Stjepan Vukčić Kosača

Stjepan Vukčić
Grand Duke of Bosnia
Reign	1435–1466
Predecessor	Sandalj Hranić
Successor	Vlatko Hercegović
Full name	Stjepan Vukčić Kosača
Titles and styles	Duke of Hum and Primorje, Bosnian Grand Duke, Knyaz of Drina (1435-1450) Duke of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum and Bosnian Grand Duke, Knyaz of Drina and the rest (1450-1466)
Born	1404 Blagaj
Died	22 May 1466 Novi
Noble family	Kosača
Spouse(s)	Jelena Balšić Barbara Cecilie
Issue	Katarina, Queen of Bosnia Vladislav Hercegović Vlatko Hercegović Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha
Father	Vukac Hranić Kosača
Mother	Katarina

Stjepan Vukčić Kosača (Serbian Cyrillic: Стјепан Вукчић Косача; 1404–1466), was the most powerful Bosnian nobleman whose active political career spanned the crucial three decades of Bosnian history, from 1435 to 1465. During this time as many as three kings succeeded to the Bosnian throne, Tvrtko II, King Thomas (Tomaš), and Stephen Tomašević (Stjepan Tomašević), and one anti-king, Radivoj, older brother of King Thomas, and the county's fate was sealed by the Ottoman conquest. None influenced the development of the late Bosnian medieval state as much as he did.
He was born probably in 1404, a son of Knyaz of Drina, Vukac Hranić, and Katarina, whose ancestry is unknown. Stjepan's father's hereditary lands were in the Upper Drina region. A member of the Kosača noble family, he succeeded his uncle, duke Sandalj, as Duke of Humska zemlja and the Grand Duke of Bosnia, in 1435.
Supporting Radivoj in line of succession for the Bosnian throne, he refused to recognize the ascension of King Thomas, throwing the kingdom into civil war. It was during this time that he took the opportunity to take a title of herzog, styling himself in 1448 Herzog of Hum and Duke of Primorje, Bosnian Grand Duke, Knyaz of Drina and the rest, and two years later changed it to Herzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum and Bosnian Grand Duke, Knyaz of Drina and the rest, and while reaching for assistance, he aligned himself first with the Ottoman Empire, then Aragon and again the Ottoman Empire. Peace was restored by the marriage of King Thomas and Stjepan's daughter Katarina, but it did not last long. However, with a death of King Thomas and ascension of his son and heir, Stephen Tomašević, to the Bosnian throne peace was finally restored and reconciliation achieved, thus ensuring the nobility's, including Herzog Stjepan's, absolute support of their king and loyalty for the kingdom facing Ottomans' advancement.

It was Stjepan's herzog title that gave rise to the name of Herzegovina, used as early as 1 February 1454 in a letter of the Ottoman commander Esebeg from Skopje, which will as soon as 1470 be separated from Sanjak of Bosnia and re-organized into Sanjak of Herzegovina, with a seat in Foča. The name remained since then and it is used for southernmost region of Bosnia and Herzegovina to this day. The town of Herceg Novi in present day's Montenegro, founded by Tvrtko I of Bosnia first as Sveti Stefan and than as Novi (literally New), also known as Castelnuovo in Italian (English: New Castle), will later become Stjepan's winter seat and renamed by adding his title Herceg to the name Novi.

Blagaj, the seat of Kosača

Early life and rise

Stjepan was born probably in 1404. He was the son of Knyaz of Drina, Vukac Hranić Kosača and his wife Katarina, whose ancestry is not known. Stjepan's father's hereditary lands were rather small, and located in the Upper Drina region.

He was fraternal nephew of one of the three most powerful Bosnian magnates, Sandalj Hranić, who was the Bosnian Grand Duke and the chieftain of the Kosača family at the time, and whom Stjepan succeeded later on in 1435 becoming the most powerful nobleman in Bosnia under three kings, Tvrtko II, Thomas, and Stephen II. Stjepan's father died in 1432, and Stjepan inherited his lands in Drina as the Knyaz of Drina. Sandalj's decision to choose Stjepan for his heir came already in 1419, and when his uncle Sandalj died on 15 March 1435, following his brother, Stjepan's father, along the prestigious titles Stjepan inherited the lands with all the obligations, alliances, antagonisms, and conflicting interests.

In the first two decades of the 15th century, following a death of Tvrtko I, its first king, Bosnia started developing into more decentralized state, with its powerful triumvirate of noble families, the Pavlović, Vukčić, and Hranić, who, while gaining independence in conducting their political and economic affairs, also influenced political life of the kingdom to the point that they had a crucial stake in setting up and replacing its monarchs. Bosnian unity was symbolized in Bosnian Crown and the royal authority had its place of honor in it, but in reality the big three were practically calling all the shots, including steering the foreign policy.
However, toward the end of the second decade, only Stjepan's uncle Sandalj Hranić remained, while the state authority was starting to become somewhat more influential again, and the stability of the throne much firmer. Under these circumstance Stjepan will succeed his uncle, but not without violence.

Struggle for family inheritance

Just days after Sandalj's death 1435, Bosnia experienced change on its throne. Legitimate Bosnian king, Tvrtko II, who was forced to flee when the Ottomans put forward Radivoj and assured support for him from two crucial Bosnian nobleman, Sandalj Hranić and Radislav Pavlović, as well as the support from Despotat of Serbia. Tvrtko II returned from two years long exile in Hungary to assume the throne for the second time. Meanwhile, Stjepan's take over was met with great deal of hope among his neighbors, who anticipated weak lord in Stjepan, and opportunistically diverted their attention toward his inheritance.

King Sigismund intentions were clear, Holly Emperor wanted to take Hum. He may relied on Tvrtko II, but the king was mostly inactive in his first year, but then he approached Stjepan and assured good relations with him. This prompted Radislav Pavlović to turn to Ottomans and report on harmonious relations between the king and Stjepan, but the two remained close until at least 1440.
However, Sigismund had many other viable options at his disposal, namely other Stjepan's enemies of the moment among Bosnians. He successfully turned Radivojević's and Vojisalić's against Stjepan and tried to persuade reluctant Dubrovnik to join in the coalition. Sigismund also ordered his own noblemen of Frankopan family to attack and retain land of Hum for him.

Of major Bosnian nobility, the first to act was Radislav Pavlović, while Vojisalić's and Radivojević's attacked in the Lower Neretva valley with a success. Pavlović acted three days after Sandalj's death, already on 18 March, and on 29th it was expected to enter Dračevica. But, although he took some of Stjepan's lands, was unable to inflict significant damage, even though Stjepan was already in great deal of problems with the Hungarian king. Instead Radislav was bound to ask Ragusans to assist him in achieving a peace, but reluctant to take up the task they responded by saying that Bosnia has many noblemen better suited for the task. Eventually Ragusans took the job and led the negotiations. They pleaded with both man that the war will bring many "dangers and misfortunes" not only to them and their subjects but to a whole Bosnia. Stjepan demanded from Pavlović to cede earlier taken lands. However, after many missions to both nobleman courts negotiations failed. Others were Vojisalić's and Radivojević's. Attack of Đurađ Vojisalić had produced some results, and he took medieval market town (transl. trg, trgovište) Drijeva. But on trg were keen Radivojević's as well, so the coalition has seen its fair share of conflicting interests. Drijeva was on Sigismund's mind too, so he requested from Dubrovnik all the customs tolls to be paid to him. He even dispatched some of his men there to procure the new regimen.

Venetians too tried to take advantage during the transfer of power from Sandalj to Stjepan. They unsuccessfully tried to get fortress of Novi via Kotor knyaz's maneuvering. He thought he could take the town by exerting the pressure and influence on fortress' castellan. Not without problems, and with some very critical moments and close-calls, Stjepan retained the town firmly in his and his family hands.

Stjepan's offensive into Zeta (1441–44), Podgorica, Medun, in Upper Zeta, and Bar, in Lower Zeta, were conquered.

Stjepan endured all these initial struggles not without a help, and it was Ottomans who were the only force to be reckon with that supported Stjepan, who had Bosnian anti-king Radivoj at his court all this time. And although Stjepan's situation was tough it was not critical, he nevertheless invited them to Bosnia and they responded by helping him to overcome all his adversities.

Later conflicts

At the end of September 1441, Kosača captured the territory of Upper Zeta on the left bank of Morača. Stefan Crnojević, who represented the whole Crnojević family, joined him in this campaign and was awarded by Kosača with control over five villages.

Citizenship of Dubrovnik

Along with his father and uncles Sandalj and Vuk, Stjepan was admitted into the nobility of the Republic of Ragusa by a charter dated 29 June 1419. The same charter granted the family a house in Dubrovnik.

Civil wars

Royal succession and outbreak of civil war

King Tvrtko II died in September 1443, and on 5 December Stanak approved his first cousin and heir, Thomas (Tomaš), ascension as the new king. It's not fully clear if Thomas was chosen by Tvrtko II or elected by Stanak, and if Stjepan participated in his election, however, one thing is certain, duke was new king's opponent from the start, and opted for Thomas's exiled brother Radivoj, a candidate also put forward by the Ottoman Empire.

Sensing problems, Ragusans dispatched envoys to Stjepan's court, with instructions to appeal with him by arguing that he is now "the most powerful and most wise Bosnian lord", and its up to him to preserve "the peace and unity in the country", and if he does it will bring him glory throughout the world.

In 1443, the Papacy sent envoys to Thomas and Stjepan about a counter-offensive against the Ottomans, but the two were in the middle of a war. Duke Ivaniš Pavlović, who was the second most powerful nobleman in Bosnia after Stjepan Vukčić, sent by King Thomas, attacked Stjepan Vukčić. Thomas had at the same time been recognized by the Hungarian regent John Hunyadi. Stjepan turned to King Alfonso V of Aragon, who made him "Knight of the Virgin", but did not provide any troops. On 15 February 1444, Stjepan signed a treaty with the King of Aragon and Naples, becoming his vassal in exchange for Alfonso's help against his enemies, namely King Thomas, Duke Ivaniš Pavlović and the Republic of Venice. In the same treaty Stjepan promised to pay regular tribute to Alfonso instead of paying the Ottoman sultan as he had done until then.

For the next seventeen years of Thomas's rule, events provoked by this dynamism between the two man, were changing in pretty rapid succession in terms of historical scale. Civil war broke as soon as 1444, and it was dragged into fifties with many treaties and peace agreements in between. As Stjepan Vukčić was a staunch supporter and adherent of the Bosnian Church, Thomas's conversion to Roman Catholicism, probably by the time of the negotiations to marry duke's daughter Catherine between 1445–46, will later prove to be another obstacle in their relations.

Srebrenica and Drijeva issues

Drijeva market town (trg) on old drawing.

It is not known what exactly started this seemingly never-ending series of conflicts and when, but it is certain that King Thomas moved resolutely against his opponents, penetrating with the Duke Ivaniš Pavlović and Duke Sladoje Semković into the Lower Neretva valley already in January 1444, where the Radivojevićs joined them, and together they captured medieval market town (trgovište) Drijeva in the first days of February. In March, king appears to have made a truce with Stjepan. Around that time, king recaptured mining town of Srebrenica, defended by Ottomans, and was preparing to attack on Stjepan again in August, but retaliation of the Ottomans against the king allowed Stjepan to take back the lost possessions in the Neretva Valley, and put Thomas' allies Radivojević noble family under his authority. Stjepan also in 1444 established alliance against Thomas and the Venetians with the despot Đurađ Branković. Following year, in April 1445, Thomas lost Srebrenica, which was taken from him by the despot Đurađ, but he continued to prepare for war against Stjepan, and with Pavlovićs, he took over Drijeva again very soon.

Peace and royal marriage

Coronation and burial church in Mile, Visoko, royal capital of the kingdom.

Having failed to strengthen royal authority by force, King Thomas decided to seek another way to pacify the kingdom. A rapprochement with Kosača via marriage with his daughter, Catherine (Katarina), was probably already envisaged in 1445, when Thomas sought and improved relations with the Holy See in order to be cleared of the "stain of illegitimacy" as well as to receive an annulment of his union with commoner and krstjanka Vojača. Negotiations between Thomas and Stjepan intensified in the beginning of 1446. The King was also finally converted from Bosnian Church to Roman Catholicism by Tommaso Tommasini, Bishop of Lesina, however, only much later, as late as 1457, Cardinal Juan Carvajal performed the baptism.

In summer of 1446 the two rivals had made peace again. Stjepan Vukčić recognized Thomas as king, and the pre-war borders between royal demesne and the land of Hum were restored, but before the fall king re-took Srebrenica.

This peace was sealed by the royal wedding in mid-May 1446 in Milodraž, marked by elaborate festivities, conducted through Catholic rite, followed by the couple's coronation in Mile. By this time Catherine, who also had been krstjanka (adherent of the Bosnian Church), had converted to Roman Catholicism.

However, peace between the king and duke Stjepan, achieved in the summer of 1446, lasted for the next two years, until 1448, but then relations soured yet again.

Renewal of conflict and new peace

In late 1446, King Thomas took back Srebrenica, but nevertheless agreed with Despot Đurađ Branković to share a profit from taxes and town's rich silver mines. Meanwhile, the Ottomans were displeased with the peace between Stjepan and the king, as their interest lay in dividing Bosnia, while Stjepan's relations with the Serbian Despot, Đurađ, soured as well, all mostly due to the Srebrenica issue. While the king enjoyed a period of stability in relations with the despot, Stjepan Vukčić, at that point alone, will only in the fall of 1447 attempt to re-negotiate reconciliation with Despot Đurađ, and will dispatch envoys to offer him "peace and alliance". Vukčić then joined forces with Despot Đurađ and fought Bosnian forces.

Then in March 1448, the Ottomans sent an expedition to plunder king's demesne, but they also plundered Stjepan Vukčić's lands, burning trg Drijeva in the process.

At this point it was king's position that was seriously impaired, with the Ottoman offensive and this rapprochement of his father-in-law, Stjepan, with the despot, and already in September 1448 despot's brother-in-law Toma Kantakuzen attacked Thomas' troops, while Stjepan helped despot in re-capturing Srebrenica. The king and duke Ivaniš Pavlović, however, successfully retaliated against Stjepan and his Serbian ally in late 1449, and in February 1450, they re-took Srebrenica, while in April and May trg Drijeva. New peace negotiations began in the fall of 1450, and a short-lived peace was concluded at the beginning 1451.

Hostilities with Ragusa

In 1451 Stjepan Vukčić attacked the Republic of Ragusa, and laid siege to the city. As he had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman, the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor. A reward of 15,000 ducats, a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2,000 ducats, and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him. along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan noble status which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed. The threat seems to have worked, as Stjepan abandoned the siege. After King Thomas and Despot Đurađ reconciled, Ragusa proposed a league against Stjepan. Thomas' charter from 18 December 1451, apart from the theoretical ceding of some of Stjepan's territories to Ragusa (he firmly held those), also included the obligation that he would attack Stjepan.

Religious strife

In the second half of 1459 king Thomas decided to act decidedly against the Kristjani, the followers of the Bosnian Church. According to sources, approximately 2000 (some cite up to 12,000) were converted to Catholicism, as reported by the apostolic legate who resided in Bosnia between 1461 and 1463, Nikola Modruški, "Manichean heretics were baptized forcefully". However, at least 40 high ranking members of the church hierarchy fled to the duke Stjepan, where they were received with open arms by the duke despite papal requset. In the beginning of 1461, in order to prove his commitment to the Catholic Church, king Thomas sent to Rome three bound Kristjani who were interrogated by Cardinal Juan de Torquemada. The king also demanded from all of his vassals to convert.

Final reconciliation and kingdom's unity restoration

Ostrovica Castle.

Klis Fortress.

Kosača was arguably the kingdom's most powerful nobleman, and a never-ending conflicts with King Thomas was set to be resolved by the king's son and heir, Stephen Tomašević (Stjepan Tomašević). Upon Thomas' death, and immediately upon his ascension, determined new king, Stephen, first set out to resolve all disagreements within the royal family in order to strengthen his own position. Strained relations with his stepmother and Herzog Stjepam's daughter, the 37-year-old Queen Catherine, were relaxed as he guaranteed that she would retain her title and privileges. This was noted by her father, Stjepan, who wrote to Venetian officials that the King had "taken her as his mother".
Reconciliation was on new king's mind as well, as he took Venetians' advice to make up with his stepgrandfather very seriously. Very swiftly upon strengthening his own position, peace was finally restored and reconciliation achieved, thus finally ensuring the nobility's absolute support of their king and loyalty for the kingdom.
For the new and young king, it was important to get Stjepan's full support. Stjepan had sent his son and chosen heir, Vlatko, to Stephen's coronation, and the king was proud to announce that he assumed the kingdom's throne with a full and unanimous acceptance of all the country's nobility.

After more than a decade of discord freshly restored Bosnian unity faced, however, constantly increasing pressure from the Ottomans, but now also attacks from Pavao Špirančić, Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia, who already captured one of Bosnian towns. Stjepan acted, and with the support of Venice prepared to attack. However, tables turned as soon as Stjepan and King Stephen Tomašević agreed alliance with a knyazs of Krbava, the Kurjaković's, and Venice, from fear that such strong alliance could threaten its own interests in the area, started negotiations with the ban. Besides, Venice was interested in securing two key fortresses which laid at the Bosnian-Croatian border, Klis held by the ban and Ostrovica which was in Bosnian hands, so Ban Pavao promised to relinquish Klis to them in case of Bosnian attack. All this happened between September 1461 and the beginning of 1462.
Meanwhile, in Christian world reconciliation of the two most powerful man in Bosnia was greeted with great relief. Even Venice, actually, sincerely appreciated materialized stability in Bosnia. The main reason was expectation for the Bosnia to spearhead the actions against Ottoman advancement, and because it was exactly this dynamism between the strongest Bosnian nobleman, Stjepan Vukčić, and the throne, personified at the time in King Thomas, which was one of the reasons leading to Bosnians to fail to fulfill the role to captain the crusade, assigned to them back in 1457.

It is also noteworthy that Herzog Stjepan refrained from claiming the Bosnian crown for his adolescent grandson Sigismund, Catherine's son and Stephen Tomašević's half-brother, probably realizing that Bosnia needed a strong, mature monarch in the time of peril.

New title, Ottomans and public relations

In the first half of 1448, Stjepan Vukčić, already Duke of Hum and Grand Duke of Bosnia, in attempt to "bolster his case with the Ottomans", assumed the title of herzog and styled himself Herzog of Hum and the Coast, Grand Duke of Bosnia, Knyaz of Drina, and the rest, first documented in the spring of 1449. Later, toward the end of 1449 and beginning of 1450, in a public relation stunt, he changed it into Herzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum, Grand Duke of Bosnia, Knyaz of Drina, and the rest,. This unusual new style for the herzog part of the title came from the name of Saint Sava, the Serbian saint whose relics were held in Mileševa at the eastern corner of his province, but had nothing to do with Stjepans religious persuasion, since he remained in the Bosnian Church bosoms as long as he lived.

Not much is known about circumstances surrounding the title. Kings Thomas Kotromanić, Frederick III, and Alfonso V, as well as the Pope, Venice, and the Ottomans, are mentioned as the ones who bestowed Stjepan with the title. It is also probable, if not certain, that he took the title himself in the first half of October 1448, and it is certain that he received confirmation and recognition from the Ottomans. On 17 October 1448, the people of Dubrovnik congratulated him on "de nova dignitate cherzech acquisita". At the Hungarian court, Stjepan's new title was commented on with the words: "if one can be called a herzog when the Turks bestowed him with a title", and later, whenever Dubrovnik was in a quarrel with Stjepan, their officials will use this conjecture as well.

For Stjepan, the title Herzog of Split, which Hrvoje Vukčić received from Ladislav of Naples, had left strong impression, and it must have been in Stefan's mind all the time. Such a strong impact had led Stjepan to actually look up to Hrvoje, and ask King Alfonso V to be given the same title Herzog of Split, which Hrvoje Vukčić once wore.

This internal Bosnian dynamics was met with little to no interest, although medieval Europe of strict hierarchical order would not allow such "usurpation" to pass unnoticed in their midst, and Bosnia was very much part of it at the time. In Bosnia too, this event could have passed unnoticed, however, such relaxed attitude could be expected under Bosnian routine.

Medievalists agree that the move, whatever the reasons behind it, had a considerable public relations value. John V. A. Fine attributed it to that fact that Saint Sava's relics were then, as are now, considered miracle-working and objects with healing properties by people of all faiths in the region, but probably more importantly, that the move signaled alignment with Despot Đurađ, at times his only ally during the civil war.
Similarly, Marko Vego noted that with the title "Duke of St. Sava (Ducatus s. Sabbe)", Stjepan raised his and the entire family's reputation both "inside the Bosnian state and abroad", just like Vladimir Ćorović, who also concluded that Stjepan himself thought he would raise his rank and prestige in this way.
Medievalist Sima Ćirković noted how earlier historians harshly criticized Stjepan's subservient relations with the Ottomans, and points to the fact that such relations were characteristic for all Bosnian and other Balkans lords, as it was practically a norm fully befitting the spirit of the time. However, Ćirković also writes that Stjepan spent his few last years as a staunch adversary of the Ottomans. He concluded that Stjepan probably wished to emphasize his importance with the Ottoman court, but that taking the new title hardly had more than symbolic significance, for Stjepan remained for the rest of his life the Grand Duke of Bosnia.

Historians also speak of one other consequence of Stjepan's acquiring the title of herzog, which is that it gave the name to entire province, and which represents one of his enduring legacies (See Legacy).

Remaining days, death and succession

Fortress of Novi, built by Tvrtko I in 1382, with its newly founded port immediately became economic hub of the kingdom and later winter seat of Stjepan and his son Vlatko.

After the fall of the kingdom in 1463, herceg Stjepan Vukčić, lord of its southernmost province, lived for another three years, enough to see kingdom's complete dismantling, and for which he blamed his eldest son Vladislav Hercegović. On 21 May 1466, old and terminally ill duke dictated his last words, recorded in a testament, and bypassing Vladislav he condemned him by saying that it was him who "brought the great Turk to Bosnia to the death and destruction of us all". The next day, on 22 May 1466, duke died.

He was succeeded as herceg by his second and younger son Vlatko Hercegović, who struggled to retain as much of the territory he could. However, Blagaj, Kosača capital, fell in 1466, while Ključ fort between Nevesinje and Gacko was cut off from the main part of his territory, although Vlatko's actions against Ottomans were mostly concentrated around this fort with limited success. Počitelj fell in 1471, however, herceg Vlatko already in 1470 realized that only radical change in his politics could bring him some release, so he pursued and achieved a peace with the Ottomans. In the same year, the Ottomans excluded Hum from the Bosnian Sanjak, and established a new, separate sanjak with its seat in Foča, Sanjak of Herzegovina.

The very last remnants of Bosnian state territory were these stretches of land held by Vlatko in Hum, while he moved residence to his last capital, Novi. He also gave up his agreement with Ottomans, after just a few years or so, just about the same time when his younger brother, Stjepan, assumed highest office of the Ottoman navy as Ahmed Pasha Hercegović (around 1473) in Istanbul. After his marriage in 1474, he reconciled with his older brother Vladislav.
Just before death of Sultan Mehmed II, Vlatko tried one more push to the heart of Bosnia, but abandoned by his allies his venture ended in disaster, after which he completely and finitely withdraw to his fortress in Novi.

Meanwhile, all this, along with death of Mehmed II, prompted new sultan, Bayezid II, to overtake Novi and its harbor, along with whatever territory remained. In November 1481, Ajaz-Bey of the Sanjak of Herzegovina besieged Novi, however, just before 14 December of 1481 Vlatko gave up resisting, and agreed with the Ottomans to move with his family to Istanbul. Now entire territory of Herzegovina was reorganized into already established Sanjak of Herzegovina with the seat in Foča, and will later, in 1580, become one of the sanjaks of the Bosnia Eyalet. This signified the ultimate disappearance of what was the last remaining independent point of the Bosnian state.

Land possession

Around 1450 possessions of Kosača family included zemljas and župas: Humska zemlja, Zagorje, Drina, Rudine, Banjani, Trebinje, Upper and Lower Zeta (transl. Gornja i Donja Zeta), Polimlje, Dračevica, Krajina and Poljica on the Cetina. In the early 1460s, just before the fall of the Bosnian Kingdom, Stjepan controlled most of today's Herzegovina, at the time Humska zemlja (Hum) as far west as Krajina, (including Vitina), but he already lost to the Ottomans' control much of his lands and towns north of Hum, Zagorje, Drina, Taslidža, Čajniče, Višegrad, Soko fort, including Nevesinje and Gacko within Hum. Stjepan knew he would soon face Ottoman attack so he asked Venice to allow Skanderbeg's forces to cross their territory to help him, which they did, but Skanderbeg failed to carry out his promises.
After taking the Kingdom of Bosnia in 1463, Mahmud Pasha also invaded Herzegovina and besieged Blagaj, after which Stjepan conceded a truce by sending his youngest son, who bore father's name, Stjepan, as a hostage to Istanbul, and ceding all of his lands to the north of Blagaj to the Empire.

Religion

Church of St. George in Sopotnica founded by Stjepan Vukčić.

Like most Bosnian nobleman of the era, Stjepan Vukčić too considered himself staunch Krstjanin, as the Bosnian Church adherents were known and as its members called themselves. His conspicuous attitude toward Bosnian Church was highlighted when king Tvrtko II died in September 1443, Stjepan refused to recognize the deceased king's cousin and chosen heir, Thomas, as the new King of Bosnia, thus creating a political crisis which culminated in civil war. All this happened because Thomas was recent convert to Roman Catholicism, move that was potentially harmful for the Kristjani and the Bosnian Church. And while Thomas' decision to convert was forced political maneuvering, albeit founded in sound reasoning with the saving of the realm on his mind, he also committed himself to demonstrate his devotion by engaging in religious prosecution against his recent fellow co-religionist. These developments prompted Stjepan to give Krstjanins of the Bosnian Church safe haven and join the Ottomans in support of Bosnian anti-King Radivoj, Thomas' exiled brother, who was also Bosnian Church faithful and remained so in face of Thomas' crusade against the church adherents.

However, traditionally, most Bosnians' attitude towards religion, and Vukčić's was no exception, was uncommonly flexible for Europe of the era. He titled himself after the shrine of an Orthodox saint while maintaining close relations with the papacy. In 1454 he both erected an Orthodox church in Goražde and requested that Catholic missionaries be sent from Southern Italy to proselytize in his land, while never flinching from developing close relation and/or allying himself with Ottoman Muslims. The Holy See in Vatican treated him as a Catholic, while simultaneously the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople considered him Orthodox.

Accordingly, Stjepan kept at his court a high-ranking prelate of the Bosnian Church, a diplomat and ambassador, well known and highly influential gost Radin as his closest adviser. He was a dedicated protector of Bosnian Church krstjani as long as he lived. At the end of his life, he used both gost Radin and priest David, an Orthodox Metropolit of Mileševa, as his court chaplains.

Ancestry, marriage and issue

Stjepan Vukčić ancestry tree
Vuk Kosača unknown Vlatko Vuković Hrana Vuković Anka Sandalj Hranić Jelena Katrina Jelena Vukac Hranić Katarina Vuk Hranić Teodora Stjepan Vukčić

Stjepan Vukčić was married three times. In 1424, he married Jelena, daughter of Balša III of Zeta (and granddaughter of his aunt, Jelena Balšić). His wife died in 1453. Two years later, he married Barbara (possibly del Balzo). She died in 1459. His final marriage, in 1460, was to a German woman named Cecilie.

With his first wife Jelena, he had at least four children:

• Katarina (1424–1478), married King King Tomaš of Bosnia in 1446
• Vladislav Hercegović (c. 1427–1489), Grand Duke of Bosnia, Lord of Krajina, married Kyra Ana, daughter of Georgios Kantakuzenos in 1455
• Vlatko Hercegović (c. 1428–1489), Herzog of St. Sava, married an Apulian noblewoman
• Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha (c. 1430–1515), baptized Stjepan; the youngest son of Stjepan Vukčić, whom Sultan Mehmed II took as a hostage, became a Muslim in the Sultan's service. He became the Grand Vizier and Grand Admiral to the Sultan, married Sultan Bayezid II's daughter, Fatima, in 1482; and had descendants by her.
• son (1456), a short-lived child with his second wife Barbara whose name is unknown.
• Mara, daughter with Barbara.

Historiography, personality and legacy

In historiography

Despite the large amount of archive sources, historiography lacked the critical monography on Stjepan's life. Especially valuable in this regard is Dubrovnik Archive, but also Archivio di Stato di Venezia, other Italian cities' archives, including one in Buda in Hungary, as a source of political and diplomatic history of the time. The first historical works Herceg-Stjepan life and career were authored by Mavro Orbini and Jakov Lukarević, however, these were written at a time when the systematic use of archival sources was not yet utilized. At the end of the 19th century, Ilarion Ruvarac intended to work on the history of Kosača family, but the first research came only few years later authored by Ljubomir Jovanović, first with a specific discussion "War of Duke Stjepan with Dubrovnik", and then with the first and incomplete, but until the historical biography of Sima Ćirković, "Herceg Stefan Vukčić-Kosača i njegovo doba", the only attempt to research Stjepan's life and career in its entirety in the work "Stjepan Vukčić Kosača". For Ćirković, the basic outlines for researching Stjepan's life can be found in Konstantin Jireček's "History of Serbs", in which he briefly but very precisely covered Stjepan's life, while Vladimir Ćorović's "History of Bosnia" has more extensive and complete overview it is still insufficiently comprehensive. In 1964 Ćirković published his historical biography, "Herceg Stefan Vukčić-Kosača i njegovo doba", using his predecessors, and in particular specific researches of Ilarion Ruvarac, Jakov Lukarević, Lajos Thallóczy, Aleksa Ivić, Mihajlo Dinić, and Vladimir Ćorović.

Personality

Medievalist Sima Ćirković assesses information about the characteristics of the duke's personality from contemporary documents unhelpful, because they were created in the given circumstances, satisfying various political and economic needs, which is why they were often idiosyncratic and biased.

For instance, representation of Herceg-Stjepan's personality and image created on the basis of contemporary statements made by various merchants and ambassadors from Dubrovnik would be skewed. Arousing from the contact with Stjepan, and depending on the circumstances, these documented views contained courteous praises of his wisdom, political prudence, law-abiding righteousness, and generosity, as well as words of the fiercest condemnation and insult when circumstances demanded it.

However, the scarcity of sources did not discourage historians, whose assessment of Herceg-Stjepan's character is not at all flattering.

Early modern Dubrovnik historian, Jakov Lukarević (fl. 1551-1615), gave his description of Stjepan with conspicuos indignation: "He barely knew the letters", and "he was all given over to rage, wine, and living with slave-girls and harlots".

Medievalist Lajos Thallóczy was particularly concerned with the duke's "characterization". Thallóczy made several harsh assessments about the duke, who, according to him, "could have been a model for a Balkan Machiavelli", "is a typical Balkan knyaz who can serve as a model", "we find no ethical features in him, nothing sympathetic, only a marauder", "neither his word nor his written promise could be trusted", and so on.

Thallóczy's characterization was taken over by Konstantin Jireček, who added that the duke was a "loyal vassal of Porte", paraphrasing Thallóczy, writes that the duke was "cunning, capricious, brutal and a coward, a friend of wine and women, unusually reckless in choosing means, but with a highly developed ability to notice a change in the political circumstance".

Vladimir Ćorović had more favorable opinion of Stjepan's persona, pointing out that duke had "a strong will and a bad temper", "had strength and skills, but no morale", and that "since coming to power, he was surprising the world with his ruthlessness, by which he provoked conflicts not only with his neighbors but even in his own family".

Ćirković criticized these descriptions, especially Thallóczy, as a result of Thallóczy's "inherent superficiality and pretentiousness", based almost entirely on the author's "ideological beliefs than on a sober examination of the source". Ćirković also noted that "the historical role of Duke Stjepan in recent historiography is dominated by condemnation for serving the Turks", and that such judgmental assessments never take into account many circumstances, that is, "the common feature of all assessments of Herceg's character is that it was seldom taken into account the extent to which Stjepan's qualities were only his, and not the characteristics of the entire society of that time".

Ćirković conclude that "inversion, treachery, inconsistency cannot be used to characterize any one person from the Bosnian history of the 15th century, because these are characteristics of all feudal lords of that time".

Legacy

The medieval town of Novi was founded on a small fishing village as a fortress in 1382 by the first King of Bosnia, Tvrtko I Kotromanić and was originally named Sveti Stefan (Saint Stephen). After the death of Tvrtko, Duke Sandalj Hranić acquired Sveti Stefan. During his reign, the town picked up trading salt. When Hranić died, his nephew, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača inherited it. During his reign, the town grew in importance and became Stjepan's winter seat, getting a new name in the process, Herceg Novi.

However, name Herzegovina is most important and indelible legacy, unique within the entire Serbo-Croatian speaking world of the Balkans in the fact that one medieval person gives his name, or more precisely his noble title, which in the last few years of his life became literally inseparable from his name, to entire region previously called Humska zemlja, or Hum for short, which remained to this day still existing in the name of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Although, this also is just superficial understanding, because appearance of the name Herzegovina, first recorded in 1454, can not be attributed to Herceg Stjepan alone, as his title was not of decisive importance after all. Far more crucial was a well-known Ottoman custom to call newly acquired lands by the names of its earlier lords. It was simply enough for the Ottomans to conquer Stjepan's land as a whole, to start calling it Herzegovina. Also, Herceg-Stjepan did not establish this province as a feudal and political unit of the Bosnian state, that honor befell Grand Duke of Bosnia, Vlatko Vukovič, who received it from King Tvrtko I, while Sandalj Hranić expended it and reaffirmed Kosača family supremacy.

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