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The 1972 Hans Jayanti festival, celebrating Rawat's father's birthday,<ref>Galanter (1999), p. 20</ref> was attended by over 500,000 people. Six [[Boeing 747|Jumbo jets]] were chartered from the U.S. and American followers paid extra so that South Americans could fly from New York to India for free and other countries made similar arrangements to help the less financial.<ref>Messer, Jeanne. "Guru Maharaj Ji and the Divine Light Mission" in The New Religious Consciousness by Charles Y. Glock and Robert N. Bellah, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976, ISBN 0-52003-472-4, pp. 52-72.</ref>When Rawat, then aged 14, arrived back in India on 7 November with 2,500 followers, a suitcase containing cash, jewelry and wristwatches worth between US$27,000 to $80,000 was not properly declared, and was impounded by customs.<ref>"Guru's Pupil Slates Talk", SYRACUSE POST-STANDARD'' Feb. 3,1973. p. 3</ref><ref>"Gifts for a guru". AP, ''THE STARS AND STRIPES'' November 15, 1972. p.4</ref> A DLM spokesman said that the money did not belong to Rawat, but had been deposited by 3,000 followers to pay for expenses, and that the other valuables were gifts.<ref name=NYT19730718>''India still studying goods confiscated from youthful guru''. New York Times'', July 18, 1973</ref> One secretary accepted responsibility for the valuables and another for failing to declare them.<ref name=AP730915>"Gifts for a guru". AP, ''THE STARS AND STRIPES'' November 15, 1972. p.4</ref><ref name=NYT19730718 /> The finances of Rawat and the DLM at home and abroad were investigated by the Indian government, and [[Indira Gandhi]] took a personal interest in the case which was discussed in parliament.<ref>"Boy Guru Suspected of Smuggling", AP, Sat., ''Oakland Tribune'', Aug. 25, 1973</ref> Rawat had to post a $13,300 bond in order to leave the country in June of 1973. Mata Ji said that customs officials had humiliated her son, that the Indian press had given his visit the worst possible coverage, and that her son was angry with her for convincing him to attend.<ref>"Some feel the youth is fraud", Sun., Dec. 10, 1972 INDEPENDENT, PRESS-TELEGRAM A-27</ref> Charges were never filed,<ref name="CBY1974"/> and the Indian government later issued an apology.<ref>Downton (1979), pp. 187-8</ref>
The 1972 Hans Jayanti festival, celebrating Rawat's father's birthday,<ref>Galanter (1999), p. 20</ref> was attended by over 500,000 people. Six [[Boeing 747|Jumbo jets]] were chartered from the U.S. and American followers paid extra so that South Americans could fly from New York to India for free and other countries made similar arrangements to help the less financial.<ref>Messer, Jeanne. "Guru Maharaj Ji and the Divine Light Mission" in The New Religious Consciousness by Charles Y. Glock and Robert N. Bellah, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976, ISBN 0-52003-472-4, pp. 52-72.</ref>When Rawat, then aged 14, arrived back in India on 7 November with 2,500 followers, a suitcase containing cash, jewelry and wristwatches worth between US$27,000 to $80,000 was not properly declared, and was impounded by customs.<ref>"Guru's Pupil Slates Talk", SYRACUSE POST-STANDARD'' Feb. 3,1973. p. 3</ref><ref>"Gifts for a guru". AP, ''THE STARS AND STRIPES'' November 15, 1972. p.4</ref> A DLM spokesman said that the money did not belong to Rawat, but had been deposited by 3,000 followers to pay for expenses, and that the other valuables were gifts.<ref name=NYT19730718>''India still studying goods confiscated from youthful guru''. New York Times'', July 18, 1973</ref> One secretary accepted responsibility for the valuables and another for failing to declare them.<ref name=AP730915>"Gifts for a guru". AP, ''THE STARS AND STRIPES'' November 15, 1972. p.4</ref><ref name=NYT19730718 /> The finances of Rawat and the DLM at home and abroad were investigated by the Indian government, and [[Indira Gandhi]] took a personal interest in the case which was discussed in parliament.<ref>"Boy Guru Suspected of Smuggling", AP, Sat., ''Oakland Tribune'', Aug. 25, 1973</ref> Rawat had to post a $13,300 bond in order to leave the country in June of 1973. Mata Ji said that customs officials had humiliated her son, that the Indian press had given his visit the worst possible coverage, and that her son was angry with her for convincing him to attend.<ref>"Some feel the youth is fraud", Sun., Dec. 10, 1972 INDEPENDENT, PRESS-TELEGRAM A-27</ref> Charges were never filed,<ref name="CBY1974"/> and the Indian government later issued an apology.<ref>Downton (1979), pp. 187-8</ref>


On August 7, 1973 Rawat went to the [[Detroit]] city hall to receive a testimonial resolution praising his work, but was [[pieing|hit with a shaving-cream pie]] by a reporter from the ''[[Fifth Estate (periodical)|Fifth Estate]]'', an underground Detroit newspaper.<ref name="NYT1973-08-08">"Guru Gets Testimonial And Some Pie in Face" in ''New York Times''. August 8, 1973, p. 43. [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30913FC3B59137A93CAA91783D85F478785F9&scp=1&sq=Guru%20Gets%20Testimonial%20And%20Some%20Pie%20in%20Face&st=cse At NYT website]</ref><ref name="I-PT1973-08-08">"Guru Set For Honor, Gets Pie In Face" in ''Independent'' and ''Press-Telegram'' (UPI). Days later Long Beach, Calif., Sunday, August 8, 1973, p. A-6</ref> A week later, two of Rawat's followers attacked the reporter and fractured his skull.<ref name="CBY1974"/><ref>{{cite news|title=Whos's Who in Gurus|first=Dennis |last=Bartel|page= 55|work=Harper's|date=November 1983}}</ref> A tour of U.S. cities was cut short in early September 1973, when Rawat was hospitalized with what his doctor called an "[[intestinal ulcer]]". The doctor said that Rawat's body showed the stresses of a middle-aged executive weakened by the pace of continual travel.<ref>"The 'Perfect Master' from India has an ulcer", AP, ''THE STARS AND STRIPES'' September 4, 1973 p. 6</ref>
On August 7, 1973 Rawat went to the [[Detroit]] city hall to receive a testimonial resolution praising his work, but was [[pieing|hit with a shaving-cream pie]] by a reporter from the ''[[Fifth Estate (periodical)|Fifth Estate]]'', an underground Detroit newspaper.<ref name="NYT1973-08-08">"Guru Gets Testimonial And Some Pie in Face" in ''New York Times''. August 8, 1973, p. 43. [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30913FC3B59137A93CAA91783D85F478785F9&scp=1&sq=Guru%20Gets%20Testimonial%20And%20Some%20Pie%20in%20Face&st=cse At NYT website]</ref><ref name="I-PT1973-08-08">"Guru Set For Honor, Gets Pie In Face" in ''Independent'' and ''Press-Telegram'' (UPI). Days later Long Beach, Calif., Sunday, August 8, 1973, p. A-6</ref> A tour of U.S. cities was cut short in early September 1973, when Rawat was hospitalized with what his doctor called an "[[intestinal ulcer]]". The doctor said that Rawat's body showed the stresses of a middle-aged executive weakened by the pace of continual travel.<ref>"The 'Perfect Master' from India has an ulcer", AP, ''THE STARS AND STRIPES'' September 4, 1973 p. 6</ref>


The Hans Jayanti of 1973, called "[[Millennium '73]]", was held in the [[Houston]] [[Astrodome]]. It was promoted as "the most significant event in human history". Organizers, including Rawat's eldest brother Satpal Rawat (then known as Bal Bhagwan Ji) and activist [[Rennie Davis]], had publicly predicted attendance of 100,000 or more, but the event only attracted an estimated 20,000. Though it was not covered by the national television news, it did get extensive coverage in the print media and was depicted in the award-winning U.S. documentary [[Lord of the Universe (documentary)|"Lord of the Universe"]].<ref>"Videotape Explorers on the Trail of a Guru" by Dick Adler, Los Angeles Times, February 23, 1974 p. B2 </ref> The premies were reported to be "cheerful, friendly and unruffled, and seemed nourished by their faith". To the 400 premie parents who attended, Rawat "was a rehabilitator of prodigal sons and daughters". Other reporters found a "confused jumble of inarticulately expressed ideas."<ref>Collier (1978), p. 176</ref><ref name="Morgan">Morgan (1973)</ref> The event was called the "youth culture event of the year".<ref>Foss & Larkin (1978)</ref> The failure of the event to meet expectations generated negative publicity and left the Divine Light Mission heavily in debt, forcing changes in the movement which was able to reduce the debt to $80,000 by 1976.<ref>All Gods Children: The Cult Experience - Salvation Or Slavery? by Carrol Stoner and Jo Anne Parke The New Religions ... Why Now? p. 36</ref><ref name="Melton1986"/> According to Thomas Pilarzyk, the Millennium economic deficit was partially the result of poor management by the "holy family", Rawat's mother and three older brothers, as well as the much lower than anticipated attendance,<ref name="Pilarzyk1978">Pilarzyk (1978)</ref>
The Hans Jayanti of 1973, called "[[Millennium '73]]", was held in the [[Houston]] [[Astrodome]]. It was promoted as "the most significant event in human history". Organizers, including Rawat's eldest brother Satpal Rawat (then known as Bal Bhagwan Ji) and activist [[Rennie Davis]], had publicly predicted attendance of 100,000 or more, but the event only attracted an estimated 20,000. Though it was not covered by the national television news, it did get extensive coverage in the print media and was depicted in the award-winning U.S. documentary [[Lord of the Universe (documentary)|"Lord of the Universe"]].<ref>"Videotape Explorers on the Trail of a Guru" by Dick Adler, Los Angeles Times, February 23, 1974 p. B2 </ref> The premies were reported to be "cheerful, friendly and unruffled, and seemed nourished by their faith". To the 400 premie parents who attended, Rawat "was a rehabilitator of prodigal sons and daughters". Other reporters found a "confused jumble of inarticulately expressed ideas."<ref>Collier (1978), p. 176</ref><ref name="Morgan">Morgan (1973)</ref> The event was called the "youth culture event of the year".<ref>Foss & Larkin (1978)</ref> The failure of the event to meet expectations generated negative publicity and left the Divine Light Mission heavily in debt, forcing changes in the movement which was able to reduce the debt to $80,000 by 1976.<ref>All Gods Children: The Cult Experience - Salvation Or Slavery? by Carrol Stoner and Jo Anne Parke The New Religions ... Why Now? p. 36</ref><ref name="Melton1986"/> According to Thomas Pilarzyk, the Millennium economic deficit was partially the result of poor management by the "holy family", Rawat's mother and three older brothers, as well as the much lower than anticipated attendance,<ref name="Pilarzyk1978">Pilarzyk (1978)</ref>

Revision as of 20:45, 21 October 2008

Prem Rawat
Prem Rawat in Lisbon, Portugal
Born (1957-12-10) December 10, 1957 (age 66)
Haridwar, India
SpouseMarolyn Rawat
ChildrenPremlata Rawat, Hans Rawat, Dayalata Rawat, Amar Rawat.[1]
Parent(s)Shri Hans Ji Maharaj, Rajeshwari Devi

Prem Pal Singh Rawat (born December 10 1957 in Haridwar, India), also known as Balyogeshwar, Guru Maharaj Ji, and Maharaji,[2][3][4] became a guru in India at the age of eight, and gained international prominence at 13 when he first began to spread his message in the West. Over the years, several organizations have assisted in spreading his message, including the Divine Light Mission, Elan Vital (1983), and The Prem Rawat Foundation (2001).[5]

Rawat's father and guru was Shri Hans Ji Maharaj. When he died in 1966, Rawat succeeded him as "satguru" or "Perfect Master",[6] the spiritual leader of three million followers in India.[7] Granted emancipated minor status at age 16, Rawat married in 1974, which resulted in conflicts within his family and the splitting of the movement.[8][9] Prem Rawat retained control outside of India and took a more active role in guiding the movement in the West.[10] He became a United States citizen in 1977.[11] He later dropped the title "Guru" and claims of divinity, and abandoned the Indian aspects of his teachings associated with the early movement.[8]

Rawat's teachings focus on experiencing peace and contentment within and he teaches four techniques, which he calls 'Knowledge', to obtain them.[8] Rawat offers a direct experience of transcendence,[8] which stresses an individual subjective experience, rather than on a body of dogma.[12]

Rawat has been criticized for a lack of intellectual content in his public discourses[10][13][14] and for what some observers describe as an opulent lifestyle.[15][8]

Childhood

Further information: Hans Ji Maharaj
Prem Rawat at age 6

Prem Rawat was born in Haridwar, northern India, on December 10, 1957. He had a wealthy, high caste father[16][17] and was born into luxury.[18][19] The fourth and youngest son of guru Shri Hans Ji Maharaj and his second wife, Jagat Janani Mata Shri Rajeshwari Devi, Rawat attended St. Joseph's Academy elementary school in his hometown of Dehra Dun.[20] At the age of three he began speaking at his father's meetings, and when he was six his father taught him the "techniques of Knowledge." During the 1960s, Americans in India searching for spiritual guidance met members of his father's Divine Light Mission (founded in 1960) and a few became initiates or premies (from the Hindi prem, which literally means "love".) Rawat's father died in 1966, and during the customary 13 days of mourning, his mother and senior officials of the organization discussed the succession. Both his mother (Mata Ji) and eldest brother Satpal Rawat were suggested as potential successor, but before Satpal could be nominated, Prem addressed the crowd and was accepted by them as their teacher and "Perfect Master".[21][22][23][24] On July 31 after an improvised ceremony, Mata Ji and his elder brothers touched Rawat's feet as a sign of respect.[25] Because of his youth, effective control of the DLM was shared by the whole family.[10][26][27] From that time on, Rawat spent his weekends and school holidays travelling as his father had, addressing audiences on the subject of Knowledge and inner peace.

In the late 1960s, British followers in India invited him to visit the West. In 1969 he sent one of his closest Indian students (known as Mahatmas) to London to teach Knowledge on his behalf.[28] In 1970, many of his new Western followers flew to India to see him and were present at India Gate, Delhi, when – still only twelve years old – he delivered an address known as "The Peace Bomb," which marked the start of his international work.[2][29]

Leaving India

Prem Rawat at the Los Angeles Airport

Prem Rawat first travelled to the West in 1971 against his mother’s wishes, the first sign of his increasing independence from his mother which would ultimately lead to a permanent rift in 1974.[30][31] His first western address was given at a pop music festival in Glastonbury.[32] In September 1971 Rawat spoke to a large U.S. gathering in Colorado and a U.S. Divine Light Mission (DLM) was established in Denver, Colorado the same year.[33]

The 1972 Hans Jayanti festival, celebrating Rawat's father's birthday,[34] was attended by over 500,000 people. Six Jumbo jets were chartered from the U.S. and American followers paid extra so that South Americans could fly from New York to India for free and other countries made similar arrangements to help the less financial.[35]When Rawat, then aged 14, arrived back in India on 7 November with 2,500 followers, a suitcase containing cash, jewelry and wristwatches worth between US$27,000 to $80,000 was not properly declared, and was impounded by customs.[36][37] A DLM spokesman said that the money did not belong to Rawat, but had been deposited by 3,000 followers to pay for expenses, and that the other valuables were gifts.[38] One secretary accepted responsibility for the valuables and another for failing to declare them.[39][38] The finances of Rawat and the DLM at home and abroad were investigated by the Indian government, and Indira Gandhi took a personal interest in the case which was discussed in parliament.[40] Rawat had to post a $13,300 bond in order to leave the country in June of 1973. Mata Ji said that customs officials had humiliated her son, that the Indian press had given his visit the worst possible coverage, and that her son was angry with her for convincing him to attend.[41] Charges were never filed,[16] and the Indian government later issued an apology.[42]

On August 7, 1973 Rawat went to the Detroit city hall to receive a testimonial resolution praising his work, but was hit with a shaving-cream pie by a reporter from the Fifth Estate, an underground Detroit newspaper.[43][44] A tour of U.S. cities was cut short in early September 1973, when Rawat was hospitalized with what his doctor called an "intestinal ulcer". The doctor said that Rawat's body showed the stresses of a middle-aged executive weakened by the pace of continual travel.[45]

The Hans Jayanti of 1973, called "Millennium '73", was held in the Houston Astrodome. It was promoted as "the most significant event in human history". Organizers, including Rawat's eldest brother Satpal Rawat (then known as Bal Bhagwan Ji) and activist Rennie Davis, had publicly predicted attendance of 100,000 or more, but the event only attracted an estimated 20,000. Though it was not covered by the national television news, it did get extensive coverage in the print media and was depicted in the award-winning U.S. documentary "Lord of the Universe".[46] The premies were reported to be "cheerful, friendly and unruffled, and seemed nourished by their faith". To the 400 premie parents who attended, Rawat "was a rehabilitator of prodigal sons and daughters". Other reporters found a "confused jumble of inarticulately expressed ideas."[47][48] The event was called the "youth culture event of the year".[49] The failure of the event to meet expectations generated negative publicity and left the Divine Light Mission heavily in debt, forcing changes in the movement which was able to reduce the debt to $80,000 by 1976.[50][10] According to Thomas Pilarzyk, the Millennium economic deficit was partially the result of poor management by the "holy family", Rawat's mother and three older brothers, as well as the much lower than anticipated attendance,[51]

Because of Prem Rawat's youth, Mata Ji, his mother, had managed the affairs of the worldwide DLM, with the help of her eldest son, Satpal Rawat. As Prem Rawat approached sixteen years of age, he wanted to take a more active part in deciding and managing the direction of the movement. According to Downton, "this meant he had to encroach on his mother's territory and, given the fact that she was accustomed to having control, a fight was inevitable".[52][28]

By the end of 1973, DLM was active in 55 countries on six continents.[53] Tens of thousands of people had been initiated, and several hundred centers and dozens of ashrams formed.[10] 1973 has been called the "peak of the mission's success".[54]

Coming of age

In December 1973, when he turned 16, Rawat took administrative control of the Mission's U.S. branch and his mother and Satpal returned to India.[10][55]

In May 1974 Rawat received permission from a judge to get married without parental permission.[56] His marriage to Marolyn Johnson, a 24-year old follower and secretary of his from San Diego, California, was officiated at a non-denominational church in Golden, Colorado.[57] Rawat's mother, Mata Ji, had not been invited.[58] As a result of his marriage he became an emancipated minor.

Rawat's marriage to a non-Indian finally severed Rawat's relationship with his mother.[8][59] She gained legal control of the Indian DLM and appointed the eldest brother, Satpal, as its leader, while Rawat maintained the support of the Western disciples.[60] Most of the mahatmas either returned to India or were dismissed.[52] Rawat had by then become financially independent as a result of contributions from his Western devotees, which made it possible for him to follow the lifestyle of an American millionaire, running a household for his wife, his brother and sister-in-law, Raja Ji and Claudia, as well as financing travel for his entourage of close officials and mahatmas on his frequent trips around the globe to attend the Mission's festivals.[61][52]

By early 1974 the number of full-time DLM staff had grown from six people to over one thousand.[62] In November 1974, seeking more privacy for himself, his wife and his entourage following security concerns, Rawat moved to a four-acre property in Malibu, California.[63][64] Purchased by the DLM for $400,000, the property also served as the DLM's West Coast headquarters.[63][64] Described in the press as a "lavish hilltop estate", it was damaged in a 1978 brush fire.[65][66] Controversy around a helipad on the property[67] was resolved by installing emergency water storage for use by the Los Angeles County Fire Department in emergencies and by limiting the number of permitted flights.[68] After scaling down the DLM's activities in the early 1980s, Rawat created the North American Sponsorship Program to help pay for the property.[69]

Although there were still residues of belief in his divinity, by 1976 the vast majority of students viewed Rawat primarily as their spiritual teacher, guide and inspiration.[70] In January 1976 Rawat encouraged students to leave the ashrams and to discard Indian customs and terminology.[71] In the same year Rawat said that he felt that the organization had come between his devotees and himself. [72]He removed Bob Mishler, the International President of DLM from power[73] and the staff at the Denver headquarters were reduced from 250 to 80.[74]

His appearance at an event on 20 December 1976 in Atlantic City, New Jersey, wearing a traditional Krishna costume for the first time since 1975, signaled a resurgence of Indian influence and devotion. His followers elevated Rawat to a higher level in the conveyance of "Knowledge". During 1977, many returned to ashram life, and there was a shift back from secular tendencies towards ritual and messianic beliefs.[75][76][77] In 1977 Rawat became a US citizen.[78]

In the mid-1970s several ex-members became vocal critics.[10] James Lewis wrote that they attacked the movement with charges of brainwashing and mind control.[79] In January 1979 the Los Angeles Times reported that Rawat maintained his Malibu following despite a rising mistrust of cults.[64] Bob Mishler, co-founder of DLM in the United States and former president of the business side of the mission, and Robert Hand, a former vice president of the movement, voiced their criticism in a press conference,[citation needed] warning that a situation like the recent Jonestown incident could occur with the followers of Rawat.[80] Mishler complained that the ideals of the group had become impossible to fulfill, but his charges found little support and did not affect the progress of the Mission.[10]

A source of controversy in the 1970s was Rawat's affluent lifestyle, which continued during the DLM's financial difficulties.[81] Press reports listed expensive automobiles such as Rolls Royces, Mercedes Benz limousines[48] and sports cars, some of them gifts.[82][83]According to Downton, giving thanks to a guru is an “eastern spiritual tradition” and Rawat’s followers were “more than happy to supply him with luxuries”. [84]Several of the vehicles were reportedly bought tax-free due to the DLM's status as a church.[85][16] The DLM was investigated for possible abuse of its status but was not charged.[citation needed]

Rawat took flying lessons beginning when he was 13,[86] and began training in a jet by age 15.[87] In 1972 two Cessna airplanes were obtained for his use.[16][88] Travelling almost constantly, he was reported to have residences in London, New York, Colorado, California, India, and Australia.[48][16]

On several occasions, reporters enquired of Rawat why he did not give his Rolls Royce away, in order to alleviate hunger or poverty. In response, Rawat explained that he only had one; once that was given away, people would still be hungry and poor, and he wouldn't have another one to give them.[16][89][48][90][91] In addition, he stated that he gave something that was more valuable than money. His followers saw no conflict between his worldly and spiritual riches either: "Maharaj Ji's luxuries are gifts from a Western culture whose fruits are watches and Cadillacs," a spokesman explained. "He isn't saying, abandon the material world. He's saying it is our attachment to it that is wrong."[92] In their view, the messiah had come as a king this time, rather than as a beggar.[48][93] Other premies asserted that he did not want the gifts, but that people gave them out of their love for him.[94] They saw Rawat's lifestyle as an example of a lila, or divine play, which held a mirror to the "money-crazed and contraption-collecting society" of the West.[95]

Sources close to his mother said that his materialistic lifestyle was one of the reasons she disowned him.[96][97] Former officials of the DLM in the 1970s, including the founding president, the vice president, and a financial analyst, later complained that money was increasingly diverted to Rawat's personal use,[10] and that the movement appeared to them to exist only to support Rawat's "opulent existence".[98] Critics have complained that his lifestyle was supported by the donations of followers.[8]

Following the fire damage to his Malibu home, Rawat moved to Miami Beach, Florida with his wife and three children for several years, and DLM headquarters relocated there.[66] Prem Rawat visited India again in October 1980 after an absence of five years, and spoke to over 38,000 people in Delhi. He also toured South America and Europe that year.[99]

Westernization

October 12, 1981. Prem Rawat speaking at the Royal Albert Hall, London

In the early 1980s, the Hindu traditions and religious parables that had been prominent in Prem Rawat's teachings were abandoned as obstacles to a wider western acceptance of his message and gave way to an exclusive focus on "Knowledge" – the meditation techniques. Formerly considered the "Perfect Master", Prem Rawat abandoned his "almost divine status as guru". Spiritual growth was no longer attained by the grace of the guru, but from the teachings and their benefit to individuals.[8][10]

In 1983 the downsized Divine Light Mission changed its name to Elan Vital, and Rawat closed the last western ashrams, marking the end of his use of Indian methods for international objectives.[100]

Rawat continued to teach the techniques of Knowledge, and affirmed his own status as a master rather than a divine leader. The original religious movement was essentially defunct. Scholars such as Kranenborg and Chryssides describe the departure from divine connotations, and the new emphasis that the Knowledge is universal, rather than Indian.[101][102] Sociologist Hunt claims that Rawat "left his more ascetic life behind and does not personally eschew material possessions. Over time, critics have focused on what appears to be his opulent lifestyle and argue that it is supported largely by the donations of his followers. His tens of thousands of followers in the West see themselves as adherents to a system of teachings that extol the goal of enjoying life to the full."[8]

He toured extensively throughout the 1980s and 1990s,[103] and spoke publicly in over 40 countries, in places as culturally diverse as Japan, Taiwan, the Ivory Coast, Slovenia and Venezuela.[10] 1999 saw the commencement of regular satellite broadcasts to North America and other countries.[104]

2000s

June 30, 2003. Prem Rawat addressing the first "Conference on Peace" at the University of Salamanca

Between January 2004 and June 2005, Rawat delivered 117 addresses in Asia, Europe, and North America focusing on a universal message of peace and self-fulfillment. His message is currently distributed in eighty-eight countries in print and on video, and his program "Words of Peace" is broadcast on TV channels such as Canal Infinito in South America, Channel 31 in Australia, and Dish Network in the U.S.A.[105][106]

In 2001, Rawat founded the The Prem Rawat Foundation (TPRF),[107] a Public Charitable Organization for the production and distribution of materials promoting his message, and for funding worldwide humanitarian efforts. TPRF has provided food, water and medical help to war-torn and impoverished areas.[108]

In 2005, Rawat introduced The Keys, a set of five DVD's which prepare the student for receiving Knowledge, as well as a sixth Key which is a DVD presentation of Rawat teaching the Knowledge techniques.[109]

In 2007, during a two-month tour of India, Sri Lanka and Nepal, Rawat spoke at 36 events, addressing over 800,000 people, and by live satellite broadcasts reached an additional 2.25 million.[110]

Teachings

Further information: Teachings of Prem Rawat

Prem Rawat teaches a process of self-discovery using four meditation techniques, known collectively as "Knowledge", that offer a direct experience of transcendence.[8][111][48][89] Stephen J. Hunt describes Rawat's major focus as being on stillness, peace and contentment within the individual, with 'Knowledge' encompassing the necessary techniques to acquire these qualities. Knowledge, roughly translated, means the happiness of the true self-understanding. Each individual should seek to comprehend his or her true self. In turn, this brings a sense of well-being, joy, and harmony as one comes in contact with one's "own nature."[8]

Some scholars assert that Rawat's teachings began in the North Indian Sant Mat tradition,[10] which dismisses ritual and claims that true religion is a matter of loving and surrendering to God who dwells in the heart.[112][113] Rawat claims that practicing Knowledge will allow the practitioner to experience the divine within, which will yield self-understanding, calmness, peace and contentment.[102]

Several scholars wrote that Rawat claimed or suggested that he was divine, in accord with the Indian Sant Mat tradition of regarding the "Perfect Master" as an embodiment of God.[114][10] As a guru, he carried divine connotations for his followers, and Rawat's appeal to his followers to give up their beliefs and concepts did not prevent them from adopting a set of ideas about his divinity and the coming of a new age.[115] Despite his denial in a July, 1972 interview of any belief that he was the Messiah, pre-existing millennial expectations were fostered partly by his mother, whose talks were full of references to her son's divine nature, and partly by Rawat himself, who generally encouraged whatever view was held by people.[115][116]

Some journalists and scholars have described Rawat's teachings as lacking in intellectual content.[117][14] [48] Van der Lans and Derks wrote that according to Rawat all evil should be attributed to the mind (according to Downton, "premies use 'mind' and 'ego' interchangeably"), as an obstacle to freeing oneself from former bonds.[118][119] Rawat makes no reference to any traditional authority, neither a particular person nor any text.[120][28] In the 80s Rawat came to recognize that the Indian influences on his followers in the West were a hindrance to the wider acceptance of his teachings, and he changed the style of his message, relinquishing the Hindu traditions and beliefs and most of the original eastern religious practices.[8][10][48]

Practitioners describe Knowledge as internal and highly individual, with no associated social structure, liturgy, ethical practices or articles of faith.[8] Practitioners and organizations related to Prem Rawat emphasize the superiority of subjective experience over intellect.[8][12][3]

Reception

According to Ron Geaves, one of the earliest Western students of Prem Rawat who later became a Professor of Religion in the UK:[121] "Prem Rawat has been successful since he left India in 1971, establishing his teachings in over eighty countries, and his original vehicle Divine Light Mission was described as the fastest growing new religious movement in the West."[28]

Stephen A. Kent, in the preface of his book From Slogans to Mantras, described his disappointment at hearing what he considered to be a poorly delivered and banal message by Rawat in 1974, and was surprised that his companions spoke glowingly about the same message.[14]

Following

Estimates of the number of Rawat's adherents varied, and became less certain over time.[122] Petersen states that Rawat claimed 7 million disciples worldwide in 1973, with 60,000 in the U.S.[123] Rudin & Rudin give a worldwide following of 6 million prior to the family schism of 1974, of which 50,000 were in the U.S. According to these authors, these figures had fallen to 1.2 million for Prem Rawat's personal worldwide following in 1980, of which just 15,000 were in the U.S.[124] Palmer and Keller published a general DLM membership of approximately 1.2 million worldwide, with 50,000 in the U.S., in 1990 and 1997.[125]

Paul Schnabel notes a steady growth of adherence in the U.S. until 1975 (numbers for 1974: 50,000 premies, of which 1,200 living in ashrams), with a steep decline afterwards.[126] Army Pamphlet 165-13 (1978, reprinted 2001) estimated 50,000 adherents in the U.S., of which 10,000 to 12,000 were considered very active.[23] Melton & Moore suggested a U.S. following of no more than 3,000 committed followers in 1982 out of some 50,000 who had been initiated into the Knowledge meditation.[127] By 1993 it was no longer possible to obtain estimates from Rawat's organisations.[122] Paul Schnabel indicated that in 1980 the number of DLM adherents in the Netherlands had fallen to 150, 15 of which were living in a community setting.[128] In 1983 the following of Rawat in Fiji was around 1,000.[129] For West Germany, 800 members were recorded in 1987.[130] According to Rawat's official website,[131] as of May 2008 and in the last eight years, 365,237 people in 67 countries have attended a Key Six session, a special session where techniques of Knowledge are taught by Rawat via a video presentation.[132]

Media

After Prem Rawat's first arrival in the United Kingdom and United States in 1971 at the age of thirteen and through the 1970s he, his students and his organizations attracted media scrutiny and attention. Examples of articles appearing in the mainstream press in that decade include a 1974 article in Rolling Stone magazine and a 1979 article in the New York Review of Books.[133][89] In 1973, the 50-member public relations team of the Divine Light Mission who met to talk about the guru's image, concluded that he was seen as a "fat 15-year-old with pie in his face ... and a Rolls-Royce ... who was arrested for jewel smuggling", and pointed at the necessity to establish his credibility beyond his age and body shape.[134]

Rawat has been termed a cult leader in popular press reports,[135][136] and anti-cult writings.[137][138]

Charisma and leadership

Several scholars refer to Max Weber's classification of authority when describing Rawat as a charismatic leader.[139][13][140] This type of leadership, in Weber's words, rests "on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him."[141]

Melton refers to Rawat's personal charisma as one of the reasons for the rapid spread of his message among members of the 1960s counterculture.[142] The Dutch sociologist Paul Schnabel described Rawat as a pure example of a charismatic leader. He characterized Rawat as materialistic, pampered and intellectually unremarkable compared to Osho, but no less charismatic. Schnabel remarks that although Rawat's charisma was partly routinized as it resulted from a hereditary succession, this type of routinization played a negligible role for his Western followers. He saw Prem Rawat's charisma as primarily the result of careful staging supported by an organization.[13] Meredith McGuire sees formalization resulting from Rawat's desire to consolidate his power and authority over the movement in the United States.[139] Lucy DuPertuis, a sociologist and follower who assisted James V. Downton with his book about the Divine Light Mission, described Rawat's role as a Master as emerging from three interrelated phenomena: traditional or theological definitions of Satguru, adherents' first-hand experiences of the Master, and communal accounts and discussions of the Master among devotees. Her ultimate assertion is that imputation of charisma is an active, conscious, changing process which, in this context, involves non-cognitive modes of perception. She also observed that Rawat's charisma did not prevent some devotees from discovering that they had learned the "experience of God" on their own, and to drift away, not in disillusionment but in fulfillment.[140]

David G. Bromley describes the difficulty of a charismatic leader in proving to be above normal human failings such as not to suffer ill health or indulge in worldly pursuits. He presents Rawat's marriage as such a situation, which is then exploited by the media to discredit charismatic claimants in the eyes of the general public.[143] Bromley describes Prem Rawat and other founders of new religions as being held in awe by their early followers, who ascribe extraordinary powers to them that set them apart from other human beings – in the words of Max Weber, a "prophet" or bearer of charisma who proclaims alternative or new revelations. Bromley asserts that recent scholarship gives emphasis to social construct aspects of charisma, rather than relying solely on individual personality.[144] Thomas Pilarzyk, a sociologist, wrote in a 1978 paper that the distribution of power and authority in the DLM was officially based on the charismatic appeal of Maharaj Ji, which he describes as being somewhat ambiguous, and that many followers were not certain about his position in the organizational scheme of the movement, or the claim that he was the only true spiritual master.[51]

Stephen J. Hunt observes that in Rawat's case the notion of spiritual growth is not derived — as is traditionally the case with other gurus — from his personal charisma, but from the nature of his teachings and the benefits to the individuals applying them.[8] Geaves states that Rawat is not a renunciate, and that he has made great efforts to assert his humanity and take apart the hagiography that has developed around him. He further writes that Rawat himself has stated that he does not consider himself to be a charismatic figure, preferring to refer to his teachings and the efficacy of the practice of the four techniques on the individual as the basis for his authority, and that Rawat could only be defined as charismatic in the sense of charisma having an antagonistic relationship with tradition.[28]

Students

Schnabel observed, referring to research by the psychologist of religion Van der Lans, that among his Western students, Rawat appeared to stimulate an uncritical attitude, giving them an opportunity to project their fantasies of divinity onto his person. According to these authors, the divine nature of the guru is a standard element of Eastern religion, but removed from its cultural context, and confounded with the Western understanding of God as a father, what is lost is the difference between the guru's person and that which the guru symbolizes—resulting in what they refer to as limitless personality worship. Schnabel writes that this kind of understanding of the master-disciple relationship, alien to the original Eastern guru-disciple context, often ends in disillusionment for the disciple, who finds that the teacher in the end fails to live up to his or her expectations.[145]

Former followers

Based on an analysis of Sophia Collier's Soul Rush, John Barbour, a Professor of Religion,[146] concludes that Collier's deconversion from DLM was uncharacteristic compared to other deconversions from other movements, in that her deconversion brought her no emotional suffering.[147]

When former officials of Rawat's organisations voiced their criticism in the aftermath of the Jonestown drama in the late 1970s they didn't limit themselves to the movement, but included its leader in their comments,[80] which included claiming that money had been increasingly diverted to Rawat's personal use.[10]

Former followers became known as "Ex-premies",[129][148][149][150] and Elan Vital has characterised the vocal critics among them as disgruntled former employees.[148]

Aviation interests

Prem Rawat holds an Airline Transport Pilot License and has type ratings for a number of multi-engined aircraft and helicopters.[151] He is listed as co-inventor on a U.S. patent for a world-time aviational watch.[152][unreliable source?]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Cagan (2007), pp. 206, 215, 219 and 233
  2. ^ a b Navbharat Times, 10 November 1970
  3. ^ a b Mangalwadi (1992), pp. 137-138
  4. ^ "New Hindu Religious Movements in India," by Arvind Sharma, in "New Religious Movements and Rapid Social Change", by James A. Beckford, Unesco/Sage Publications: London,1986, ISBN 0-8039-8003-8, p224
  5. ^ "The Prem Rawat Foundation website". Retrieved 2008-06-09.
  6. ^ Melton (1992), p. 217
  7. ^ MacDougall (1983), p. 437
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Hunt (2003)
  9. ^ Miller (1995), p. 474
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Melton (1986), pp. 141-145
  11. ^ "Guru Maharaj Ji becomes a citizen of the U.S." Rocky Mountain News, Wednesday, October 19, 1977, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.
  12. ^ a b Barret (2003), p. 65
  13. ^ a b c Schnabel (1982), p. 99
  14. ^ a b c Kent (2001)
  15. ^ Rudin & Rudin (1980), p. 65
  16. ^ a b c d e f Moritz, (1974)
  17. ^ McKean (1996)
  18. ^ Downton (1979)
  19. ^ Larson (1982)
  20. ^ Cagan (2007), p. 3
  21. ^ Cagan (2007), pp. 83-87
  22. ^ Aagaard (1980)
  23. ^ a b U.S. Department of the Army (2001)
  24. ^ Fahlbusch et al. (1998),. p.861
  25. ^ Cagan (2007), pp. 83-86
  26. ^ Melton (1986), p. 141–2
  27. ^ Fahlbusch et al. (1998), p. 861
  28. ^ a b c d e Geaves (2006)
  29. ^ Kranenborg (1982), p. 64
  30. ^ Downton (1979), p. 3
  31. ^ Lewis (1998a), p. 83
  32. ^ Barnhart, et al. (1980), p. 411]
  33. ^ Downton (1979), p. 4
  34. ^ Galanter (1999), p. 20
  35. ^ Messer, Jeanne. "Guru Maharaj Ji and the Divine Light Mission" in The New Religious Consciousness by Charles Y. Glock and Robert N. Bellah, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976, ISBN 0-52003-472-4, pp. 52-72.
  36. ^ "Guru's Pupil Slates Talk", SYRACUSE POST-STANDARD Feb. 3,1973. p. 3
  37. ^ "Gifts for a guru". AP, THE STARS AND STRIPES November 15, 1972. p.4
  38. ^ a b India still studying goods confiscated from youthful guru. New York Times, July 18, 1973
  39. ^ "Gifts for a guru". AP, THE STARS AND STRIPES November 15, 1972. p.4
  40. ^ "Boy Guru Suspected of Smuggling", AP, Sat., Oakland Tribune, Aug. 25, 1973
  41. ^ "Some feel the youth is fraud", Sun., Dec. 10, 1972 INDEPENDENT, PRESS-TELEGRAM A-27
  42. ^ Downton (1979), pp. 187-8
  43. ^ "Guru Gets Testimonial And Some Pie in Face" in New York Times. August 8, 1973, p. 43. At NYT website
  44. ^ "Guru Set For Honor, Gets Pie In Face" in Independent and Press-Telegram (UPI). Days later Long Beach, Calif., Sunday, August 8, 1973, p. A-6
  45. ^ "The 'Perfect Master' from India has an ulcer", AP, THE STARS AND STRIPES September 4, 1973 p. 6
  46. ^ "Videotape Explorers on the Trail of a Guru" by Dick Adler, Los Angeles Times, February 23, 1974 p. B2
  47. ^ Collier (1978), p. 176
  48. ^ a b c d e f g h Morgan (1973)
  49. ^ Foss & Larkin (1978)
  50. ^ All Gods Children: The Cult Experience - Salvation Or Slavery? by Carrol Stoner and Jo Anne Parke The New Religions ... Why Now? p. 36
  51. ^ a b Pilarzyk (1978)
  52. ^ a b c Downton (1979), ch. 12
  53. ^ Downton (1979), p. 5
  54. ^ Aagaard (1980)
  55. ^ Cagan (2007), pp. 200, 197
  56. ^ "Guru, 16, marries secretary" AP Tues. May 21, 1974 Greeley Tribune
  57. ^ "The Guru's Wife Is Another Devotee", Robert P. Dalton, AP Staff Writer, Oakland Tribune. May 23, 1974.
  58. ^ Downton (1979), p. 191.
  59. ^ Miller (1995), p. 474
  60. ^ "Guru Maharaj Ji," Biography Resource Center, Thomson Gale, 2007
  61. ^ Price (1979), pp. 279–96
  62. ^ Messer, Jeanne. "Guru Maharaj Ji and the Divine Light Mission" in The New Religious Consciousness by Charles Y. Glock and Robert N. Bellah, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976, ISBN 0-52003-472-4, pp. 52-72.
  63. ^ a b "Maharaj Ji Buys $400,000 Home Base in Malibu Area", JOHN DART, Los Angeles Times, Nov 27, 1974; p. B2
  64. ^ a b c "Malibu Guru Maintains Following Despite Rising Mistrust of Cults" Mark Foster, Los Angeles Times January 12, 1979 p. 3
  65. ^ Finke, Nikki. "MALIBU Metamorphosis: Is Hollywood's Haven Growing Into Just Another Miami Beach?" in Los Angeles Times. September 3, 1989. At L. A. Times Archives
  66. ^ a b Cagan (2007), pp. 219–220
  67. ^ "1-Year Trial OKd for Sect's Helipad" in Los Angeles Times. May 22, 1981, p. F6. At L. A. Times Archives
  68. ^ Pasternak, Judy. "Maharaji Denied in Bid to Triple Copter Use" in Los Angeles Times. July 7, 1985, p. 1. At L. A. Times Archives
  69. ^ "Guru Maharaj Ji." Religious Leaders of America, 2nd ed. Gale Group, 1999. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale, 2008. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC
  70. ^ Downton (1979), p. 199
  71. ^ Downton (1979)
  72. ^ Björkqvist, K (1990): World-rejection, world-affirmation, and goal displacement: some aspects of change in three new religions movements of Hindu origin. In N. Holm (ed.), Encounter with India: studies in neohinduism (pp. 79-99) - Turku, Finland. Åbo Akademi University Press - "In 1976, Maharaj Ji declared that he felt that the organization had come between his devotees and himself, and he disposed of the headquarters altogether."
  73. ^ Price, Maeve (1979): The Divine Light Mission as a social organization. (1) Sociological Review, 27, Page 279-296
  74. ^ Downton (1979)
  75. ^ Downton (1979), pp. 210–211
  76. ^ Cagan (2007), p. 228
  77. ^ Downton (1979)
  78. ^ "Guru Maharaj Ji becomes a citizen of the U.S." Rocky Mountain News, Wednesday, October 19, 1977, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.
  79. ^ Lewis (1998b), p. 210
  80. ^ a b Brown, Chip, Parents Versus Cult: Frustration, Kidnapping, Tears; Who Became Kidnappers to Rescue Daughter From Her Guru, The Washington Post, February 15, 1982
  81. ^ Bromley & Shupe (1981), p. 137
  82. ^ "The guru who minds his mother", By MALCOLM N. CARTER, AP. 11/4/73 Stars and Stripes
  83. ^ "Boy guru weds Calif. woman, 24". Associated Press, Long Beach, Calif. Indepedent, May 22, 1974
  84. ^ Downton (1979)page 182
  85. ^ "Investigation under way into Guru's business activities" AP Jun 24, 1974 GREELEY (Colo.) TRIBUNE
  86. ^ "Pretty Far-Out Little Dude" Henry Allen, Washington Post, September 14, 1971
  87. ^ Cameron (1973)
  88. ^ "Gifts for a Guru" in Stars and Stripes, November 15, 1972.
  89. ^ a b c Gray (1973)
  90. ^ "Seventeen-year-old guru likes pizza and sports cars", DEBORAH FRAZIER UPI Santa Fe, July 13,1975 THE NEW MEXICAN.
  91. ^ Levine, Richard. "When The Lord of All The Universe Played Houston: Many are called but few show up" in Rolling Stone. Issue No. 156, March 14, 1974, pp 36-50:
  92. ^ "'You're a Perfect Master'", Newsweek November 19, 1973
  93. ^ "An East Indian Teen-Ager Say He Is God", Ken Kelley, Vogue March 1974
  94. ^ "Through a 'Third Eye' Comes The Divine Light", By PHIL HASLANGER (Of The Capital Times Staff), Capital times, 2/16/73
  95. ^ Foss & Larkin (1978)
  96. ^ "Guru Tries to Take Control of Mission" in The Ruston Daily Leader, April 9, 1975:
  97. ^ "MOTHER OUSTS 'PLAYBOY' GURU" in Los Angeles Times. Wednesday April 2, 1975, PART II, p. 6A
  98. ^ TIME, April 7, 1975 [1]
  99. ^ Cagan (2007), p. 229
  100. ^ Miller (1995), p. 474
  101. ^ Kranenborg (2002), p. 178
  102. ^ a b Chryssides (2001), pp. 210–211
  103. ^ Cagan (2007), pp. 255, 266
  104. ^ Contact Info - Broadcasts
  105. ^ Conversation with Prem Rawat, Available online. (Retrieved January 2006)
  106. ^ "Words of Peace" by Maharaji receives TV Award in Brazil" Press release.
  107. ^ "About Prem Rawat" at the website of The Prem Rawat Foundation
  108. ^ "Charity report". BBB Wise Giving Alliance. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |retrieved= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  109. ^ "The Keys, by Maharaji". thekeys.maharaji.net. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  110. ^ Press release. Over 3 million people participate in events with Prem Rawat in India
  111. ^ Hadden, Religions of the world, p. 428
  112. ^ Lipner (1994), pp. 120-1
  113. ^ Schomer (1987)
  114. ^ Lans & Derks (1986)
  115. ^ a b Downton (1979)
  116. ^ Collier (1978)
  117. ^ Melton (1992), p. 222
  118. ^ Van der Lans and Derks Premies Versus Sannyasins, 1986
  119. ^ Downton (1979), p. 24
  120. ^ Geaves (2004), pp. 201–202
  121. ^ Cagan (2007), p. 109
  122. ^ a b "Elan Vital" in Religious Requirements and Practices of Certain Selected Groups: A Handbook for Chaplains by The Institute for the Study of American Religion (J. Gordon Melton, Project Director - James R. Lewis, Senior Research Associate). 1993 - online edition at Internet Archive, last updated 30 May 2000. The 1993 version
  123. ^ Petersen, William J. Those Curious New Cults in the 80s. New Canaan, Connecticut: Keats Publishing (1982); p. 146., as quoted in "Adherents.com"[2]
  124. ^ Rudin & Rudin (1980), p. 63
  125. ^ Palmer & Keller, Religions of the World, p. 95. 1990 edition quoted in: Adherents.com, entry Divine Light Mission
  126. ^ Schnabel, Tussen stigma en charisma ("Between stigma and charisma"), 1982. Ch. II, p. 32
  127. ^ Melton & Moore (1982), p. 142
  128. ^ Schnabel, Tussen stigma en charisma ("Between stigma and charisma"), 1982. Ch. III, p. 53
  129. ^ a b "Whatever Happened to Guru Maharaj Ji?" in Hinduism Today by Himalayan Academy, USA, ISSN 0896-0801, October 1983. Web copy at hinduismtoday.com
  130. ^ Clarke, Peter B. (ed). The New Evangelists: Recruitment, Method and Aims of New Religious Movements. London, Ethnographics, 1987, ISBN 0905788605, pg. 10 to 14. Quoted in: Adherents.com, entry Divine Light Mission
  131. ^ "Domain tools". Retrieved 2008-10-11.
  132. ^ "The Keys, by Maharaji". The Prem Rawat Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
  133. ^ Rolling Stone Magazine. The Seventies: A Tumultous Decade Reconsidered. Rolling Stones Press, 1998. p. 102, ISBN 0-316-75914-7
  134. ^ "The Guru Who Minds His Mother", MALCOLM N. CARTER. Associated Press THE STARS AND STRIPES, November 4, 1973 Page A6
  135. ^ Callinan, Rory. "Cult Leader Jets In to Recruit New Believers: Millionaire cult leader Maharaj Ji is holding a secret session west of Brisbane this weekend" in Brisbane Courier-Mail. September 20, 1997
  136. ^ Mendick, Robert. "Cult leader gives cash to Lord Mayor appeal" in Evening Standard. London, 2007-05-31, p. 4. At HighBeam Research
  137. ^ Larson, Bob (1982), Larson's book of cults, Wheaton, Ill: Tyndale House Publishers, ISBN 0-8423-2104-7
  138. ^ Rhodes, Ron The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions: The Essential Guide to Their History, Their Doctrine, and Our Response, Ch. 1: Defining Cults. Zondervan, 2001, ISBN 0310232171, p. 32.
  139. ^ a b McGuire (2002) ch. 5, p. 175
  140. ^ a b DuPertuis (1986)
  141. ^ Weber, Maximillan. Theory of Social and Economic Organization, Originally published in 1922 in German under the title Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft as cited in Siebers (1993), p. 228
  142. ^ Partridge (2004)
  143. ^ Hammond, Phillip E.; Bromley, David G. (1987). The Future of new religious movements. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. pp. p.36. ISBN 0-86554-238-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  144. ^ Bromley (2007), p. 156
  145. ^ Schnabel, Tussen stigma en charisma ("Between stigma and charisma"), 1982. Ch. V, p. 142 The reference texts by Van der Lans quoted by Schnabel in that chapter:
    • Lans, Jan van der. "Religious Experience: An Argument for a multidisciplinary approach" in Annual Review of the Social Sciences of Religion 1, 1977, pp. 133-143.
    • Lans, Jan van der. Volgelingen van de goeroe: Hedendaagse religieuze bewegingen in Nederland. Ambo, Baarn, 1981, ISBN 90-263-0521-4
  146. ^ "John Barbour, Professor of Religion". St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota. Retrieved 2008-08-21.
  147. ^ Barbour (1994), p. 173
  148. ^ a b Keim, Tony. "Police block drive-in protest against guru", Courier Mail, Australia, September 4, 2002.
  149. ^ "Blinded by the Light", Good Weekend, Sydney (Australia), August 31, 2002.
  150. ^ "Former Guru on a Different Mission", Rocky Mountain News, January 30, 1998.
  151. ^ Cagan (2007), p. 228
  152. ^ U.S. Patent Office

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