age.
  • Sarah Harper - UK Professor Gerontology, Oxford University , described social implications of population ageing, expert on work, family and ageing in Asia
  • George Leeson - UK Oxford statistician and demographer, worked extensively on Scandinavian ageing and global migration; Heads Global Ageing Survey
  • Jay Olshansky - a noted skeptic of life-extension claims
  • Jean-Marie Robine - validated the Jeanne Calment case
  • James Vaupel - lead the push for the internationalization of demographic data on the human life span

Other notable non-biomedical biogerontologists

  • Leonard Hayflick (born 1928) - discovered the Hayflick limit, asserts elimination of aging is neither possible nor desirable
  • Raymond Pearl (3 June 1879 - 17 November 1940) - considered one of the founders of biogerontology
  • Elizabeth Zelinski - studies memory and cognition in older adults.

Medical gerontology

Main article: Geriatrics

Social gerontology

Social gerontology is a multi-disciplinary sub-field that specializes in studying or working with older adults.

Social gerontologists may have degrees or training in social work, nursing, psychology, sociology, demography, gerontology, or other social science disciplines. Social gerontologists are responsible for educating, researching, and advancing the broader causes of older people by giving informative presentations, publishing books and articles that pertain to the aging population, producing relevant films and television programs, and producing new graduates of these various disciplines in college and university settings.

Because issues of life span and life extension need numbers to quantify them, there is an overlap with demography. Those that study the demography of the human life span are different than those that study the social demographics of aging.

Social Work with Older Adults

Social work with older adults, known as geriatric social work, is considered to be both macro and micro practice with individuals over the age of 60 or 65, their families and communities, aging related policy, and aging research. Geriatric social workers typically provide counseling, direct services, care coordination, community planning, and advocacy in an array of organizations including in home, neighborhoods, hospitals, senior congregate living and nursing facilities.

Prevalence

Rapid aging populations are expected worldwide. In the United States, the “Baby Boomer” generation will begin to turn 65 in the year 2011, and the population is expected to double from 2000 by 2030. Those over the age of 85 are projected to increase from 5.3 million to 21 million by 2050 [7]. With the rapid growth of the population, social work education and training specialized in older adults and practitioners interested in working with older adults are increasingly in demand [8][9] In the last decade geriatric social work education, practice, and research has received substantial support from foundations such as John. A Hartford Foundation, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and Atlantic Philanthropies[10] but many challenges and horizons still remain.

Notable social and psychological gerontologists

  • Alexis Abramson
  • Vern Bengston[11] -- Professor emeritus at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. His research covers the sociology of life course, family sociology, social psychology, and ethnicity and aging.
  • James Birren - considered to be the "founding father" of gerontology. Dean emeritus at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. An expert in the areas of neurocognition and psychology, he established much of the framework of modern gerontological theory.
  • Eileen Crimmins - Edna M. Jones Professor of Gerontology at the USC Davis School of Gerontology and director of the USC/UCLA Center on Biodemography and Population Health. Currently researches the links between education, income level, and health in old age.
  • Linda George
  • Pearl German
  • Sarah Harper - Professor of Gerontology, University of Oxford
  • Mara Mather - cognitive psychologist and gerontologist whose research focuses on memory, emotion, decision making and aging
  • Erdman Palmore - noted for the International Handbook on Aging
  • Jon Pynoos - UPS Foundation Professor of Gerontology, Policy, Planning and Development at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. Expert on housing and long term care policies and programs for the elderly. Co-director of the Fall Prevention Center of Excellence.
  • K. Warner Schaie - prolific geropsychologist and co-founder of the Seattle Longitudinal Study
  • Alan Walker
  • Kathleen Wilber - Mary Pickford Foundation Professor of Gerontology at the USC Davis School of Gerontology. Her research is focused on improving the quality of life of people with chronic physical and mental health conditions by improving the formal health and long term care delivery systems.
  • Elizabeth Zelinski - principal investigator of the Long Beach Longitudinal Study, which evaluates cognition, memory and language comprehension in older adults.
  • Dr Jane Preston - Research interests centre around physiology of ageing of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics and blood-brain barrier.King's College London.

History of gerontology

It may be said that the history of gerontology begins with agriculture; prior to this the hunter-gatherer societies that existed could only support a marginal existence: food supply was short; frequent movement a necessity. These and other reasons meant that extremely few reached 'old age'. However, it could be argued that in a society with a life expectancy of 14 (such as 10,000 BC), being '40' was 'old'.

Things changed with the coming of agriculture. A more stable food supply and the lack of frequent movement meant that humans could now survive longer, and beginning perhaps around 4000 BC, a regular segment of the population began to attain 'old age' in places such as Mesopotamia and the Indus river valleys. Agriculture didn't simply bring a steady food supply; it also suddenly made older persons an economic benefit instead of a burden. Older persons could stay and watch the farm (or children); make pottery or jewelry, and perform social functions, such as story-telling (oral tradition, religion, etc.). and teaching the younger generation techniques for farming, tool-making, etc.

After this change, the views of elder persons in societies waxed and waned, but generally the proportion of the population over 50 or 60 remained small. Note that in ancient Egypt, Pharaoh Pepi II was said to have lived to 100 years old. Certainly Ramses II lived to about 90; modern scientific testing of his mummy supports the written record. Ancient Greeks valued old persons for their wisdom (some reaching 80, 90, or 100 years old), while old age was devalued in Roman times.

In the medieval Islamic world, elderly people were valued by Muslim physicians. Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (1025) was the first book to offer instruction for the care of the aged, foreshadowing modern gerontology and geriatrics. In a chapter entitled "Regimen of Old Age", Avicenna was concerned with how "old folk need plenty of sleep", how their bodies should be anointed with oil, and recommended exercises such as walking or horse-riding. Thesis III of the Canon discussed the diet suitable for old people, and dedicated several sections to elderly patients who become constipated.[12]

The Canon of Medicine recognized four periods of life: the period of growth, prime of life, period of elderly decline (from forty to sixty), and decrepit age. He states that during the last period, "there is hardness of their bones, roughness of the skin, and the long time since they produced semen, blood and vaporal breath". However, he agreed with Galen that the earth element is more prominent in the aged and decrepit than in other periods. Avicenna did not agree with the concept of infirmity, however, stating: "There is no need to assert that there are three states of the human body—sickness, health and a state which is neither health nor disease. The first two cover everything."[12]

The famous Arabic physician, Ibn Al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (Algizar, circa 898-980), also wrote a special book on the medicine and health of the elderly, entitled Kitab Tibb al-Machayikh[13] or Teb al-Mashaikh wa hefz sehatahom.[14] He also wrote a book on sleep disorders and another one on forgetfulness and how to strengthen memory, entitled Kitab al-Nissian wa Toroq Taqwiati Adhakira,[15][16][17] and a treatise on causes of mortality entitled Rissala Fi Asbab al-Wafah.[13] Another Arabic physician in the 9th century, Ishaq ibn Hunayn (died 910), the son of Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, wrote a Treatise on Drugs for Forgetfulness (Risalah al-Shafiyah fi adwiyat al-nisyan).[18]

In medieval Europe on the other hand, during its Dark Ages, negative opinions of the elderly prevailed.[citation needed] However, with the coming of the Renaissance old age returned to favor in Europe, as persons such as Michelangelo and Andrea Doria exemplified the ideals of living long, active, productive lives.

While the number of aged humans, and the maximum ages lived to, tended to increase in every century since the 14th century, society tended to consider caring for an elderly relative as a family issue. It was not until the coming of the Industrial Revolution with its techniques of mass production that ideas shifted in favor of a societal care-system. Care homes for the aged emerged in the 19th century. Note that some early pioneers, such as Michel Eugène Chevreul, who himself lived to be 102 in the 1880s, believed that aging itself should be a science to be studied. The word 'Gerontology' was coined circa 1903[19] by Elie Metchnikoff.

It was not until the 1940s, however, that pioneers like James Birren began organizing 'gerontology' into its own field. Recognizing that there were experts in many fields all dealing with the elderly, it became apparent that a group like the Gerontological Society of America was needed (founded in 1945). Two decades later, James Birren was appointed as the founding director of the first academic research center devoted exclusively to the study of aging, the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center at the University of Southern California.[20][21] In 1975, the USC Leonard Davis School of Gerontology became the first academic gerontology department, with Birren as its founding dean. Gerontological education in the U.S. and abroad has flourished since then, with 57 universities in the U.S. offering masters degrees in gerontology in 2007.[22]

In the 1950s to the 1970s, the field was mainly social and concerned with issues such as nursing homes and health care. However, research by Leonard Hayflick in the 1960s (showing that a cell line culture will only divide about 50 times) helped lead to a separate branch, biogerontology. It became apparent that simply 'treating' aging wasn't enough. Finding out about the aging process, and what could be done about it, became an issue.

The biogerontological field was also bolstered when research by Cynthia Kenyon and others demonstrated that life extension was possible in lower life forms such as fruit flies, worms, and yeast. So far, however, nothing more than incremental (marginal) increases in life span have been seen in any mammalian species.

Today, social gerontology remains the largest sector of the field, but the biogerontological side is seen as being the 'hot' side.[23]

Academic resources

See also

References

  1. ^ de Grey, Aubrey (September 2007). Ending Aging: The Rejuvenation Breakthroughs that Could Reverse Human Aging in Our Lifetime. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press. p. 416. ISBN 0312367066. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Guarente L, Picard F (2005). "Calorie restriction—the SIR2 connection". Cell. 120 (4): 473–82. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2005.01.029. PMID 15734680. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ 1. Kaeberlein, M., M. McVey, and L. Guarente, The SIR2/3/4 complex and SIR2 alone promote longevity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by two different mechanisms. Genes Dev, 1999. 13(19): p. 2570-80.
  4. ^ a b Kaeberlein M, Powers RW, Steffen KK; et al. (2005). "Regulation of yeast replicative life span by TOR and Sch9 in response to nutrients". Science. 310 (5751): 1193–6. doi:10.1126/science.1115535. PMID 16293764. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Kaeberlein M, Kirkland KT, Fields S, Kennedy BK (2004). "Sir2-independent life span extension by calorie restriction in yeast". PLoS Biol. 2 (9): E296. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020296. PMC 514491. PMID 15328540. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ Howitz KT, Bitterman KJ, Cohen HY; et al. (2003). "Small molecule activators of sirtuins extend Saccharomyces cerevisiae lifespan". Nature. 425 (6954): 191–6. doi:10.1038/nature01960. PMID 12939617. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Aging Stats: http://www.agingstats.gov/agingstatsdotnet/Main_Site/Data/2008_Documents/Population.aspx
  8. ^ Institute for Geriatric Social Work, Boston University http://www.bu.edu/igsw/who-we-are/
  9. ^ Geriatric Social Work Initiative: http://www.gswi.org/
  10. ^ Not Just Another Population: https://www.familiesinsociety.org/new/SpecialIssue/OlderAdults/86_3/PDFs/Ed_Austi.pdf
  11. ^ SpringerLink - Journal Article
  12. ^ a b Howell, Trevor H. (1987). "Avicenna and His Regimen of Old Age". Age and Ageing. 16 (1): 58–59. doi:10.1093/ageing/16.1.58. PMID 3551552.
  13. ^ a b Al Jazzar
  14. ^ Vesalius Official journal of the International Society for the History of Medicine
  15. ^ Algizar a web page in french
  16. ^ Ibn Jazzar
  17. ^ [Geritt Bos, Ibn al-Jazzar, Risala fi l-isyan (Treatise on forgetfulness), London, 1995 ]
  18. ^ Islamic culture and medical arts
  19. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
  20. ^ USC Andrus Gerontology Center
  21. ^ Liebig, Phoebe S.; Birren, James E. (2003). "The Andrus Center: A tale of gerontological firsts" (PDF). Contemporary Gerontology. 10 (1): 7–12. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  22. ^ Haley, William E.; Zelinski, Elizabeth (2007). "Progress and challenges in graduate education in gerontology: The U.S. experience". Gerontology & Geriatrics Education. 27 (3): 11–26. doi:10.1300/J021v27n03_02.
  23. ^ Effros RB (2005). "Roy Walford and the immunologic theory of aging". Immun Ageing. 2 (1): 7. doi:10.1186/1742-4933-2-7. PMC 1131916. PMID 15850487. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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