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Adding Korean etymology + advancing Turkic and Mongolian point of view + structured Iranian, Turkic and Mongolian explanations in Etymology section. (Korean explanation will be added in near future) -When somebody want to delete parts, please take to talk
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:''This article is about Tarkhan, an ancient Turkic title. For other uses, see [[Tarkan]] and [[Darkhan]]''
:''This article is about Tarkhan, an ancient Turkic title. For other uses, see [[Tarkan]] and [[Darkhan]]''


'''Tarkhan''' ([[Old Turkic]] ''Tarqan'';<ref name="Turkic1">[http://www.iacd.or.kr/pdf/journal/05/5-10.pdf A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN"], Han-Woo Choi, Handong University</ref> [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]: ''Darkhan'';<ref>Leland Liu Rogers – The Golden Summary of Cinggis Qayan: Cinggis Qayan-u Altan Tobci, p.80</ref><ref name="Genghis Khan p.82">Paul Ratchnevsky – Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.82</ref> {{lang-fa|ترخان}}; {{zh|c=達干}}; {{lang-ar|طرخان}}; alternative spellings ''Tarkan'', ''Tarkhaan'', ''Tarqan'', ''Tarchan'', ''Tarxan'', ''Tarcan'' or ''Targan'') is an [[ancient]] [[Central Asian]] title used by various [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] (i.e. [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Tokharian]]), [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Huns|Hun]], and [[Mongols|Mongol]] peoples, especially in the medieval era, and prominent among the successors of the [[Mongol Empire]].
'''Tarkhan''' ([[Old Turkic]] ''Tarqan'';<ref name="Turkic1">[http://www.iacd.or.kr/pdf/journal/05/5-10.pdf A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN"], Han-Woo Choi, Handong University</ref> [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]: ''Darkhan'';<ref>Leland Liu Rogers – The Golden Summary of Cinggis Qayan: Cinggis Qayan-u Altan Tobci, p.80</ref><ref name="Genghis Khan p.82">Paul Ratchnevsky – Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.82</ref> {{lang-fa|ترخان}}; {{zh|c=達干}}; {{lang-ar|طرخان}}; alternative spellings ''Tarkan'', ''Tarkhaan'', ''Tarqan'', ''Tarchan'', ''Tarxan'', ''Tarcan'', ''Targan'', ''Tarho/Tarku'') is an [[ancient]] [[Central Asian]] title used by various [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] (i.e. [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Tokharian]]), [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Huns|Hun]], [[Mongols|Mongol]] and [[Koreans|Korean]]<ref name="Turkic1"></ref> peoples, especially in the medieval era, and prominent among the successors of the [[Mongol Empire]].


== Etymology ==
== Etymology ==
The origin of the word is not known. Various historians identify the word as either [[Iranian language|Iranian]] (most likely [[East Iranian]] [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] or [[Scythian language|Scythian]]),<ref name="Qarib">Qarīb, Badr-az-Zamān. 1995. Sogdian dictionary: Sogdian – Persian – English. Tehran: Farhangan Publ.</ref><ref>Central Asiatic Journal, O. Harrassowitz, 1993, v. 37, University of Michigan</ref><ref name="Ossetic">Agustí Alemany, ''Sources on the Alans'', Brill Academic Publishers, 2000. Excerpt from page 328: " Abaev considers this word (lacking in a Turco-Mongolian etymology), as well Old Hungarian tarchan “olim judex”, borrowing from Scythians (Alans) *tarxan “judge” -> Ossetian. Taerxon “argument, trial”; cf. the Ossete idioms taerxon kaenyn “to judge” (+ kӕnyn “to do”) and tӕrxon lӕg “judge” (+l ӕg man). Iron ævzag</ref> [[Turkic languages|Turkic]],<ref name="Turkic1" /><ref name="Turkic2">Frye, Richard N., "Tarxun-Turxun and Central Asian History", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1/2 pp. 105–129</ref><ref>A.S. Amanjolov, History of Ancient Türkic Script: Chapter 10: Genesis of Türkic Runic Alpabet, Mektep Publishing, Almaty, 2003, p.293:
The origin of the word is not known. Various historians identify the word as either [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]<ref name="Turkic1" /><ref name="Turkic2">Frye, Richard N., "Tarxun-Turxun and Central Asian History", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1/2 pp. 105–129</ref><ref>A.S. Amanjolov, History of Ancient Türkic Script: Chapter 10: Genesis of Türkic Runic Alpabet, Mektep Publishing, Almaty, 2003, p.293:
*"''The Türkic-linguality of the dynastic tribe of the Usun (As-Sün - Türk. As' Hun) union was stated by F.Hirt, K.Siratori, N.A.Aristov and other researchers after analysis of the Chinese transcriptions of the Usun words (kün beg, uluγ, tarqan, etc.). "The presence of Türkic words in the language of ancient Usuns in the 3rd - 1st cc. BC, - noted Yu.A.Zuev, - makes questionable the standard in the Soviet historical literature point of view about so-called "Türkifation" of the local population in Kazakhstan and Central Asia by the Huns (Chinese: Sünnu), beguning in the 1st century BC".''"</ref><ref>Hirth F. Nachworte zur Inschrift des Tonjukuk. In: Radloff W. Diealttiirkischen Inschriften der Mongolei. Zweite Folge. SPb., 1899, p.49</ref><ref>Shiratori К. Über die Wu-sun Stamm in Zentralasien. " Keleti Szemle " (Budapest), 1902, 2-3, pp. 103-140</ref><ref>Aristov N.A. Notes about ethnic structure of Türkic tribes and nations and their number, p. 17</ref><ref>Zuev Yu.A. Question of language of ancient Usuns. "Bulletin of Academy of Sciences KazSSR ", No 5 (146), 1957, p. 73</ref> or [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]].
*"''The Türkic-linguality of the dynastic tribe of the Usun (As-Sün - Türk. As' Hun) union was stated by F.Hirt, K.Siratori, N.A.Aristov and other researchers after analysis of the Chinese transcriptions of the Usun words (kün beg, uluγ, tarqan, etc.). "The presence of Türkic words in the language of ancient Usuns in the 3rd - 1st cc. BC, - noted Yu.A.Zuev, - makes questionable the standard in the Soviet historical literature point of view about so-called "Türkifation" of the local population in Kazakhstan and Central Asia by the Huns (Chinese: Sünnu), beguning in the 1st century BC".''"</ref><ref>Hirth F. Nachworte zur Inschrift des Tonjukuk. In: Radloff W. Diealttiirkischen Inschriften der Mongolei. Zweite Folge. SPb., 1899, p.49</ref><ref>Shiratori К. Über die Wu-sun Stamm in Zentralasien. " Keleti Szemle " (Budapest), 1902, 2-3, pp. 103-140</ref><ref>Aristov N.A. Notes about ethnic structure of Türkic tribes and nations and their number, p. 17</ref><ref>Zuev Yu.A. Question of language of ancient Usuns. "Bulletin of Academy of Sciences KazSSR ", No 5 (146), 1957, p. 73</ref><ref>Vámbéry, Ármin, "History of Bokhara from the Earliest Period Down to the Present", H.S. King & Co</ref><ref>Laufer, Berthold, "Sino-Iranica: Chinese Contributions to the History of Civilization in Ancient Iran, with Special Reference to the History of Cultivated Plants and Products", Harvard University</ref>, [[Iranian language|Iranian]] (most likely [[East Iranian]] [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] or [[Scythian language|Scythian]])<ref name="Qarib">Qarīb, Badr-az-Zamān. 1995. Sogdian dictionary: Sogdian – Persian – English. Tehran: Farhangan Publ.</ref><ref>Central Asiatic Journal, O. Harrassowitz, 1993, v. 37, University of Michigan</ref><ref name="Ossetic">Agustí Alemany, ''Sources on the Alans'', Brill Academic Publishers, 2000. Excerpt from page 328: " Abaev considers this word (lacking in a Turco-Mongolian etymology), as well Old Hungarian tarchan “olim judex”, borrowing from Scythians (Alans) *tarxan “judge” -> Ossetian. Taerxon “argument, trial”; cf. the Ossete idioms taerxon kaenyn “to judge” (+ kӕnyn “to do”) and tӕrxon lӕg “judge” (+l ӕg man). Iron ævzag</ref> or [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]].


Although [[Richard Frye|R. Frye]] reports that the word "was probably foreign to Sogdian", hence considered to be a loanword from Turkic, G. Doerfer points out that even in Turkic languages, its [[plural]] is not Turkic (sing. ''tarxan'' --> plur. ''tarx'''at'''''), suggesting a non-Turkic origin.<ref name="Doerfer">G. Doerfer, ''Mongolo-Tungusica'', O. Harrassowitz, 1985, University of Virginia.</ref> L. Ligeti comes to the same conclusion, saying that ''"tarxan and tegin [prince] form the wholly un-Turkish plurals tarxat and tegit"'' and that the word was unknown to medieval western Turkic languages, such as [[Bulgar language|Bulgar]].<ref>L. Ligeti, ''Researches in Altaic languages'', e. A. Kiadó, 1975, University of Michigan, p. 48</ref> Taking this in consideration, the word is most likely derived from medieval Mongolian ''darqat'' (Mongolian plural suffix '''-at'''), itself perhaps derived from the earlier Sogdian word ''*tarxa'''n'''t'' ("free of taxes").<ref name="Doerfer" /> A. Alemany gives the additional elaboration that the related East Iranian Scythian (and [[Alans|Alanic]]) word ''*tarxan'' still survives in [[Ossetian language|Ossetic]] ''tærxon'' ("argument, trial") and ''tærxon kænyn'' ("to judge").<ref name="Ossetic" /> [[Harold Walter Bailey]] also proposes an Iranian ([[Saka language|Khotanese Saka]]) root for the word.<ref>Bailey, H[arold] W. 1985. [http://www.archive.org/details/EtymologyOfXiongnuNamesByTheLateH.w.Bailey ''Indo-Scythian Studies: being Khotanese Texts'', VII]. Cambridge Univ. Press. (Reviewed [http://www.jstor.org/stable/312539 here])</ref>
Although [[Richard Frye|R. Frye]] reports that the word "was probably foreign to Sogdian", hence considered to be a loanword from Turkic, G. Doerfer points out that even in Turkic languages, its [[plural]] is not Turkic (sing. ''tarxan'' --> plur. ''tarx'''at'''''), suggesting a non-Turkic origin.<ref name="Doerfer">G. Doerfer, ''Mongolo-Tungusica'', O. Harrassowitz, 1985, University of Virginia.</ref> L. Ligeti comes to the same conclusion, saying that ''"tarxan and tegin [prince] form the wholly un-Turkish plurals tarxat and tegit"'' and that the word was unknown to medieval western Turkic languages, such as [[Bulgar language|Bulgar]].<ref>L. Ligeti, ''Researches in Altaic languages'', e. A. Kiadó, 1975, University of Michigan, p. 48</ref> Taking this in consideration, the word is most likely derived from medieval Mongolian ''darqat'' (Mongolian plural suffix '''-at'''), itself perhaps derived from the earlier Sogdian word ''*tarxa'''n'''t'' ("free of taxes").<ref name="Doerfer" /> A. Alemany gives the additional elaboration that the related East Iranian Scythian (and [[Alans|Alanic]]) word ''*tarxan'' still survives in [[Ossetian language|Ossetic]] ''tærxon'' ("argument, trial") and ''tærxon kænyn'' ("to judge").<ref name="Ossetic" /> [[Harold Walter Bailey]] also proposes an Iranian ([[Saka language|Khotanese Saka]]) root for the word.<ref>Bailey, H[arold] W. 1985. [http://www.archive.org/details/EtymologyOfXiongnuNamesByTheLateH.w.Bailey ''Indo-Scythian Studies: being Khotanese Texts'', VII]. Cambridge Univ. Press. (Reviewed [http://www.jstor.org/stable/312539 here])</ref> In the Kyrgyz [[Epic of Manas]], Tarkhan occurs too meaning 'a blacksmith', which is probably borrowed from Mongolian ''darxan''. In Mongolian, the meaning 'a blacksmith' is more original than the Sogdian meaning "''a person who is exempt from taxes''".<ref name="Turkic1"></ref> To the above mentioned meanings, in Lessing's dictionary, the word ''darxan'' also is used as adjective meaning 'sacred or celebrated'.<ref>Lessing, F.D., Mongolian-English Dictionary, 1960, p.236 - In: Han-Woo Choi, [http://www.iacd.or.kr/pdf/journal/05/5-10.pdf A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN"], Handong University, p.2</ref> According to Han-Woo Choi, this implies that the word has something to do with a certain ancient religion or [[Altaic shamanism|Altaic smith-shamanism]] which has long tradition in the Altaic peoples, i.e. [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[Mongols|Mongolian]]. Regarding this point, Choi is referring to an Yakut proverb: Yakuts in Siberia believe that smiths and shamans have their roots from the same place. Additionally, in Eurasia there widely spreaded the concept of the celestial smith <small>></small>''Tarqan [[Tengri]]''<small><</small>. Beside this, from Turkic legends, we can understand how the smith played an important role as a spiritual leader in the ancient Turkic community.<ref>Han-Woo Choi, [http://www.iacd.or.kr/pdf/journal/05/5-10.pdf A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN"], Handong University, pp.2-5</ref>


What is certain is that ''Tarkhan'' is not related to the Turco-Mongol royal title ''[[Khan (title)|Khan]]''/''[[Khaqan]]''.<ref name="Qarib" />
What is certain is that ''Tarkhan'' is not related to the Turco-Mongol royal title ''[[Khan (title)|Khan]]''/''[[Khaqan]]''.<ref name="Qarib" /><ref name="Turkic1"></ref>


The word was borrowed into many languages, including Armenian [[wikt:թարխան|tʿarxan]], Georgian [[wikt:თარხანი|t’arxani]] and Russian [[wikt:тархан|тархан]].
The word was borrowed into many languages, including Armenian [[wikt:թարխան|tʿarxan]], Georgian [[wikt:თარხანი|t’arxani]] and Russian [[wikt:тархан|тархан]].

Revision as of 16:41, 22 August 2012

This article is about Tarkhan, an ancient Turkic title. For other uses, see Tarkan and Darkhan

Tarkhan (Old Turkic Tarqan;[1] Mongolian: Darkhan;[2][3] Persian: ترخان; Chinese: 達干; Arabic: طرخان; alternative spellings Tarkan, Tarkhaan, Tarqan, Tarchan, Tarxan, Tarcan, Targan, Tarho/Tarku) is an ancient Central Asian title used by various Indo-European (i.e. Iranian and Tokharian), Turkic, Hittite, Hun, Mongol and Korean[1] peoples, especially in the medieval era, and prominent among the successors of the Mongol Empire.

Etymology

The origin of the word is not known. Various historians identify the word as either Turkic[1][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11], Iranian (most likely East Iranian Sogdian or Scythian)[12][13][14] or Mongolian.

Although R. Frye reports that the word "was probably foreign to Sogdian", hence considered to be a loanword from Turkic, G. Doerfer points out that even in Turkic languages, its plural is not Turkic (sing. tarxan --> plur. tarxat), suggesting a non-Turkic origin.[15] L. Ligeti comes to the same conclusion, saying that "tarxan and tegin [prince] form the wholly un-Turkish plurals tarxat and tegit" and that the word was unknown to medieval western Turkic languages, such as Bulgar.[16] Taking this in consideration, the word is most likely derived from medieval Mongolian darqat (Mongolian plural suffix -at), itself perhaps derived from the earlier Sogdian word *tarxant ("free of taxes").[15] A. Alemany gives the additional elaboration that the related East Iranian Scythian (and Alanic) word *tarxan still survives in Ossetic tærxon ("argument, trial") and tærxon kænyn ("to judge").[14] Harold Walter Bailey also proposes an Iranian (Khotanese Saka) root for the word.[17] In the Kyrgyz Epic of Manas, Tarkhan occurs too meaning 'a blacksmith', which is probably borrowed from Mongolian darxan. In Mongolian, the meaning 'a blacksmith' is more original than the Sogdian meaning "a person who is exempt from taxes".[1] To the above mentioned meanings, in Lessing's dictionary, the word darxan also is used as adjective meaning 'sacred or celebrated'.[18] According to Han-Woo Choi, this implies that the word has something to do with a certain ancient religion or Altaic smith-shamanism which has long tradition in the Altaic peoples, i.e. Turkic and Mongolian. Regarding this point, Choi is referring to an Yakut proverb: Yakuts in Siberia believe that smiths and shamans have their roots from the same place. Additionally, in Eurasia there widely spreaded the concept of the celestial smith >Tarqan Tengri<. Beside this, from Turkic legends, we can understand how the smith played an important role as a spiritual leader in the ancient Turkic community.[19]

What is certain is that Tarkhan is not related to the Turco-Mongol royal title Khan/Khaqan.[12][1]

The word was borrowed into many languages, including Armenian tʿarxan, Georgian t’arxani and Russian тархан.

History

It was used among the various Iranian (Sogdians, Khotanese, and Hephthalites) and Mongol and Turkic peoples of Central Asia and other steppe people, and was a high rank in the army of Tamerlane. Tarkhans commanded military contingents (roughly of regimental size under the Khazar khan) and were, roughly speaking, generals. They could also be assigned as military governors of conquered regions.

The Göktürks probably adopted the title of Darqan (Mongolian spelling) from the Mongol-speaking Rourans or Avars.[20] The Tarkhan were cited in inscription of Kul Tigin (d. c.731 CE). They were given high honors such as entering the ger of Khagan without any prior appointment and shown unusual ninefold pardon to the 9th generation from any crime they committed.[21] Although, the etymology of the word is unknown, it is attested under the Khitans who ruled most of Mongolia and North China between 916 and 1125.[22]

Like many titles, Tarkhan (Turkic spelling) also occurs as a personal name, independent of a person's rank, which makes some historical references confusing. For example, Arab texts refer to a "Tarkhan, king of the Khazars" as reigning in the mid ninth century. Whether this is a confused reference to a military official or the name of an individual Khazar khagan remains unclear. The name is occasionally used today in Turkish and Arabic speaking countries.

In the Mongol Empire, the Darkhan were exempted from taxation, socage and requisitioning. Genghis Khan made those who helped his rise Darkhans in 1206. The families of the Darkhan played crucial roles later when the succession crisis occurred in Yuan Dynasty and Ilkhanate. Abaqa Khan (1234–1282) made an Indian Darkhan after he had led his mother and her team all the way from Central Asia to Persia safely. A wealthy merchant of Persia was made of Darkhan by Ghazan (1271–1304) for his service during the early defeat of the Ilkhan. In Russia, the Khans of the Golden Horde assigned important tasks to the Darkhan. A jarliq of Temur Qutlugh (ca. 1370–1399) which authorized rights of the Tarkhan found in Crimea.[23]

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), the title was bestowed mainly on the late Darkhans' families and the government officials.

After suppressing the rebellion of the right three tumens in Mongolia, Dayan Khan exempted his soldiers, who participated the battle of Dalan-Terqin, from imposts and made them Darkhan in 1513. Even after the collapse of the Northern Yuan with the death of Ligdan Khan, the title of Darkhan was bestowed on religious dignitaries, sometimes on persons of low-birth. For example, in 1665, the Khotgoid Altan Khan Lubsan bestowed the title on a Russian interpreter and requested the Russian Tsar to exempt the interpreter from all tax obligations.[3]

The word refers the Blacksmith[24] and is still used in Mongolia as privilege.[25]

A Tarkhan established the Tarkhan Dynasty, ruling the Sindh region in modern-day Pakistan from 1554 to 1591 AD.

The town of Tutrakan (Тутракан) in Nort-East Bulgaria is said to have been found by the noble Turu Tarkan from the First Bulgarian Empire and still bears, slightly modified, his name.

See also

In fiction

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN", Han-Woo Choi, Handong University
  2. ^ Leland Liu Rogers – The Golden Summary of Cinggis Qayan: Cinggis Qayan-u Altan Tobci, p.80
  3. ^ a b Paul Ratchnevsky – Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.82
  4. ^ Frye, Richard N., "Tarxun-Turxun and Central Asian History", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1/2 pp. 105–129
  5. ^ A.S. Amanjolov, History of Ancient Türkic Script: Chapter 10: Genesis of Türkic Runic Alpabet, Mektep Publishing, Almaty, 2003, p.293:
    • "The Türkic-linguality of the dynastic tribe of the Usun (As-Sün - Türk. As' Hun) union was stated by F.Hirt, K.Siratori, N.A.Aristov and other researchers after analysis of the Chinese transcriptions of the Usun words (kün beg, uluγ, tarqan, etc.). "The presence of Türkic words in the language of ancient Usuns in the 3rd - 1st cc. BC, - noted Yu.A.Zuev, - makes questionable the standard in the Soviet historical literature point of view about so-called "Türkifation" of the local population in Kazakhstan and Central Asia by the Huns (Chinese: Sünnu), beguning in the 1st century BC"."
  6. ^ Hirth F. Nachworte zur Inschrift des Tonjukuk. In: Radloff W. Diealttiirkischen Inschriften der Mongolei. Zweite Folge. SPb., 1899, p.49
  7. ^ Shiratori К. Über die Wu-sun Stamm in Zentralasien. " Keleti Szemle " (Budapest), 1902, 2-3, pp. 103-140
  8. ^ Aristov N.A. Notes about ethnic structure of Türkic tribes and nations and their number, p. 17
  9. ^ Zuev Yu.A. Question of language of ancient Usuns. "Bulletin of Academy of Sciences KazSSR ", No 5 (146), 1957, p. 73
  10. ^ Vámbéry, Ármin, "History of Bokhara from the Earliest Period Down to the Present", H.S. King & Co
  11. ^ Laufer, Berthold, "Sino-Iranica: Chinese Contributions to the History of Civilization in Ancient Iran, with Special Reference to the History of Cultivated Plants and Products", Harvard University
  12. ^ a b Qarīb, Badr-az-Zamān. 1995. Sogdian dictionary: Sogdian – Persian – English. Tehran: Farhangan Publ.
  13. ^ Central Asiatic Journal, O. Harrassowitz, 1993, v. 37, University of Michigan
  14. ^ a b Agustí Alemany, Sources on the Alans, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000. Excerpt from page 328: " Abaev considers this word (lacking in a Turco-Mongolian etymology), as well Old Hungarian tarchan “olim judex”, borrowing from Scythians (Alans) *tarxan “judge” -> Ossetian. Taerxon “argument, trial”; cf. the Ossete idioms taerxon kaenyn “to judge” (+ kӕnyn “to do”) and tӕrxon lӕg “judge” (+l ӕg man). Iron ævzag
  15. ^ a b G. Doerfer, Mongolo-Tungusica, O. Harrassowitz, 1985, University of Virginia.
  16. ^ L. Ligeti, Researches in Altaic languages, e. A. Kiadó, 1975, University of Michigan, p. 48
  17. ^ Bailey, H[arold] W. 1985. Indo-Scythian Studies: being Khotanese Texts, VII. Cambridge Univ. Press. (Reviewed here)
  18. ^ Lessing, F.D., Mongolian-English Dictionary, 1960, p.236 - In: Han-Woo Choi, A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN", Handong University, p.2
  19. ^ Han-Woo Choi, A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN", Handong University, pp.2-5
  20. ^ Pelliot – Neuf Notes, p.250
  21. ^ Eberhard – Conquerors and Rulers, p.98
  22. ^ Wittfogel et al – Liao dynasty, p.433
  23. ^ http://reff.net.ua/26327-YArlyki_hanov_Zolotoiy_Ordy_kak_istochnik_prava_i_kak_istochnik_po_istorii_prava.html
  24. ^ Paul Ratchnevsky – Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.243
  25. ^ Michael Kohn – Mongolia, p.126
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