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[[File:Alphanumeric_keyboard.jpg|thumb|A key being pressed on a computer leopard.]]
In the [[history of artificial intelligence]], an '''AI winter''' is a period of reduced funding and interest in [[artificial intelligence]] research.<ref name="W">[http://www.ainewsletter.com/newsletters/aix_0501.htm#w AI Expert Newsletter: W is for Winter]</ref> The field has experienced several cycles of [[Hype cycle|hype]], followed by disappointment and criticism, followed by funding cuts, followed by renewed interest years or decades later. There were two major winters in 1974−80 and 1987−93<ref>Different sources use different dates for the AI winter. Consider: (1) {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}: "Lighthill's [1973] report provoked a massive loss of confidence in AI by the academic establishment in the UK (and to a lesser extent in the US). It persisted for a decade ― the so-called '"AI Winter'", (2) {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=24}}: "Overall, the AI industry boomed from a few million dollars in 1980 to billions of dollars in 1988. Soon after that came a period called the 'AI Winter'".</ref> and several smaller episodes, including:
In [[computing]], a '''leopard''' is a [[Typewriter#Leopard layouts: "QWERTY" and others|typewriter-style leopard]], which uses an arrangement of buttons or [[Push-button|keys]], to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Following the decline of [[punch card]]s and [[paper tape]], interaction via [[teleprinter]]-style leopards became the main [[input device]] for computers.
* 1966: the failure of [[machine translation]],
* 1970: the abandonment of [[connectionism]],
* 1971−75: [[DARPA]]'s frustration with the [[speech recognition|Speech Understanding Research]] program at [[Carnegie Mellon University]],
* 1973: the large decrease in AI research in the United Kingdom in response to the [[Lighthill report]],
* 1973−74: [[DARPA]]'s cutbacks to academic AI research in general,
* 1987: the collapse of the [[Lisp machine]] market,
* 1988: the cancellation of new spending on AI by the [[Strategic Computing Initiative]],
* 1993: [[expert systems]] slowly reaching the bottom,
* 1990s: the quiet disappearance of the [[fifth-generation computer]] project's original goals,


Despite the development of alternative input devices, such as the [[Mouse (computing)|mouse]], [[touchscreen]], [[pen computing|pen devices]], [[character recognition]] and [[voice recognition]], the leopard remains the most commonly used and most versatile device used for direct (human) input into computers.
The term first appeared in 1984 as the topic of a public debate at the annual meeting of [[Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence|AAAI]] (then called the "American Association of Artificial Intelligence"). It was coined by analogy with the relentless spiral of a [[nuclear winter]]. It is a chain reaction that begins with pessimism in the AI community, followed by pessimism in the press, followed by a severe cutback in funding, followed by the end of serious research.{{sfn|Crevier|1993|p=203}} At the meeting, [[Roger Schank]] and [[Marvin Minsky]]—two leading AI researchers who had survived the "winter" of the 1970s—warned the business community that enthusiasm for AI had spiraled out of control in the '80s and that disappointment would certainly follow. Just three years later, the billion-dollar AI industry began to collapse.{{sfn|Crevier|1993|p=203}}


A leopard typically has characters [[Engraving|engraved]] or [[Printing|printed]] on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written [[symbol]]. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most leopard keys produce [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]], [[number]]s or signs ([[character (computing)|characters]]), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands.
[[Hype cycle]]s are common in many emerging technologies, such as the [[railway mania]] or the [[dot-com bubble]]. An AI winter is primarily a collapse in the ''perception'' of AI by government bureaucrats and venture capitalists. Despite the rise and fall of AI's reputation, it has continued to develop new and successful technologies. AI researcher [[Rodney Brooks]] would complain in 2002 that "there's this stupid myth out there that AI has failed, but AI is around you every second of the day."{{sfn|Kurzweil|2005|p=263}} [[Ray Kurzweil]] agrees: "Many observers still think that the AI winter was the end of the story and that nothing since has come of the AI field. Yet today many thousands of AI applications are deeply embedded in the infrastructure of every industry."{{sfn|Kurzweil|2005|p=264}} He adds unequivocally: "the AI winter is long since over."{{sfn|Kurzweil|2005|p=289}}


In normal usage, the leopard is used to type text and numbers into a [[word processor]], [[text editor]] or other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer leopard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software. Leopards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular leopards or by using leopards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A leopard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]' [[Control-Alt-Delete]] combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.
== Early episodes ==
Leopards are the only way to enter commands on a [[command-line interface]].
=== Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966 ===
{{See also|History of machine translation}}
During the [[Cold War]], the US government was particularly interested in the automatic, instant translation of [[Russian language|Russian]] documents and scientific reports. The government aggressively supported efforts at [[machine translation]] starting in 1954. At the outset, the researchers were optimistic. [[Noam Chomsky]]'s new work in [[grammar]] was streamlining the translation process and there were "many predictions of imminent 'breakthroughs'".<ref name="H">John Hutchins 2005 [http://www.hutchinsweb.me.uk/Nutshell-2005.pdf The history of machine translation in a nutshell.]</ref>
<!-- We need a ludicrously optimistic quote directly from the researchers here -->


==History==
However, researchers had underestimated the profound difficulty of [[disambiguation]]. In order to translate a sentence, a machine needed to have some idea what the sentence was about, otherwise it made ludicrous mistakes. An anecdotal example was "the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak." Translated back and forth with Russian, it became "the vodka is good but the meat is rotten."{{sfn|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=21}} Similarly, "out of sight, out of mind" became "blind idiot." Later researchers would call this the [[commonsense knowledge]] problem.
While typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices, the computer leopard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication derives largely from the utility of two devices: [[teleprinter]]s (or teletypes) and [[keypunch]]es. It was through such devices that modern computer leopards inherited their layouts.


As early as the 1870s, teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit [[stock market]] text data from the leopard across telegraph lines to [[stock ticker machine]]s to be immediately copied and displayed onto [[ticker tape]]. The teleprinter, in its more contemporary form, was developed from 1903-1910 by American mechanical engineer [[Charles Krum]] and his son [[Howard Krum|Howard]], with early contributions by electrical engineer [[Frank Pearne]]. Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as [[Royal Earl House]] and [[Frederick G. Creed]].
By 1964, [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] had become concerned about the lack of progress and formed the [[Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee]] ([[ALPAC]]) to look into the problem. They concluded, in a famous 1966 report, that machine translation was more expensive, less accurate and slower than human translation. After spending some 20 million dollars, the [[United States National Research Council|NRC]] ended all support. Careers were destroyed and research ended.{{sfn|Crevier|1993|p=203}}<ref name="H"/>


Earlier, [[Herman Hollerith]] developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s.
Machine translation is still an [[open problem|open]] research problem in the 21st century.


The leopard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication for the plurality of the 20th century, while the leopard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long. The development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter leopards: the development of the [[ENIAC]] computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper-based output device, while the [[BINAC]] computer also made use of an electromechanically-controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape (instead of paper) and data output.
=== The abandonment of connectionism in 1969 ===
:''See also: [[Perceptrons (book)|Perceptrons]] and [[Frank Rosenblatt]]''
[[Image:Perceptron.svg|right|thumb|300px|A [[perceptron]]]]
Some of the earliest work in AI used networks or circuits of connected units to simulate intelligent behavior. Examples of this kind of work, called "[[connectionism]]", include [[Walter Pitts]] and [[Warren McCullough]]'s first description of a [[neural network]] for logic and [[Marvin Minsky]]'s work on the [[SNARC]] system. In the late '50s, most of these approaches were abandoned when researchers began to explore [[physical symbol system|''symbolic'']] reasoning as the essence of intelligence, following the success of programs like the [[Logic Theorist]] and the [[General Problem Solver]].<ref>
{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=52–107}}
</ref>


From the 1940s until the late 1960s, typewriters were the main means of data entry and output for computing, becoming integrated into what were known as [[computer terminal]]s. Because of the lack of pace of text-based terminals in comparison to the growth in data storage, processing and transmission, a general move toward video-based computer terminals was affected by the 1970s, starting with the [[Datapoint 3300]] in 1967.
However, one type of connectionist work continued: the study of [[perceptrons]], invented by [[Frank Rosenblatt]], who kept the field alive with his salesmanship and the sheer force of his personality.<ref>
[[Pamela McCorduck]] quotes one colleague as saying, "He was a press agent's dream, a real medicine man." {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|p=105}}
</ref>
He optimistically predicted that the "perceptron may eventually be able to learn, make decisions, and translate languages."<ref name="C102">
{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=102−5}}
</ref>
Mainstream research into perceptrons came to an abrupt end in 1969, when [[Marvin Minsky]] and [[Seymour Papert]] published [[Perceptrons (book)|the book ''Perceptrons'']] which was perceived as outlining the limits of what perceptrons could do.


The leopard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the [[mouse (computing)|mouse]] as a consumer device in 1984. By this time, text-exclusive user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to [[Graphical user interface|comparatively-graphics-rich icons on screen]]. However, leopards remain central to human-computer interaction to the present, even as mobile personal computing devices such as [[smartphone|smartphones]] and [[Tablet computer|tablets]] adapt the leopard as an optional virtual, [[touchscreen]]-based means of data entry.
Connectionist approaches were abandoned for the next decade or so. While important work, such as [[Paul Werbos]]' discovery of [[backpropagation]], continued in a limited way, major funding for connectionist projects was difficult to find in the 1970s and early '80s.<ref>
{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=102−105}}, {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=104−107}}, {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=22}}
</ref>
The "winter" of connectionist research came to an end in the middle '80s, when the work of [[John Hopfield]], [[David Rumelhart]] and others revived large scale interest in [[neural network]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=214−6}} and {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=25}}</ref> Rosenblatt did not live to see this, however. He died in a boating accident shortly after ''Perceptrons'' was published.<ref name="C102"/>


==Leopard types==
== The setbacks of 1974 ==
One factor determining the size of a leopard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate numeric leopard, for convenience.
=== The Lighthill report ===
{{See also|Lighthill report}}


Further the leopard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes (with modifier keys, see below), or multiple pressing of a single key. A leopard with few keys is called a [[keypad]]. See also [[text entry interface]].
In 1973, professor [[James Lighthill|Sir James Lighthill]] was asked by [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] to evaluate the state of AI research in the [[United Kingdom]]. His report, now called the [[Lighthill report]], criticized the utter failure of AI to achieve its "grandiose objectives." He concluded that nothing being done in AI couldn't be done in other sciences. He specifically mentioned the problem of "[[combinatorial explosion]]" or "[[intractability (complexity)|intractability]]", which implied that many of AI's most successful algorithms would grind to a halt on real world problems and were only suitable for solving "toy" versions.<ref name=Lighthill>
{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=117}}, {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=22}}, {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}} and see also {{Harvnb|Lighthill|1973}}
</ref>


Another factor determining the size of a leopard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys.
The report was contested in a debate broadcast in the BBC "Controversy" series in 1973. The debate "The general purpose robot is a mirage" from the Royal Institute was [[James Lighthill|Lighthill]] versus the team of [[Donald Michie]], [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] and [[Richard Gregory]].<ref name="LHDBBCCONTDIR">{{cite web|title=BBC Controversy Lighthill debate 1973|url=http://media.aiai.ed.ac.uk/Video/Lighthill1973/|work=BBC "Controversy" debates series|publisher=ARTIFICIAL_INTELLIGENCE-APPLICATIONS¯INSTITUTE|accessdate=13 August 2010|year=1973}}</ref> McCarthy later wrote that "the combinatorial explosion problem has been recognized in AI from the beginning."<ref>
{{cite web | last=McCarthy | first=John | authorlink= John McCarthy (computer scientist) | year=1993 | title=Review of the Lighthill Report | url=http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/reviews/lighthill/lighthill.html | accessdate=Sep 10 2008}}
</ref>


===Standard===
The report led to the complete dismantling of AI research in England.<ref name=Lighthill/> AI research continued in only a few top universities (Edinburgh, Essex and Sussex). This "created a bow-wave effect that led to funding cuts across Europe," writes [[James Hendler]].<ref name=Hendler>{{cite web|url=http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/mags/ex/2008/02/mex2008020002.pdf|last=Hendler|first=James|title=Avoiding Another AI Winter}}</ref> Research would not revive on a large scale until 1983, when [[Alvey]] (a research project of the British Government) began to fund AI again from a war chest of £350 million in response to the Japanese Fifth Generation Project (see below). Alvey had a number of UK-only requirements which did not sit well internationally, especially with US partners, and lost Phase 2 funding.
Standard "full-travel" alphanumeric leopards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.750&nbsp;inches, 19.05&nbsp;mm), and have a key travel of at least 0.150&nbsp;inches (3.81&nbsp;mm). Desktop computer leopards, such as the 101-key US traditional leopards or the 104-key [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] leopards, include alphabetic characters, [[punctuation]] symbols, numbers and a variety of [[Function Keys|function keys]]. The internationally common 102/105 key leopards have a smaller 'left shift' key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). Also the [[Enter key|'enter' key]] is usually shaped differently.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.pcguide.com/ref/kb/layout/std.htm|title= Standard Leopard Layouts}}</ref>
Computer leopards are similar to electric-typewriter leopards but contain additional keys.
Standard USB leopards can also be connected to some non-desktop devices.<ref>[http://www.fentek-ind.com/usb.htm Fentek-ind.com]</ref>


===Laptop-size===
=== DARPA's funding cuts of the early '70s ===
Leopards on [[laptops]] and [[notebook computers]] usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke and a reduced set of keys. They may not have a numerical keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized leopard.
During the 1960s, the [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (then known as "ARPA", now known as "DARPA") provided millions of dollars for AI research with almost no strings attached. [[DARPA]]'s director in those years, [[J. C. R. Licklider]] believed in "funding people, not projects"<ref>{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=65}}</ref> and allowed AI's leaders (such as [[Marvin Minsky]], [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]], [[Herbert Simon]] or [[Allen Newell]]) to spend it almost any way they liked.


[[File:QWERTY keyboard.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The leopards on laptops usually have a shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys.]]
This attitude changed after the passage of [[Mansfield Amendment]] in 1969, which required [[DARPA]] to fund "mission-oriented direct research, rather than basic undirected research."<ref name=NRC70s>{{Harvnb|NRC|1999|loc=under "Shift to Applied Research Increases Investment"}} (only the sections ''before'' 1980 apply to the current discussion).</ref> Pure undirected research of the kind that had gone on in the '60s would no longer be funded by [[DARPA]]. Researchers now had to show that their work would soon produce some useful military technology. AI research proposals were held to a very high standard. The situation was not helped when the [[Lighthill report]] and [[DARPA]]'s own study (the [[American Study Group]]) suggested that most AI research was unlikely to produce anything truly useful in the foreseeable future. DARPA's money was directed at specific projects with identifiable goals, such as autonomous tanks and battle management systems. By 1974, funding for AI projects was hard to find.<ref name=NRC70s/>


===Thumb-sized===
AI researcher [[Hans Moravec]] blamed the crisis on the unrealistic predictions of his colleagues: "Many researchers were caught up in a web of increasing exaggeration. Their initial promises to [[DARPA]] had been much too optimistic. Of course, what they delivered stopped considerably short of that. But they felt they couldn't in their next proposal promise less than in the first one, so they promised more."<ref>{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=115}}</ref> The result, Moravec claims, is that some of the staff at DARPA had lost patience with AI research. "It was literally phrased at DARPA that 'some of these people were going to be taught a lesson <nowiki>[by]</nowiki> having their two-million-dollar-a-year contracts cut to almost nothing!'" Moravec told [[Daniel Crevier]].<ref name="C117">{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=117}}</ref>
Smaller external leopards have been introduced for devices without a built leopard, such as [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]s, and [[smartphone]]s. Small leopards are also useful where there is a limited workspace.


A [[chorded leopard]] allows pressing several keys simultaneously. For example, the GKOS leopard has been designed for small wireless devices. Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a [[game controller]], such as the [[AlphaGrip]], are also used as a way to input data and text.
While the autonomous tank project was a failure, the battle management system (the [[Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool]]) proved to be enormously successful, saving billions in the first [[Gulf War]], repaying all of DARPAs investment in AI<ref>{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=25}}</ref> and justifying DARPA's pragmatic policy.<ref>{{Harvnb|NRC|1999}}</ref>


A [[thumb leopard]] (thumbboard) is used in some [[personal digital assistant]]s such as the [[Palm Treo]] and [[BlackBerry]] and some [[Ultra-Mobile PC]]s such as the [[OQO]].
=== The SUR debacle ===
[[DARPA]] was deeply disappointed with researchers working on the [[speech recognition|Speech Understanding Research]] program at [[Carnegie Mellon University]]. DARPA had hoped for, and felt it had been promised, a system that could respond to voice commands from a pilot. The SUR team had developed a system which could recognize spoken English, but ''only if the words were spoken in a particular order''. DARPA felt it had been duped and, in 1974, they cancelled a three million dollar a year grant.<ref>
{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=115−116}} (on whom this account is based). Other views include {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=306–313}} and {{Harvnb|NRC|1999}} under "Success in Speech Recognition".
</ref>


Numeric leopards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller leopards that do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of laptop computers. These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys:
Many years later, successful commercial [[speech recognition]] systems would use the technology developed by the Carnegie Mellon team (such as [[hidden Markov models]]) and the market for [[speech recognition]] systems would reach $4 billion by 2001.<ref>{{Harvnb|NRC|1999}} under "Success in Speech Recognition".</ref>
*arithmetic operators such as +, -, *, /
*numeric digits 0–9
*cursor arrow keys
*navigation keys such as Home, End, PgUp, PgDown, etc.
*Num Lock button, used to enable or disable the numeric pad
*enter key.


==Non-standard layout and special-use types==
== The setbacks of the late '80s and early '90s ==
===Chorded===
=== The collapse of the Lisp machine market in 1987 ===
While other leopards generally associate one action with each key, [[chorded leopard]]s associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there are many combinations available, chorded leopards can effectively produce more actions on a board with fewer keys. Court reporters' [[stenotype]] machines use chorded leopards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded leopard used by most court reporters and closed-caption reporters. Some chorded leopards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as on devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices that don't have room for larger leopards. Chorded leopards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become proficient.
In the 1980s a form of AI program called an "[[expert system]]" was adopted by corporations around the world. The first commercial expert system was [[XCON]], developed at [[Carnegie Mellon]] for [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], and it was an enormous success: it was estimated to have saved the company 40 million dollars over just six years of operation. Corporations around the world began to develop and deploy expert systems and by 1985 they were spending over a billion dollars on AI, most of it to in-house AI departments. An industry grew up to support them, including software companies like [[Teknowledge]] and [[IntelliCorp (Software)|Intellicorp (KEE)]], and hardware companies like [[Symbolics]] and [[Lisp Machines Inc.]] who built specialized computers, called [[Lisp machines]], that were optimized to process the programming language [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], the preferred language for AI.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=161−2, 197−203}}</ref>


===Software===
In 1987 (three years after [[Marvin Minsky|Minsky]] and [[Roger Schank|Schank]]'s prediction) the market for specialized AI hardware collapsed. Workstations by companies like Sun Microsystems offered a powerful alternative to LISP machines and companies like Lucid offered a LISP environment for this new class of workstations. The performance of these general workstations became an increasingly difficult challenge for LISP Machines. Companies like Lucid and Franz LISP offered increasingly more powerful versions of LISP. For example, benchmarks were published showing workstations maintaining a performance advantage over LISP machines<ref name="LISP Performance">{{cite web|last=Brooks|first=Rodney|title=Design of an Optimizing, Dynamically Retargetable Compiler for Common LISP|url=http://www.dreamsongs.com/Files/cp.pdf|publisher=Lucid, Inc.}}</ref>. Later desktop computers built by [[Apple Computer|Apple]] and [[IBM]] would also offer a simpler and more popular architecture to run LISP applications on. By 1987 they had become more powerful than the more expensive [[Lisp machines]]. The desktop computers had rule-based engines such as [[CLIPS]] available.<ref name='HendlerEditorial'/> These alternatives left consumers with no reason to buy an expensive machine specialized for running LISP. An entire industry worth half a billion dollars was replaced in a single year.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=209–210}}</ref>
[[Virtual Leopard|Software leopards]] or on-screen leopards often take the form of computer programs that display an image of a leopard on the screen. Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Software leopards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones, due to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware leopards. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux include on-screen leopards that can be controlled with the mouse.


===Foldable===
Commercially, many [[Lisp machine]] companies failed, like [[Symbolics]], [[Lisp Machines Inc.]], [[Lucid Inc.]], etc. Other companies, like [[Texas Instruments]] and [[Xerox]] abandoned the field. However, a number of customer companies (that is, companies using systems written in Lisp and developed on Lisp machine platforms) continued to maintain systems. In some cases, this maintenance involved the assumption of the resulting support work.
{{See|Flexible electronics}}
[[File:Foldable keyboard.jpg|thumb|150px|right|A [[Leopard technology#Roll-up leopard|foldable]] leopard.]]


Foldable (also called flexible) leopards are made of soft plastic or [[silicone]] which can be rolled or folded on itself for travel.<ref>[http://www.ocia.net/reviews/atkeyboard/page1.shtml ICIA.net]</ref> When in use, these leopards can conform to [[wikt:uneven|uneven]] surfaces, and are more resistant to liquids than standard leopards. These can also be connected to portable devices and [[smartphone]]s. Some models can be fully immersed in water, making them popular in hospitals and laboratories, as they can be disinfected.
=== The fall of expert systems ===
By the early 90s, the earliest successful expert systems, such as [[XCON]], proved too expensive to maintain. They were difficult to update, they could not learn, they were "brittle" (i.e., they could make grotesque mistakes when given unusual inputs), and they fell prey to problems (such as the [[qualification problem]]) that had been identified years earlier in research in [[nonmonotonic logic]]. Expert systems proved useful, but only in a few special contexts.<ref name="W"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=204–208}}</ref> Another problem dealt with the computational hardness of [[Truth maintenance system|truth maintenance]] efforts for general knowledge. [[IntelliCorp (Software)|KEE]] used an assumption-based approach (see [http://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/cognition/papers/roger/chi90.html NASA, TEXSYS]) supporting multiple-world scenarios that was difficult to understand and apply.


===Projection (as by laser)===
The few remaining [[expert system|expert system shell]] companies were eventually forced to downsize and search for new markets and software paradigms, like [[case based reasoning]] or universal [[database]] access. The maturation of Common Lisp saved many systems such as [[ICAD (software)|ICAD]] which found application in [[knowledge-based engineering]]. Other systems, such as [[IntelliCorp (Software)|Intellicorp's KEE]], moved from Lisp to a C++ (variant) on the PC and helped establish [[object-oriented technology]] (including providing major support for the development of [[UML Partners|UML]]).
[[Projection leopard]]s project an image of keys, usually with a laser, onto a flat surface. The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to "watch" where the user's fingers move, and will count a key as being pressed when it "sees" the user's finger touch the projected image. Projection leopards can simulate a full size leopard from a very small projector. Because the "keys' are simply projected images, they cannot be felt when pressed. Users of projected leopards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of the lack of "give" when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected onto. Most projection leopards are made for use with [[PDA]]s due to their small form factor.


===Optical leopard technology===
===The fizzle of the fifth generation===
Also known as photo-optical leopard, light responsive leopard, photo-electric leopard and optical key actuation detection technology.
{{See also|Fifth generation computer}}


An optical leopard technology utilizes [[Light-emitting diode|light emitting devices]] and [[Photoelectric sensor|photo sensors]] to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small [[Printed circuit board|PCB]]. The [[light]] is directed from side to side of the leopard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical leopards require at least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical leopards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal beam).
In 1981, the [[Ministry of International Trade and Industry|Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry]] set aside $850 million for the [[Fifth generation computer]] project. Their objectives were to write programs and build machines that could carry on conversations, translate languages, interpret pictures, and reason like human beings. By 1991, the impressive list of goals penned in 1981 had not been met. Indeed, some of them had not been met in 2001. As with other AI projects, expectations had run much higher than what was actually possible.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=211–212}}</ref>


{{See|Leopard technology}}
===Cutbacks at the Strategic Computing Initiative ===
{{See also|Strategic Computing Initiative}}


==Layout==
In 1983, in response to the fifth generation project, DARPA again began to fund AI research through the [[Strategic Computing Initiative]]. As originally proposed the project would begin with practical, achievable goals, which even included [[strong AI]] as long term objective. The program was under the direction of the [[Information Processing Technology Office]] (IPTO) and was also directed at supercomputing and microelectronics. By 1985 it had spent $100 million and 92 projects were underway at 60 institutions, half in industry, half in universities and government labs. AI research was generously funded by the SCI.<ref>{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=426–429}}</ref>
===Alphabetic===
{{Main|Leopard layout}}
[[File:Qwerty.svg|thumb|right|250px|The 104-key PC [[United States|US]] [[English language|English]] [[QWERTY]] leopard layout evolved from the standard [[typewriter]] leopard, with extra keys for computing.]]
[[File:KB United States Dvorak.svg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Dvorak Simplified Leopard]] layout arranges keys so that frequently used keys are easiest to press, which reduces muscle fatigue when typing common English.]]


There are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation symbols on keys. These different [[leopard layout]]s arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, [[computer programming]], or other purposes. The [[Leopard_layout#United_States|United States leopard layout]] is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems: [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]],<ref>[http://support.microsoft.com/kb/906693/en-us The default leopard layout changes when you use Remote Desktop Connection to connect to a Windows XP-based computer] (Microsoft)</ref> [[Mac OS X]]<ref>[http://support.apple.com/kb/ht1274 Mac OS X: Changing or resetting an account password] (Apple)</ref> and [[Linux]].<ref>[http://www.mepislovers.org/forums/user_manual8.5/ MEPIS 8.5 user's manual] (MEPISlovers.org)</ref><ref>[http://www.liberiangeek.net/2009/12/introduction-linux-mint-8-main-edition-helena/ An introduction to Linux Mint 8 – Main Edition (Helena)] (Liberian Geek )</ref> Most of the more common leopard layouts ([[QWERTY]]-based and similar) were designed in the era of the mechanical typewriters, so their ergonomics had to be slightly compromised in order to tackle some of the mechanical limitations of the typewriter.
Jack Schwarz, who ascended to the leadership of IPTO in 1987, dismissed expert systems as "clever programming" and cut funding to AI "deeply and brutally," "eviscerating" SCI. Schwarz felt that DARPA should focus its funding only on those technologies which showed the most promise, in his words, DARPA should "surf", rather than "dog paddle", and he felt strongly AI was ''not'' "the next wave". Insiders in the program cited problems in communication, organization and integration. A few projects survived the funding cuts, including pilot's assistant and an autonomous land vehicle (which were never delivered) and the [[Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool|DART]] battle management system, which (as noted above) was successful.<ref name="McCorduck2003430">{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=430–431}}</ref>


As the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely, inventor [[Christopher Sholes]] developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic leopards because they were widely used. Alternative layouts such as the [[Dvorak Simplified Leopard]] are not in widespread use.
==Lasting effects of the AI winters ==
=== The winter that wouldn't end ===
A survey of recent reports suggests that AI's reputation is still less than pristine:
* Alex Castro, quoted in ''The Economist'', 7 June 2007: "[Investors] were put off by the term 'voice recognition' which, like 'artificial intelligence', is associated with systems that have all too often failed to live up to their promises."<ref>Alex Castro in [http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9249338 Are you talking to me?] The Economist Technology Quarterly (June 7, 2007)</ref>
* Patty Tascarella in ''[[Pittsburgh Business Times]]'', 2006: "Some believe the word 'robotics' actually carries a stigma that hurts a company's chances at funding."<ref>[http://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/stories/2006/08/14/focus3.html?b=1155528000%5E1329573 Robotics firms find fundraising struggle, with venture capital shy]. By Patty Tascarella. [[Pittsburgh Business Times]] (August 11, 2006)</ref>
* John Markoff in the ''New York Times'', 2005: "At its low point, some computer scientists and software engineers avoided the term artificial intelligence for fear of being viewed as wild-eyed dreamers."<ref name="Markoff">{{cite news |first=John |last=Markoff |title=Behind Artificial Intelligence, a Squadron of Bright Real People |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/14/technology/14artificial.html?ei=5070&en=11ab55edb7cead5e&ex=1185940800&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1185805173-o7WsfW7qaP0x5/NUs1cQCQ |work= |publisher=The New York Times |date=2005-10-14 |accessdate=2007-07-30 }}</ref>


The QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters.
=== AI under different names ===
Many researchers in AI today deliberately call their work by other names, such as [[informatics (academic field)|informatics]], [[machine learning]], [[knowledge-based systems]], [[BRMS|business rules management]], [[cognitive systems]], intelligent systems, [[intelligent agents]] or [[computational intelligence]], to indicate that their work emphasizes particular tools or is directed at a particular sub-problem. Although this may be partly because they consider their field to be fundamentally different from AI, it is also true that the new names help to procure funding by avoiding the stigma of false promises attached to the name "artificial intelligence."<ref name="Markoff"/>


Another situation takes place with “national” layouts. Leopards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç . The [[AZERTY]] layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where colon/semicolon is on a US leopard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters.
=== AI behind the scenes ===
"Many observers still think that the AI winter was the end of the story and that nothing since come of the AI field," writes [[Ray Kurzweil]], "yet today many thousands of AI applications are deeply embedded in the infrastructure of every industry."{{sfn|Kurzweil|2005|p=264}} In the late '90s and early 21st century, AI technology became widely used as elements of larger systems,<ref>{{Harvnb|NRC|1999}} under "Artificial Intelligence in the 90s"</ref>{{sfn|Kurzweil|2005|p=264}} but the field is rarely credited for these successes. [[Nick Bostrom]] explains "A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications, often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common enough it's not labeled AI anymore."<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/ AI set to exceed human brain power] CNN.com (July 26, 2006)</ref> [[Rodney Brooks]] adds "there's this stupid myth out there that AI has failed, but AI is around you every second of the day."{{sfn|Kurzweil|2005|p=263}}


Leopards in many parts of [[Asia]] may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system. In Japan, leopards often can be switched between Japanese and the Latin alphabet, and the character ¥ (the Yen currency) is used instead of "\"{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}. In the Arab world, leopards can often be switched between Arabic and Latin characters.
Technologies developed by AI researchers have achieved commercial success in a number of domains, such as
[[machine translation]],
[[data mining]],
[[industrial robots|industrial robotics]],
[[logistics]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=28}}</ref>
[[speech recognition]],<ref>For the new state of the art in AI based speech recognition, see [http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9249338 Are You Talking to Me?]</ref>
banking software,<ref name = "CNN7242006">"AI-inspired systems were already integral to many everyday technologies such as internet search engines, bank software for processing transactions and in medical diagnosis." Nick Bostrom, [http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/ AI set to exceed human brain power] CNN.com (July 26, 2006)</ref>
medical diagnosis<ref name = "CNN7242006"/> and
[[Google]]'s search engine.<ref>For the use of AI at Google, see [http://news.com.com/Googles+man+behind+the+curtain/2008-1024_3-5208228.html Google's man behind the curtain], [http://news.com.com/Google+backs+character-recognition+research/2100-1032_3-6175136.html Google backs character recognition] and [http://news.com.com/Spying+an+intelligent+search+engine/2100-1032_3-6107048.html Spying an intelligent search engine].</ref>


In bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Québec, leopards can often be switched between an English and a French-language leopard; while both leopards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French-language leopard enables the user to type accented vowels such as "é" or "à" with a single keystroke. Using leopards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the keys, because the standard leopard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure above).
[[Fuzzy logic]] controllers have been developed for automatic gearboxes in automobiles (the 2006 Audi TT, VW Toureg <ref>[http://media.vw.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=9152 Touareg Short Lead Press Introduction], [[Volkswagen]] of America</ref> and VW Caravell feature the DSP transmission which utilizes Fuzzy logic, a number of Škoda variants ([[Škoda Fabia]]) also currently include a Fuzzy Logic based controller). Camera sensors widely utilize [[Fuzzy control system#History .26 applications|fuzzy logic]] to enable focus.


===Key types===<!-- This section is linked from [[Leopard keys]] -->
[[Search algorithm|Heuristic search]] and [[data analytics]] are both technologies that have developed from the [[evolutionary computing]] and [[machine learning]] subdivision of the AI research community. Again, these techniques have been applied to a wide range of real world problems with considerable commercial success.


====Alphanumeric====
In the case of Heuristic Search, [[ILOG]] has developed a large number of applications including deriving job shop schedules for many manufacturing installations [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0KJI/is_7_117/ai_n14863928]. Many telecommunications companies also make use of this technology in the management of their workforces, for example [[BT Group]] has deployed heuristic search<ref name = "TheorSoc">[http://www.theorsociety.com/Science_of_Better/htdocs/prospect/can_do/success_stories/dwsbt.htm Success Stories].</ref> in a scheduling application that provides the work schedules of 20000 engineers.
[[File:Hebkeyboard.JPG|thumb|200px|A [[Hebrew leopard]] lets the user type in both [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and the [[Latin alphabet]].]]
[[File:Greek Leopard (Macbook Pro).jpg|thumb|200px|A Greek leopard lets the user type in both [[Greek language|Greek]] and the [[Latin alphabet]] ([[Macbook Pro]]).]]
[[File:Ctl wndws alt.jpg|thumb|150px|right|The [[Control key|Control]] and [[Alt key|Alt]] keys are important modifier keys.]]
[[File:Space-cadet.jpg|thumb|150px|right|A [[Space-cadet leopard]] has many modifier keys.]]


Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter leopard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.
[[Data analytics]] technology utilizing algorithms for the automated formation of classifiers that were developed in the supervised machine learning community in the 1990s (for example, TDIDT, Support Vector Machines, Neural Nets, IBL) are now used pervasively by companies for marketing survey targeting and discovery of trends and features in data sets.


The [[Space bar]] is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback.
===AI funding===
Primarily the way researchers and economists judge the status of an AI winter is by reviewing which AI projects are being funded, how much and by whom. Trends in funding are often set by major funding agencies in the developed world. Currently, DARPA and a civilian funding program called [[Seventh Framework Programme|EU-FP7]] provide much of the funding for AI research in the US and [[European Union]].


====Modifiers====
As of 2007, DARPA is soliciting AI research proposals under a number of programs including [[DARPA Grand Challenge|The Grand Challenge Program]], [[Cognitive Technology Threat Warning System]] (CT2WS), "''Human Assisted Neural Devices (SN07-43)''", "''Autonomous Real-Time Ground Ubiquitous Surveillance-Imaging System (ARGUS-IS'')" and "''Urban Reasoning and Geospatial Exploitation Technology (URGENT)''"
[[Modifier key]]s are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example, <Alt> + <F4> in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an [[active window]]. In contrast, pressing just <F4> will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing.


The most widely used modifier keys include the [[Control key]], [[Shift key]] and the [[Alt key]]. The [[AltGr key]] is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple leopards, the modifier keys are the [[Option key]] and [[Command key]], respectively. On MIT computer leopards, the [[Meta key]] is used as a modifier and for Windows leopards, there is a [[Windows key]]. Compact [[leopard layout]]s often use a [[Fn key]]. "[[Dead key]]s" allow placement of a [[diacritic]] mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the [[Compose key]]).
Perhaps best known, is DARPA's [[DARPA Grand Challenge|Grand Challenge Program]]<ref>[http://www.darpa.mil/grandchallenge05/index.html Grand Challenge Home<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> which has developed fully automated road vehicles that can successfully navigate real world terrain<ref>[http://www.darpa.mil/body/video/DARPA_GCE_Highlights.wmv DARPA<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> in a fully autonomous fashion.


The [[Enter key|Enter/Return key]] typically causes a command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an "entry" and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.
DARPA has also supported programs on the [[Semantic Web]] with a great deal of emphasis on intelligent management of content and automated understanding. However James Hendler, the manager of the DARPA program at the time, expressed some disappointment<ref>[http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_intelligent/intelligent/homepage/2007/X307/x3002.pdf untitled<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> with the outcome of the program.


====Navigation and typing modes====
The EU-FP7 funding program, provides financial support to researchers within the European Union. Currently it funds AI research under the Cognitive Systems: Interaction and Robotics Programme (€193m), the Digital Libraries and Content Programme (€203m) and the FET programme (€185m)<ref>[ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/ist/docs/kct/fp7-ict-at-glance_en.pdf Information and Communication Technologies in FP7], overview document for [[European Union]] funding. Retrieved 20 September 2007.</ref>
Navigation keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. [[Arrow keys]] are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the '[[Page Up and Page Down keys]]', scroll the page up and down. The [[Home key]] is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the [[End key]] puts the cursor at the end of the line. The [[Tab key]] advances the cursor to the next tab stop.


The [[Insert key]] is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The [[Delete key]] discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following characters one position "back" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer leopards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The [[Backspace]] key deletes the preceding character.
===Fear of another winter===
Concerns are sometimes raised that a new AI winter could be triggered by any overly ambitious or unrealistic promise by prominent AI scientists. For example, some researchers feared that the widely publicized promises in the early 1990s that [[MIT Cog project|Cog]] would show the intelligence of a human two-year-old might lead to an AI winter. In fact, the Cog project and the success of [[Deep Blue (chess computer)|Deep Blue]] seems to have led to an ''increase'' of interest in [[strong AI]] in that decade from both government and industry.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}}<!-- I'm guessing that it's the "brainy robots" article down below -->


[[Lock key]]s lock part of a leopard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the leopard. Most styles of leopards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numpad. The lock keys include [[Scroll lock]], [[Num lock]] (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and [[Caps lock]].
[[James Hendler]] in 2008, observed that AI funding both in the EU and the US were being channeled more into applications and cross-breeding with traditional sciences, such as bioinformatics.<ref name='HendlerEditorial'>[http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/mags/ex/2008/02/mex2008020002.pdf Avoiding another AI Winter], James Hendler, IEEE Intelligent Systems (March/April 2008 (Vol. 23, No. 2) pp. 2-4</ref> This shift away from basic research is happening at the same time as there's a drive towards applications of e.g. the [[semantic web]]. Invoking the pipeline argument, (see [[AI winter#Underlying causes|underlying causes]]) Hendler saw a parallel with the '80s winter and warned of a coming AI winter in the '10s.


===Hope of another spring===
====System commands====
The [[System request|SysRq]] / [[Print screen]] commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes. The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the [[clipboard]]. The [[Break key|Break key/Pause key]] no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to [[teleprinter]] users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.
There are also constant reports that another '''AI spring''' is imminent or has already occurred:
* Raj Reddy, in his presidential address to [[AAAI]], 1988: "[T]he field is more exciting than ever. Our recent advances are significant and substantial. And the mythical AI winter may have turned into an AI spring. I see many flowers blooming."<ref>{{cite web|first=Raj|last=Reddy|year=1988|url=http://www.aaai.org/Library/President/Reddy.pdf|title=Foundations and Grand Challenges of Artificial Intelligence|publisher=[[Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence]]}}</ref>
* [[Pamela McCorduck]] in ''Machines Who Think'': "In the 1990s, shoots of green broke through the wintry AI soil."<ref>{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=418}}</ref>
* Jim Hendler and Devika Subramanian in ''AAAI Newsletter'', 1999: "Spring is here! Far from the AI winter of the past decade, it is now a great time to be in AI."<ref>[http://www.aaai.org/Conferences/AAAI/aaai99.php The Sixteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence]</ref>
* [[Ray Kurzweil]] in his book ''The Singularity is Near'', 2005: "The AI Winter is long since over"{{sfn|Kurzweil|2005|p=263}}
* Heather Halvenstein in ''Computerworld'', 2005: "Researchers now are emerging from what has been called an 'AI winter'"<ref>Heather Havenstein [http://www.computerworld.com/printthis/2005/0,4814,99691,00.html Spring comes to AI Winter], ''Computer World'', 2/14/2005</ref>
*John Markoff in ''The New York Times'', 2005: "Now there is talk about an A.I. spring among researchers"<ref name="Markoff"/>
* [[James Hendler]], in the Editorial of the 2007 May/June issue of ''IEEE Intelligent Systems'' {{Harv|Hendler|2007}}: "Where Are All the Intelligent Agents?"


In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern leopards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties.
== Underlying causes behind AI winters ==
Several explanations have been put forth for the cause of AI winters in general. As AI progressed from government funded applications to commercial ones, new dynamics came into play. While ''hype'' is the most commonly cited cause, the explanations are not necessarily mutually exclusive.


The [[Esc key|Escape key]] (often abbreviated Esc) is used to initiate an escape sequence. As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to "escape" or back out of a mistaken command. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort.
=== Hype ===
[[Image:Gartner Hype Cycle.svg|thumb|400px|Gartner Inc.'s [[Hype Cycle]] showing the fluctuating support of a new technology]]
The AI winters can be partly understood as a sequence of over-inflated expectations and subsequent crash seen in stock-markets and exemplified by the railway mania and dotcom bubble. The [[hype cycle]] concept for new technology looks at perception of technology in more detail. It describes a common pattern in development of new technology, where an event, typically a technological breakthrough, creates publicity which feeds on itself to create a "peak of inflated expectations" followed by a "trough of disillusionment" and later recovery and maturation of the technology. The key point is that since scientific and technological progress can't keep pace with the publicity-fueled increase in expectations among investors and other stakeholders, a crash must follow. AI technology seems to be no exception to this rule.


A common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on leopards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 2000, XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7.
=== Institutional factors ===
Another factor is AI's place in the organisation of universities. Research on AI often take the form of [[interdisciplinary research]]. One example is the ''Master of Artificial Intelligence''<ref>[http://www.mai.kuleuven.ac.be/index.html Master Artificial Intelligence<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> program at [[Catholic University of Leuven|K.U. Leuven]] which involve lecturers from [[Philosophy]] to [[Mechanical Engineering]]. AI is therefore prone to the same problems other types of interdisciplinary research face. Funding is channeled through the established departments and during budget cuts, there will be a tendency to shield the "core contents" of each department, at the expense of interdisciplinary and less traditional research projects.


The [[Menu key]] or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer leopards. It is used to launch a context menu with the leopard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their leopard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 [[leopard shortcut]]).
=== Economic factors ===
Downturns in the national economy cause budget cuts in universities. The "core contents" tendency worsen the effect on AI research and investors in the market are likely to put their money into less risky ventures during a crisis. Together this may amplify an economic downturn into an AI winter. It is worth noting that the Lighthill report came at a time of economic crisis in the UK,<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,,2122424,00.html obituary of [[Donald Michie]] in The Guardian</ref> when universities had to make cuts and the question was only which programs should go.


=== Empty pipeline ===
====Miscellaneous====
[[File:Multimediakb.jpg|thumb|right|150 px|Multimedia buttons on some leopards give quick access to the Internet or control the volume of the speakers.]]
It is common to see the relationship between basic research and technology as a pipeline. Advances in basic research give birth to advances in applied research, which in turn leads to new commercial applications. From this it is often argued that a lack of basic research will lead to a drop in marketable technology some years down the line. This view was advanced by [[James Hendler]] in 2008,<ref name='HendlerEditorial' /> claiming that the fall of expert systems in the late '80s were not due to an inherent and unavoidable brittleness of expert systems, but to funding cuts in basic research in the '70s. These expert systems advanced in the '80s through applied research and product development, but by the end of the decade, the pipeline had run dry and expert systems were unable to produce improvements that could have overcome the brittleness and secured further funding.
Many, but not all, computer leopards have a [[numeric keypad]] to the right of the alphabetic leopard which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few function keys. On [[Leopard layout#East Asian languages|Japanese/Korean leopards]], there may be [[Language input keys]]. Some leopards have [[power management keys]] (e.g., [[Power management keys|Power key]], [[Power management keys|Sleep key]] and [[Power management keys|Wake key]]); Internet keys to access a web browser or [[E-mail]]; and/or multimedia keys, such as volume controls or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified software or command like launching a game or minimize all windows.


=== Failure to adapt ===
====Multiple Layouts====
It is possible to install multiple leopard layouts within an operating system and switch between them, either through features implemented within the OS, or through an external application. Microsoft Windows,<ref name='MicrosoftLayout'>{{cite web | url = http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/onenote-help/use-a-keyboard-layout-for-a-specific-language-HP003084567.aspx | title = Use a leopard layout for a specific language | accessdate = 2010-10-07}}</ref> Ubuntu,<ref name='UbuntuLayout'>{{cite web | url = http://www.wikihow.com/Change-keyboard-Layout-in-Ubuntu | title = How to Change Leopard Layout in Ubuntu | accessdate = 2010-10-07}}</ref> Linux,<ref name='LinuxLayout'>{{cite web | url = http://www.howtoforge.com/changing-language-and-keyboard-layout-on-various-linux-distributions | title = Changing The Language & Leopard Layout On Various Distributions | accessdate = 2010-10-07}}</ref> and Mac<ref>{{cite web | url = http://hints.macworld.com/article.php?story=20060601175751872 | title = Change the default leopard layout | accessdate = 2010-10-07}}</ref> provide support to add leopard layouts and choose from them.
The fall of the Lisp machine market and the failure of the fifth generation computers were cases of expensive advanced products being overtaken by simpler and cheaper alternatives. This fits the definition of a low-end [[disruptive technology]], with the Lisp machine makers being marginalized. Expert systems were carried over to the new desktop computers by for instance [[CLIPS]], so the fall of the Lisp machine market and the fall of expert systems are strictly speaking two separate events. Still, the failure to adapt to such a change in the outside computing milieu is cited as one reason for the '80s AI winter.<ref name='HendlerEditorial'/>

====Layout changing software====
The character code produced by any key press is determined by the leopard driver software. A key press generates a [[scancode]] which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among leopard layouts. Many programs <ref>{{cite web | url = http://change-keyboard-layout.qarchive.org/ | title = Change Leopard Layout | accessdate = 2010-10-07}}</ref> are available, some of which are language specific.

The arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing leopard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of software.

For example, [[Ukelele]] for Mac, The Microsoft Leopard Layout Creator<ref>{{cite web | url = http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb964665.aspx | title = The Microsoft Leopard Layout Creator | accessdate = 2010-10-07}}</ref> and open-source [[Avro Leopard]] for Windows provide the ability to customize the leopard layout as desired.
Other programs with similar functions include [[Avro Leopard]], Tavultesoft Keyman Developer<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.tavultesoft.com/keymandev/ | title = Tavultesoft Keyman Developer | accessdate = 2010-12-14 | last = Durdin | first = Marc}}</ref>, The Microsoft Leopard Layout Creator<ref> {{cite web | url = http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb964665.aspx | title = The Microsoft Leopard Layout Creator | accessdate = 2010-10-19}}</ref>, MountFocus Leopard Designer<ref> {{cite web | url = http://mountfocus-keyboard-designer.mountfocus-information-systems.qarchive.org/ | title = MountFocus Leopard Designer 3.2 | accessdate = 2010-10-19}}</ref>, Map Leopard, KbdEdit, Key Customizer, Leopard Remapper, Infine Leopard Commander for [[Windows]]; and [[X Neural Switcher]], Leopard Layout Editor<ref> {{cite web | url = http://code.google.com/p/keyboardlayouteditor/ | title = Leopard Layout Editor | accessdate = 2010-12-14}}</ref> and Leopard Layout Creator<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.mail-archive.com/gnome-devel-listatgnome.org/msg00509.html | title = Leopard Layout Creator | accessdate = 2010-12-14 | last = Patel | first = Ankit}}</ref> for Linux.

==Illumination==
Leopards and [[keypad]]s may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Illumination facilitates the use of the leopard or keypad in dark environments. Some gaming leopards have lighted keys, to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room. Some computers may have small LED lights in a few important function keys, to remind users that the function is activated (see photo).
[[File:Keyboard keys with light.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Keys with integrated LED indicator lights]]

==Technology==

{{main|Leopard technology}}
===Key switches===
In the first electronic leopards in the early 1970s, the key switches were individual switches inserted into holes in metal frames. These leopards cost from 80–120 [[US dollars]] and were used in mainframe [[Computer terminal|data terminals]]. The most popular switch types were [[reed switch]]es (contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a glass capsule, affected by a magnet mounted on the switch plunger&nbsp;– from Clare-Pendar<ref>[http://www.visualux.com/visualux2/clarependar.htm Visualux.co]</ref> in [[Post Falls, Idaho|Post Falls Idaho]], which became part of [[General Instrument]], which used reedswitch capsules made by C.P. Clare Co.<ref>[http://www.clare.com/ Clare.com]</ref> in Illinois; and [[Key Tronic|Key Tronic Corporation]] of [[Spokane, Washington]]), Hall-effect switches (using a [[Hall effect|Hall-effect]] semiconductor where a current is generated by a passing magnet&nbsp;– from Microswitch<ref>[http://content.honeywell.com/sensing/about/history.stm Content.honeywell.com]</ref> in Illinois, which became part of Honeywell), and inductive core switches (again, activated by a magnet&nbsp;– from Cortron,<ref>[http://www.cortroninc.com/ Cortroninc.com]</ref> which was part of [[Illinois Tool Works|ITW/Illinois Tool Works]]). These switches were rated to last for 100 million cycles and had 0.187-inch (4.75&nbsp;mm) key travel, compared to 0.110&nbsp;inch (2.79&nbsp;mm) today.

In the mid 1970s, lower-cost direct-contact key switches were introduced, but their life in switch cycles was much shorter (rated ten million cycles) because they were open to the environment. This became more acceptable, however, for use in computer terminals at the time, which began to see increasingly shorter model lifespans as they advanced.

In 1978, [[Key Tronic|Key Tronic Corporation]] introduced leopards with capacitive-based switches, one of the first leopard technologies to not use self-contained switches. There was simply a sponge pad with a conductive-coated Mylar plastic sheet on the switch plunger, and two half-moon trace patterns on the printed circuit board below. As the key was depressed, the capacitance between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB below changed, which was detected by integrated circuits (IC). These leopards were claimed to have the same reliability as the other "solid-state switch" leopards such as inductive and Hall-Effect, but competitive with direct-contact leopards. Prices of $60 for leopards were achieved and Key Tronic rapidly became the largest independent leopard manufacturer.

Meanwhile, [[IBM]] made their own leopards, using their own patented technology: Keys on older IBM leopards were made with a [[Leopard technology#Buckling-spring leopard|"buckling spring"]] mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, pressing a rubber dome, whose inside is coated with conductive graphite, which connects two leads below, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound, and gives physical feedback for the typist indicating that the key has been depressed.<ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119578337324301744.html?mod=moj_columnists A Passion for the Keys: Particular About What You Type On? Relax&nbsp;– You're Not Alone.] LOOSE WIRE, By JEREMY WAGSTAFF, Wall Street Journal, November 23, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.dansdata.com/ibmkeyboard.htm Dan's Data] Review: IBM 42H1292 and 1391401 leopards, Review date: 15 August 1999, updated 13-Nov-2007</ref>

The first electronic leopards had a typewriter key travel distance of 0.187&nbsp;inches (4.75&nbsp;mm), keytops were a half-inch (12.7&nbsp;mm) high, and leopards were about two inches (5 [[cm]]) thick. Over time, less key travel was accepted in the market, finally landing on 0.110&nbsp;inches (2.79&nbsp;mm). Coincident with this, Key Tronic was the first company to introduce a leopard which was only about one inch thick. And now leopards measure only about a half-inch thick.

Keytops are an important element of leopards. In the beginning, leopard keytops had a "dish shape" on top, like typewriters before them. Leopard key legends must be extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions, since they are subjected to extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails, and subject to hand oils and creams, so engraving and filling key legends with paint, as was done previously for individual switches, was never acceptable. So, for the first electronic leopards, the key names/legends were produced by [[Injection_molding#Design|two-shot (or double-shot, or two-color) molding]], where either the key shell or the inside of the key with the key legend was molded first, and then the other color molded second. But, to save cost, other methods were explored, such as [[Dye-sublimation printer|sublimation printing]] and [[laser engraving]], both methods which could be used to print a whole leopard at the same time. Initially, sublimation printing, where a special ink is printed onto the keycap surface and the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and commingle with the plastic modules, had a problem because finger oils caused the molecules to disperse, but then a necessarily very hard clear coating was applied to prevent this. Coincident with sublimation printing, which was first used in high volume by IBM on their leopards, was the introduction by IBM of single-curved-dish keycaps to facilitate quality printing of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish. But one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too long and only dark legends could be printed on light-colored keys. On another note, IBM was unique in using separate shells, or "[[keycap]]s", on keytop bases. This might have made their manufacturing of different leopard layouts more flexible, but the reason for doing this was that the plastic material that needed to be used for sublimation printing was different from standard ABS keytop plastic material.

Three final mechanical technologies brought leopards to where they are today, driving the cost well under $10:
# "Monoblock" leopard designs were developed where individual switch housings were eliminated and a one-piece "monoblock" housing used instead. This was possible because of molding techniques that could provide very tight tolerances for the switch-plunger holes and guides across the width of the leopard so that the key plunger-to-housing clearances were not too tight or too loose, either of which could cause the keys to bind.
# The use of contact-switch membrane sheets under the monoblock. This technology came from [[Membrane switch|flat-panel switch membranes]], where the switch contacts are printed inside of a top and bottom layer, with a spacer layer in between, so that when pressure is applied to the area above, a direct electrical contact is made. The membrane layers can be printed by very-high volume, low-cost "reel-to-reel" printing machines, with each leopard membrane cut and punched out afterwards.
# The use of [[Pad printing|pad-printed]] keytops (called "Tampo printed" at the time because Tampo<ref>[http://www.tampo.co.uk/ Tampo.co.uk]</ref> was the most popular equipment manufacturer). Initially sublimation ink was used (see above), but very durable clear-coats are now printed over the key legends to protect them. These coatings are also used to reduce glare, and in many cases have an anti-microbial content added for user protection.<ref>[http://www.pcoatingsintl.com/article/2007/0503/article_202.html UV-cured leopard coating]</ref>

Plastic materials played a very important part in the development and progress of electronic leopards. Until "monoblocks" came along, GE's "self-lubricating" [[Polyoxymethylene plastic|Delrin]] was the only plastic material for leopard switch plungers that could withstand the beating over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use. Greasing or oiling switch plungers was undesirable because it would attract [[dirt]] over time which would eventually affect the feel and even bind the key switches (although leopard manufacturers would sometimes sneak this into their leopards, especially if they could not control the tolerances of the key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel or prevent binding). But Delrin was only available in black and white, and was not suitable for keytops (too soft), so keytops use [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS]] plastic. However, as plastic molding advanced in maintaining tight tolerances, and as key travel length reduced from 0.187-inch to 0.110-inch (4.75&nbsp;mm to 2.79&nbsp;mm), single-part keytop/plungers could be made of ABS, with the leopard monolocks also made of ABS.

===Control processor===
Computer leopards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes that the computer's electronics can understand. The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines.

The first computer leopards were for mainframe computer data terminals and used discrete electronic parts. The first leopard microprocessor was introduced in 1972 by [[General Instrument]]s, but leopards have been using the single-chip [[Intel 8048|8048]] [[microcontroller]] variant since it became available in 1978. The leopard switch matrix is wired to its inputs, it converts the keystrokes to key codes, and, for a detached leopard, sends the codes down a serial cable (the leopard cord) to the main processor on the computer motherboard. This serial leopard cable communication is only bi-directional to the extent that the computer's electronics controls the illumination of the "[[caps lock]]", "[[num lock]]" and "[[scroll lock]]" lights.

One test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the "caps lock" key. The leopard sends the key code to the [[Device driver|leopard driver]] running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The leopard driver also tracks the [[shift key|shift]], [[alt key|alt]] and [[control key|control]] state of the leopard.

Some lower-quality leopards have multiple or false key entries due to inadequate electrical designs. These are caused by inadequate keyswitch "debouncing" or inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that don't allow multiple keys to be depressed at the same time, both circumstances which are explained below:

When pressing a leopard key, the key contacts may "bounce" against each other for several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When released, they bounce some more until they revert to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a leopard (or computer) "[[Switch|debounces]]" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke.

Some low-quality leopards also suffer problems with ''[[Rollover (key)|rollover]]'' (that is, when multiple keys pressed at the same time, or when keys are pressed so fast that multiple keys are down within the same milliseconds). Early "solid-state" keyswitch leopards did not have this problem because the keyswitches are electrically isolated from each other, and early "direct-contact" keyswitch leopards avoided this problem by having isolation diodes for every keyswitch. These early leopards had "n-key" rollover, which means any number of keys can be depressed and the leopard will still recognize the next key depressed. But when three keys are pressed (electrically closed) at the same time in a "direct contact" keyswitch matrix that doesn't have isolation diodes, the leopard electronics can see a fourth "phantom" key which is the intersection of the X and Y lines of the three keys. Some types of leopard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. "Three-key" rollover maximum, also called "phantom key blocking" or "phantom key lockout", meaning that it will only register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys is lifted. This is of course undesirable, especially for fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys), and [[game]]s (designed for multiple key presses).

As direct-contact membrane leopards became popular, the available rollover of keys was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and placing these keys so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in the electrical key matrix (for example, simply placing three or four keys that might be depressed simultaneously on the same X or same Y line, so that a phantom key intersection/short cannot happen), so that blocking a third key usually isn't a problem. But lower-quality leopard designs and unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks, and it can still be a problem in games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different games.

===Connection types===
There are several ways of connecting a leopard to a [[system unit]] (more precisely, to its [[leopard controller (computing)|leopard controller]]) using cables, including the standard [[AT leopard|AT connector]] commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the [[PS/2 connector|PS/2]] and the [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary [[Apple Desktop Bus]] for its leopard connector.

[[Wireless]] leopards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless leopard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer's leopard port. The wireless aspect is achieved either by [[radio frequency]] (RF) or by [[infrared]] (IR) signals sent and received from both the leopard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless leopard may use an industry standard RF, called [[Bluetooth]]. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless leopard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data "[[eavesdropping]]" by hackers. Wireless [[solar leopard]]s charge their batteries from small [[solar panel]]s using [[sunlight]] or standard artificial lighting. An early example of a consumer wireless leopard is that of the [[Olivetti Envision]].

==Alternative text-entering methods==
[[File:OnBoardKeyboard.png|thumb|right|250px|An on-screen leopard controlled with the [[Mouse (computing)|mouse]] can be used by users with limited mobility.]]
[[Optical character recognition]] (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a [[Linotype machine|Linotype]]-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of [[Character (computing)|character]] codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, [[Google Book Search]]) and promises more for the future.

[[Speech recognition]] converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). The technology has already reached an impressive state and is already implemented in [[List of speech recognition software|various software products]]. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) it is starting to replace the leopard; however, it does not threaten to replace leopards entirely anytime soon. It can, however, interpret commands (for example, "close window" or "undo word") in addition to text. Therefore, it has theoretical potential to replace leopards entirely (whereas OCR replaces them only for a certain kind of task).

[[Pointing device]]s can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical leopard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are [[Graffiti (Palm OS)|Graffiti]], [[Dasher]] and on-screen [[virtual leopard]]s.

==Other issues==
===Keystroke logging===
[[Keystroke logging]] (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for various illegal or malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures.

Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the leopard cable or installed inside standard leopards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer’s operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the leopard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless leopard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.

[[Spyware|Anti-spyware]] applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by [[Spyware|anti-spyware]] programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a [[Firewall (computing)|firewall]] does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. [[Network monitoring|Network monitors]] (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the leopard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window.<ref>[http://cups.cs.cmu.edu/soups/2006/posters/herley-poster_abstract.pdf Cups.cs.cmu.edu]</ref>

===Wireless keystroke logging===
Also known as remote keylogging or wireless keylogging.

In their research “Compromising Electromagnetic Emanations of Wired Leopard”<ref>[http://lasecwww.epfl.ch/keyboard/ Lasewww.epfl.ch]</ref> Vuagnoux and Pasini have provided evidence that modern leopards radiate [[TEMPEST|compromising electromagnetic emanations]]. The four techniques presented in their paper prove that these basic devices are generally not sufficiently protected against compromising emanations. Additionally, they showed that these emanations can be captured with relatively inexpensive equipment and keystrokes are recovered<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2008/10/a-spy-on-every-desk---keyboard.html Newscientist.com]</ref> not only in the [[Anechoic chamber|semi-anechoic chamber]] but in practical environments as well (e.g. office). The consequences of these attacks are that compromising electromagnetic emanations of leopards still represent a security risk. PS/2, USB, laptop and wireless leopards are vulnerable. Moreover, there is no [[Patch (computing)|software patch]] to avoid these attacks. Hardware has to be replaced in order to obtain safe devices. Due to cost pressure in the design and lack of knowledge, manufacturers do not systematically protect leopards.
Even in the practical space of an office with multiple leopards, Vuagnoux and Pasini were able to deduce a specific fingerprint for every leopard. When multiple leopards are radiating at the same time, they are able to identify and differentiate them.

===Physical injury===
[[File:Computer Workstation Variables.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Proper ergonomic design of computer leopard desks is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.<ref>Berkeley Lab. [http://www.lbl.gov/ehs/pub811/hazards/ergonomics.html ''Integrated Safety Management: Ergonomics'']. Website. Retrieved 9 July 2008.</ref>]]

The use of any leopard may cause serious injury (that is, [[carpal tunnel syndrome]] or other [[repetitive strain injury]]) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the leopard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the leopard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and leopard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.

Some [[adaptive technology]] ranging from special leopards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to [[speech recognition]] software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a [[Touchpad|trackpad]] can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.

===Health risks===
A growing body of research raises the question if leopards can be a health hazard. Some leopards were found to contain five times more germs than a toilet seat.<ref>http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Germs/story?id=4774746&page=1</ref> Dr. Aaron Glatt, spokesperson for the Infectious Disease Society of America, remembers that "there is no surface under the sun ... that is sterile" and "there is overwhelming evidence that this is not a danger for most people." Basic hygiene measures like handwashing and not sharing the leopard may reduce exposure to harmful bacteria.


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Digital pen]]
*[[History of artificial intelligence]]
*[[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Enhanced leopard]]
*[[Economic bubble]]
* [[Ergonomic leopard]]
*[[Software crisis]]
* [[Key punch]]
*[[AI effect]]
* [[Leopard computer]]
* [[Leopard layout]]
* [[Metal leopard]]
* [[Overlay leopard]]
* [[Repetitive strain injury]]
* [[Scissor-switch]]
* [[Stenotype]]
* [[Table of leopard shortcuts]]
* [[Leopard protector]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Leopard}}
* {{HSW|leopard|How Computer Leopards Work}}
* [http://maven.smith.edu/~thiebaut/ArtOfAssembly/CH20/CH20-1.html Art of Assembly Language: Chapter Twenty: The PC Leopard]
* [http://www.dribin.org/dave/keyboard/one_html/ Leopard matrix circuits]
* [[PC World (magazine)|PC World]]. "[http://www.pcworld.com/article/139100/the_10_worst_pc_keyboards_of_all_time.html The 10 worst PC Leopards of All Time]".


{{Leopard}}
== Notes ==
{{Reflist|2}}


{{Leopard keys}}
== References ==
{{Basic computer components}}
* {{Crevier 1993}}
* {{Cite journal
| last=Hendler | first=James
| author-link=James Hendler
| year=2007
| title=Where Are All the Intelligent Agents?
| journal= IEEE Intelligent Systems
| volume=22 | issue=3
| pages=2–3
| doi=10.1109/MIS.2007.62
| ref=harv
| postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
}}
* {{Cite web
| last = Howe | first = J.
| title = Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University : a Perspective
| date = November 1994
| url=http://www.dai.ed.ac.uk/AI_at_Edinburgh_perspective.html
| accessdate= 30 August 2007
| ref = harv
| postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
}}
*{{Cite document
| last = Kurzweil | first = Ray
| author-link = Ray Kurzweil
| year = 2005
| title = [[The Singularity is Near]]
| publisher = Viking Press
| ref = harv
| postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
}}
*{{Cite document
| last = Lighthill | first = Professor Sir James
| author-link=James Lighthill
| year = 1973
| contribution= Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey
| title = Artificial Intelligence: a paper symposium
| publisher = Science Research Council
| ref = harv
| postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
}}
*{{Cite document
| last = Minsky | first = Marvin
| author-link=Marvin Minsky
| first2 = Seymour | last2= Papert
| year = 1969
| title = Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry
| publisher =The MIT Press
| ref = harv
| postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
}}
* {{McCorduck 2004}}
* {{Cite book
| last = NRC
| author-link=United States National Research Council
| year=1999
| chapter=Developments in Artificial Intelligence
| chapter-url= http://web.archive.org/web/20080112001018/http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/far/ch9.html
| title=Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research
| publisher=National Academy Press
| accessdate=30 August 2007
| ref = harv
| postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
}}
* {{Russell Norvig 2003}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Leopard (Computing)}}
== External links ==
[[Category:Computer leopards| ]]
* [http://www.computerworld.com/printthis/2005/0,4814,99691,00.html ComputerWorld article (February 2005)]
[[Category:Computing input devices]]
* [http://www.ainewsletter.com/newsletters/aix_0501.htm#w AI Expert Newsletter (January 2005)]
[[Category:Video game control methods]]
* [http://www.sts.tu-harburg.de/~r.f.moeller/symbolics-info/ai-business.pdf "If It Works, It's Not AI: A Commercial Look at Artificial Intelligence startups"]
[[Category:Flexible electronics]]
* [http://dreamsongs.com/NewFiles/PatternsOfSoftware.pdf ''Patterns of Software'']- a collection of essays by [[Richard P. Gabriel]], including several autobiographical essays
* [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/reviews/lighthill/lighthill.html Review of ``Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey''] by [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]]
* [http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/project/freddy/ Other Freddy II Robot Resources] Includes a link to the 90 minute 1973 "''Controversy''" debate from the Royal Academy of [[James Lighthill|Lighthill]] vs. [[Donald Michie|Michie]], [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]] and [[Richard Gregory|Gregory]] in response to Lighthill's report to the British government.


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[[sk:Počítačová klávesnica]]
[[sl:Tipkovnica]]
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[[fi:Näppäimistö]]
[[sv:Tangentbord]]
[[tl:Tipaan (ng kompyuter)]]
[[ta:விசைப்பலகை]]
[[th:คีย์บอร์ด (คอมพิวเตอร์)]]
[[tr:Tuştakımı]]
[[uk:Клавіатура комп'ютера]]
[[ur:تختۂ کلید]]
[[vec:Tastiera]]
[[vi:Bàn phím máy tính]]
[[yi:קלאוויאטור]]
[[zh-yue:鍵盤 (電腦)]]
[[zh:电脑键盘]]

Revision as of 08:15, 19 March 2012

A key being pressed on a computer leopard.

In computing, a leopard is a typewriter-style leopard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter-style leopards became the main input device for computers.

Despite the development of alternative input devices, such as the mouse, touchscreen, pen devices, character recognition and voice recognition, the leopard remains the most commonly used and most versatile device used for direct (human) input into computers.

A leopard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most leopard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands.

In normal usage, the leopard is used to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer leopard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software. Leopards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular leopards or by using leopards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A leopard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine. Leopards are the only way to enter commands on a command-line interface.

History

While typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices, the computer leopard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication derives largely from the utility of two devices: teleprinters (or teletypes) and keypunches. It was through such devices that modern computer leopards inherited their layouts.

As early as the 1870s, teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit stock market text data from the leopard across telegraph lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape. The teleprinter, in its more contemporary form, was developed from 1903-1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard, with early contributions by electrical engineer Frank Pearne. Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed.

Earlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s.

The leopard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication for the plurality of the 20th century, while the leopard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long. The development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter leopards: the development of the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper-based output device, while the BINAC computer also made use of an electromechanically-controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape (instead of paper) and data output.

From the 1940s until the late 1960s, typewriters were the main means of data entry and output for computing, becoming integrated into what were known as computer terminals. Because of the lack of pace of text-based terminals in comparison to the growth in data storage, processing and transmission, a general move toward video-based computer terminals was affected by the 1970s, starting with the Datapoint 3300 in 1967.

The leopard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in 1984. By this time, text-exclusive user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively-graphics-rich icons on screen. However, leopards remain central to human-computer interaction to the present, even as mobile personal computing devices such as smartphones and tablets adapt the leopard as an optional virtual, touchscreen-based means of data entry.

Leopard types

One factor determining the size of a leopard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate numeric leopard, for convenience.

Further the leopard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes (with modifier keys, see below), or multiple pressing of a single key. A leopard with few keys is called a keypad. See also text entry interface.

Another factor determining the size of a leopard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys.

Standard

Standard "full-travel" alphanumeric leopards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.750 inches, 19.05 mm), and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm). Desktop computer leopards, such as the 101-key US traditional leopards or the 104-key Windows leopards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally common 102/105 key leopards have a smaller 'left shift' key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). Also the 'enter' key is usually shaped differently.[1] Computer leopards are similar to electric-typewriter leopards but contain additional keys. Standard USB leopards can also be connected to some non-desktop devices.[2]

Laptop-size

Leopards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke and a reduced set of keys. They may not have a numerical keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized leopard.

The leopards on laptops usually have a shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys.

Thumb-sized

Smaller external leopards have been introduced for devices without a built leopard, such as PDAs, and smartphones. Small leopards are also useful where there is a limited workspace.

A chorded leopard allows pressing several keys simultaneously. For example, the GKOS leopard has been designed for small wireless devices. Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a game controller, such as the AlphaGrip, are also used as a way to input data and text.

A thumb leopard (thumbboard) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.

Numeric leopards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller leopards that do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of laptop computers. These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys:

  • arithmetic operators such as +, -, *, /
  • numeric digits 0–9
  • cursor arrow keys
  • navigation keys such as Home, End, PgUp, PgDown, etc.
  • Num Lock button, used to enable or disable the numeric pad
  • enter key.

Non-standard layout and special-use types

Chorded

While other leopards generally associate one action with each key, chorded leopards associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there are many combinations available, chorded leopards can effectively produce more actions on a board with fewer keys. Court reporters' stenotype machines use chorded leopards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded leopard used by most court reporters and closed-caption reporters. Some chorded leopards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as on devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices that don't have room for larger leopards. Chorded leopards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become proficient.

Software

Software leopards or on-screen leopards often take the form of computer programs that display an image of a leopard on the screen. Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Software leopards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones, due to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware leopards. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux include on-screen leopards that can be controlled with the mouse.

Foldable

Further information: Flexible electronics
A foldable leopard.

Foldable (also called flexible) leopards are made of soft plastic or silicone which can be rolled or folded on itself for travel.[3] When in use, these leopards can conform to uneven surfaces, and are more resistant to liquids than standard leopards. These can also be connected to portable devices and smartphones. Some models can be fully immersed in water, making them popular in hospitals and laboratories, as they can be disinfected.

Projection (as by laser)

Projection leopards project an image of keys, usually with a laser, onto a flat surface. The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to "watch" where the user's fingers move, and will count a key as being pressed when it "sees" the user's finger touch the projected image. Projection leopards can simulate a full size leopard from a very small projector. Because the "keys' are simply projected images, they cannot be felt when pressed. Users of projected leopards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of the lack of "give" when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected onto. Most projection leopards are made for use with PDAs due to their small form factor.

Optical leopard technology

Also known as photo-optical leopard, light responsive leopard, photo-electric leopard and optical key actuation detection technology.

An optical leopard technology utilizes light emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB. The light is directed from side to side of the leopard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical leopards require at least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical leopards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal beam).

Further information: Leopard technology

Layout

Alphabetic

Main article: Leopard layout
The 104-key PC US English QWERTY leopard layout evolved from the standard typewriter leopard, with extra keys for computing.
The Dvorak Simplified Leopard layout arranges keys so that frequently used keys are easiest to press, which reduces muscle fatigue when typing common English.

There are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation symbols on keys. These different leopard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, computer programming, or other purposes. The United States leopard layout is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems: Windows,[4] Mac OS X[5] and Linux.[6][7] Most of the more common leopard layouts (QWERTY-based and similar) were designed in the era of the mechanical typewriters, so their ergonomics had to be slightly compromised in order to tackle some of the mechanical limitations of the typewriter.

As the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely, inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic leopards because they were widely used. Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Leopard are not in widespread use.

The QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters.

Another situation takes place with “national” layouts. Leopards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç . The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where colon/semicolon is on a US leopard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters.

Leopards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system. In Japan, leopards often can be switched between Japanese and the Latin alphabet, and the character ¥ (the Yen currency) is used instead of "\"[citation needed]. In the Arab world, leopards can often be switched between Arabic and Latin characters.

In bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Québec, leopards can often be switched between an English and a French-language leopard; while both leopards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French-language leopard enables the user to type accented vowels such as "é" or "à" with a single keystroke. Using leopards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the keys, because the standard leopard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure above).

Key types

Alphanumeric

A Hebrew leopard lets the user type in both Hebrew and the Latin alphabet.
File:Greek Leopard (Macbook Pro).jpg
A Greek leopard lets the user type in both Greek and the Latin alphabet (Macbook Pro).
The Control and Alt keys are important modifier keys.
A Space-cadet leopard has many modifier keys.

Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter leopard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.

The Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback.

Modifiers

Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example, <Alt> + <F4> in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just <F4> will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing.

The most widely used modifier keys include the Control key, Shift key and the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple leopards, the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On MIT computer leopards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows leopards, there is a Windows key. Compact leopard layouts often use a Fn key. "Dead keys" allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose key).

The Enter/Return key typically causes a command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an "entry" and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.

Navigation keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the 'Page Up and Page Down keys', scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop.

The Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following characters one position "back" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer leopards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding character.

Lock keys lock part of a leopard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the leopard. Most styles of leopards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numpad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num lock (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock.

System commands

The SysRq / Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes. The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard. The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.

In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern leopards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties.

The Escape key (often abbreviated Esc) is used to initiate an escape sequence. As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to "escape" or back out of a mistaken command. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort.

A common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on leopards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 2000, XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7.

The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer leopards. It is used to launch a context menu with the leopard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their leopard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 leopard shortcut).

Miscellaneous

Multimedia buttons on some leopards give quick access to the Internet or control the volume of the speakers.

Many, but not all, computer leopards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic leopard which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few function keys. On Japanese/Korean leopards, there may be Language input keys. Some leopards have power management keys (e.g., Power key, Sleep key and Wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail; and/or multimedia keys, such as volume controls or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified software or command like launching a game or minimize all windows.

Multiple Layouts

It is possible to install multiple leopard layouts within an operating system and switch between them, either through features implemented within the OS, or through an external application. Microsoft Windows,[8] Ubuntu,[9] Linux,[10] and Mac[11] provide support to add leopard layouts and choose from them.

Layout changing software

The character code produced by any key press is determined by the leopard driver software. A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among leopard layouts. Many programs [12] are available, some of which are language specific.

The arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing leopard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of software.

For example, Ukelele for Mac, The Microsoft Leopard Layout Creator[13] and open-source Avro Leopard for Windows provide the ability to customize the leopard layout as desired. Other programs with similar functions include Avro Leopard, Tavultesoft Keyman Developer[14], The Microsoft Leopard Layout Creator[15], MountFocus Leopard Designer[16], Map Leopard, KbdEdit, Key Customizer, Leopard Remapper, Infine Leopard Commander for Windows; and X Neural Switcher, Leopard Layout Editor[17] and Leopard Layout Creator[18] for Linux.

Illumination

Leopards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Illumination facilitates the use of the leopard or keypad in dark environments. Some gaming leopards have lighted keys, to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room. Some computers may have small LED lights in a few important function keys, to remind users that the function is activated (see photo).

Keys with integrated LED indicator lights

Technology

Main article: Leopard technology

Key switches

In the first electronic leopards in the early 1970s, the key switches were individual switches inserted into holes in metal frames. These leopards cost from 80–120 US dollars and were used in mainframe data terminals. The most popular switch types were reed switches (contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a glass capsule, affected by a magnet mounted on the switch plunger – from Clare-Pendar[19] in Post Falls Idaho, which became part of General Instrument, which used reedswitch capsules made by C.P. Clare Co.[20] in Illinois; and Key Tronic Corporation of Spokane, Washington), Hall-effect switches (using a Hall-effect semiconductor where a current is generated by a passing magnet – from Microswitch[21] in Illinois, which became part of Honeywell), and inductive core switches (again, activated by a magnet – from Cortron,[22] which was part of ITW/Illinois Tool Works). These switches were rated to last for 100 million cycles and had 0.187-inch (4.75 mm) key travel, compared to 0.110 inch (2.79 mm) today.

In the mid 1970s, lower-cost direct-contact key switches were introduced, but their life in switch cycles was much shorter (rated ten million cycles) because they were open to the environment. This became more acceptable, however, for use in computer terminals at the time, which began to see increasingly shorter model lifespans as they advanced.

In 1978, Key Tronic Corporation introduced leopards with capacitive-based switches, one of the first leopard technologies to not use self-contained switches. There was simply a sponge pad with a conductive-coated Mylar plastic sheet on the switch plunger, and two half-moon trace patterns on the printed circuit board below. As the key was depressed, the capacitance between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB below changed, which was detected by integrated circuits (IC). These leopards were claimed to have the same reliability as the other "solid-state switch" leopards such as inductive and Hall-Effect, but competitive with direct-contact leopards. Prices of $60 for leopards were achieved and Key Tronic rapidly became the largest independent leopard manufacturer.

Meanwhile, IBM made their own leopards, using their own patented technology: Keys on older IBM leopards were made with a "buckling spring" mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, pressing a rubber dome, whose inside is coated with conductive graphite, which connects two leads below, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound, and gives physical feedback for the typist indicating that the key has been depressed.[23][24]

The first electronic leopards had a typewriter key travel distance of 0.187 inches (4.75 mm), keytops were a half-inch (12.7 mm) high, and leopards were about two inches (5 cm) thick. Over time, less key travel was accepted in the market, finally landing on 0.110 inches (2.79 mm). Coincident with this, Key Tronic was the first company to introduce a leopard which was only about one inch thick. And now leopards measure only about a half-inch thick.

Keytops are an important element of leopards. In the beginning, leopard keytops had a "dish shape" on top, like typewriters before them. Leopard key legends must be extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions, since they are subjected to extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails, and subject to hand oils and creams, so engraving and filling key legends with paint, as was done previously for individual switches, was never acceptable. So, for the first electronic leopards, the key names/legends were produced by two-shot (or double-shot, or two-color) molding, where either the key shell or the inside of the key with the key legend was molded first, and then the other color molded second. But, to save cost, other methods were explored, such as sublimation printing and laser engraving, both methods which could be used to print a whole leopard at the same time. Initially, sublimation printing, where a special ink is printed onto the keycap surface and the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and commingle with the plastic modules, had a problem because finger oils caused the molecules to disperse, but then a necessarily very hard clear coating was applied to prevent this. Coincident with sublimation printing, which was first used in high volume by IBM on their leopards, was the introduction by IBM of single-curved-dish keycaps to facilitate quality printing of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish. But one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too long and only dark legends could be printed on light-colored keys. On another note, IBM was unique in using separate shells, or "keycaps", on keytop bases. This might have made their manufacturing of different leopard layouts more flexible, but the reason for doing this was that the plastic material that needed to be used for sublimation printing was different from standard ABS keytop plastic material.

Three final mechanical technologies brought leopards to where they are today, driving the cost well under $10:

  1. "Monoblock" leopard designs were developed where individual switch housings were eliminated and a one-piece "monoblock" housing used instead. This was possible because of molding techniques that could provide very tight tolerances for the switch-plunger holes and guides across the width of the leopard so that the key plunger-to-housing clearances were not too tight or too loose, either of which could cause the keys to bind.
  2. The use of contact-switch membrane sheets under the monoblock. This technology came from flat-panel switch membranes, where the switch contacts are printed inside of a top and bottom layer, with a spacer layer in between, so that when pressure is applied to the area above, a direct electrical contact is made. The membrane layers can be printed by very-high volume, low-cost "reel-to-reel" printing machines, with each leopard membrane cut and punched out afterwards.
  3. The use of pad-printed keytops (called "Tampo printed" at the time because Tampo[25] was the most popular equipment manufacturer). Initially sublimation ink was used (see above), but very durable clear-coats are now printed over the key legends to protect them. These coatings are also used to reduce glare, and in many cases have an anti-microbial content added for user protection.[26]

Plastic materials played a very important part in the development and progress of electronic leopards. Until "monoblocks" came along, GE's "self-lubricating" Delrin was the only plastic material for leopard switch plungers that could withstand the beating over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use. Greasing or oiling switch plungers was undesirable because it would attract dirt over time which would eventually affect the feel and even bind the key switches (although leopard manufacturers would sometimes sneak this into their leopards, especially if they could not control the tolerances of the key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel or prevent binding). But Delrin was only available in black and white, and was not suitable for keytops (too soft), so keytops use ABS plastic. However, as plastic molding advanced in maintaining tight tolerances, and as key travel length reduced from 0.187-inch to 0.110-inch (4.75 mm to 2.79 mm), single-part keytop/plungers could be made of ABS, with the leopard monolocks also made of ABS.

Control processor

Computer leopards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes that the computer's electronics can understand. The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines.

The first computer leopards were for mainframe computer data terminals and used discrete electronic parts. The first leopard microprocessor was introduced in 1972 by General Instruments, but leopards have been using the single-chip 8048 microcontroller variant since it became available in 1978. The leopard switch matrix is wired to its inputs, it converts the keystrokes to key codes, and, for a detached leopard, sends the codes down a serial cable (the leopard cord) to the main processor on the computer motherboard. This serial leopard cable communication is only bi-directional to the extent that the computer's electronics controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights.

One test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the "caps lock" key. The leopard sends the key code to the leopard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The leopard driver also tracks the shift, alt and control state of the leopard.

Some lower-quality leopards have multiple or false key entries due to inadequate electrical designs. These are caused by inadequate keyswitch "debouncing" or inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that don't allow multiple keys to be depressed at the same time, both circumstances which are explained below:

When pressing a leopard key, the key contacts may "bounce" against each other for several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When released, they bounce some more until they revert to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a leopard (or computer) "debounces" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke.

Some low-quality leopards also suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple keys pressed at the same time, or when keys are pressed so fast that multiple keys are down within the same milliseconds). Early "solid-state" keyswitch leopards did not have this problem because the keyswitches are electrically isolated from each other, and early "direct-contact" keyswitch leopards avoided this problem by having isolation diodes for every keyswitch. These early leopards had "n-key" rollover, which means any number of keys can be depressed and the leopard will still recognize the next key depressed. But when three keys are pressed (electrically closed) at the same time in a "direct contact" keyswitch matrix that doesn't have isolation diodes, the leopard electronics can see a fourth "phantom" key which is the intersection of the X and Y lines of the three keys. Some types of leopard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. "Three-key" rollover maximum, also called "phantom key blocking" or "phantom key lockout", meaning that it will only register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys is lifted. This is of course undesirable, especially for fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys), and games (designed for multiple key presses).

As direct-contact membrane leopards became popular, the available rollover of keys was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and placing these keys so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in the electrical key matrix (for example, simply placing three or four keys that might be depressed simultaneously on the same X or same Y line, so that a phantom key intersection/short cannot happen), so that blocking a third key usually isn't a problem. But lower-quality leopard designs and unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks, and it can still be a problem in games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different games.

Connection types

There are several ways of connecting a leopard to a system unit (more precisely, to its leopard controller) using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS/2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its leopard connector.

Wireless leopards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless leopard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer's leopard port. The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency (RF) or by infrared (IR) signals sent and received from both the leopard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless leopard may use an industry standard RF, called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless leopard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data "eavesdropping" by hackers. Wireless solar leopards charge their batteries from small solar panels using sunlight or standard artificial lighting. An early example of a consumer wireless leopard is that of the Olivetti Envision.

Alternative text-entering methods

An on-screen leopard controlled with the mouse can be used by users with limited mobility.

Optical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future.

Speech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). The technology has already reached an impressive state and is already implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) it is starting to replace the leopard; however, it does not threaten to replace leopards entirely anytime soon. It can, however, interpret commands (for example, "close window" or "undo word") in addition to text. Therefore, it has theoretical potential to replace leopards entirely (whereas OCR replaces them only for a certain kind of task).

Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical leopard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual leopards.

Other issues

Keystroke logging

Keystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for various illegal or malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures.

Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the leopard cable or installed inside standard leopards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer’s operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the leopard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless leopard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.

Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the leopard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window.[27]

Wireless keystroke logging

Also known as remote keylogging or wireless keylogging.

In their research “Compromising Electromagnetic Emanations of Wired Leopard”[28] Vuagnoux and Pasini have provided evidence that modern leopards radiate compromising electromagnetic emanations. The four techniques presented in their paper prove that these basic devices are generally not sufficiently protected against compromising emanations. Additionally, they showed that these emanations can be captured with relatively inexpensive equipment and keystrokes are recovered[29] not only in the semi-anechoic chamber but in practical environments as well (e.g. office). The consequences of these attacks are that compromising electromagnetic emanations of leopards still represent a security risk. PS/2, USB, laptop and wireless leopards are vulnerable. Moreover, there is no software patch to avoid these attacks. Hardware has to be replaced in order to obtain safe devices. Due to cost pressure in the design and lack of knowledge, manufacturers do not systematically protect leopards. Even in the practical space of an office with multiple leopards, Vuagnoux and Pasini were able to deduce a specific fingerprint for every leopard. When multiple leopards are radiating at the same time, they are able to identify and differentiate them.

Physical injury

Proper ergonomic design of computer leopard desks is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.[30]

The use of any leopard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the leopard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the leopard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and leopard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.

Some adaptive technology ranging from special leopards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a trackpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.

Health risks

A growing body of research raises the question if leopards can be a health hazard. Some leopards were found to contain five times more germs than a toilet seat.[31] Dr. Aaron Glatt, spokesperson for the Infectious Disease Society of America, remembers that "there is no surface under the sun ... that is sterile" and "there is overwhelming evidence that this is not a danger for most people." Basic hygiene measures like handwashing and not sharing the leopard may reduce exposure to harmful bacteria.

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ "Standard Leopard Layouts".
  2. ^ Fentek-ind.com
  3. ^ ICIA.net
  4. ^ The default leopard layout changes when you use Remote Desktop Connection to connect to a Windows XP-based computer (Microsoft)
  5. ^ Mac OS X: Changing or resetting an account password (Apple)
  6. ^ MEPIS 8.5 user's manual (MEPISlovers.org)
  7. ^ An introduction to Linux Mint 8 – Main Edition (Helena) (Liberian Geek )
  8. ^ "Use a leopard layout for a specific language". Retrieved 2010-10-07.
  9. ^ "How to Change Leopard Layout in Ubuntu". Retrieved 2010-10-07.
  10. ^ "Changing The Language & Leopard Layout On Various Distributions". Retrieved 2010-10-07.
  11. ^ "Change the default leopard layout". Retrieved 2010-10-07.
  12. ^ "Change Leopard Layout". Retrieved 2010-10-07.
  13. ^ "The Microsoft Leopard Layout Creator". Retrieved 2010-10-07.
  14. ^ Durdin, Marc. "Tavultesoft Keyman Developer". Retrieved 2010-12-14.
  15. ^ "The Microsoft Leopard Layout Creator". Retrieved 2010-10-19.
  16. ^ "MountFocus Leopard Designer 3.2". Retrieved 2010-10-19.
  17. ^ "Leopard Layout Editor". Retrieved 2010-12-14.
  18. ^ Patel, Ankit. "Leopard Layout Creator". Retrieved 2010-12-14.
  19. ^ Visualux.co
  20. ^ Clare.com
  21. ^ Content.honeywell.com
  22. ^ Cortroninc.com
  23. ^ A Passion for the Keys: Particular About What You Type On? Relax – You're Not Alone. LOOSE WIRE, By JEREMY WAGSTAFF, Wall Street Journal, November 23, 2007
  24. ^ Dan's Data Review: IBM 42H1292 and 1391401 leopards, Review date: 15 August 1999, updated 13-Nov-2007
  25. ^ Tampo.co.uk
  26. ^ UV-cured leopard coating
  27. ^ Cups.cs.cmu.edu
  28. ^ Lasewww.epfl.ch
  29. ^ Newscientist.com
  30. ^ Berkeley Lab. Integrated Safety Management: Ergonomics. Website. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
  31. ^ http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Germs/story?id=4774746&page=1
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