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*[http://www2.pms-lj.si/staff/bioacoustics/asian.html Southeast Asian cicada songs on The Slovenian Museum of Natural History website]
*[http://www2.pms-lj.si/staff/bioacoustics/asian.html Southeast Asian cicada songs on The Slovenian Museum of Natural History website]
*[http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/specialcollections/digital/metcalf/index.html DrMetcalf: a resource on cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, spittlebugs, and treehoppers]
*[http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/specialcollections/digital/metcalf/index.html DrMetcalf: a resource on cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, spittlebugs, and treehoppers]
* [http://www.marvellous-provence.com/arts-and-traditions/traditions/the-cicada-or-cigale The Cicada, or Cigale in Provence (English)]
*Film: ''Return of the Cicadas 2013''[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICDdTBgqYt0]
*Film: ''Return of the Cicadas 2013''[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICDdTBgqYt0]
{{Hemiptera|1}}
{{Hemiptera|1}}

Revision as of 17:27, 14 February 2014

For other uses, see Cicada (disambiguation).

Cicada
Annual cicada, Tibicen linnei
Calling song of Magicicada cassini
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Hemiptera
Suborder:
Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder:
Cicadomorpha
Superfamily:
Cicadoidea
Family:
Cicadidae

Westwood, 1840
Subfamilies

Cicadinae
Tibiceninae
Cicadettinae
Tettigadinae
See also article text.

Cicadas (/sɪˈkɑːdə/ or /sɪˈkeɪdə/), alternatively spelled as Cicala or Cicale, are insects in the order Hemiptera, suborder Auchenorrhyncha (which was formerly included in the now invalid suborder Homoptera). Cicadas are in the superfamily Cicadoidea. Their eyes are prominent, though not especially large, and set wide apart on the anterior lateral corners of the frons. The wings are well-developed, with conspicuous veins; in some species the wing membranes are wholly transparent, whereas in many others the proximal parts of the wings are clouded or opaque and some have no significantly clear areas on their wings at all. About 2,500 species of cicada have been described, and many remain to be described. Cicadas live in temperate-to-tropical climates where they are among the most-widely recognized of all insects, mainly due to their large size and unique sound. Cicadas are often colloquially called locusts,[1] although they are unrelated to true locusts, which are various species of swarming grasshopper. Cicadas are related to leafhoppers and spittlebugs.

Cicadas are benign to humans under normal circumstances and do not bite or sting in a true sense, but may mistake a person's arm or other part of their body for a tree or plant limb and attempt to feed.[2] Cicadas have long proboscises under their heads which they insert into plant stems in order to feed on sap. Bites can be painful if a cicada attempts to pierce a person's skin, but they are unlikely to cause other harm. Bites are unlikely to be a defensive reaction and are rare, usually occurring when a cicada is allowed to rest on a person's body for an extended amount of time.

Cicadas can cause damage to several cultivated crops, shrubs, and trees, mainly in the form of scarring left on tree branches while the females lay their eggs deep in branches.[3][4][5]

Many people around the world regularly eat cicadas. They are known to have been eaten in Ancient Greece as well as China, Malaysia, Burma, Latin America, and the Congo.[6] Female cicadas are prized for being meatier.[6] Shells of cicadas are employed in the traditional medicines of China.[7]

Name

Look up cicada in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The name is a direct derivation of the Latin cicada, meaning "tree cricket". There is no word of proper English, or indeed Germanic, etymology for the insect. In ancient Greek, it was called a tettix, and in modern Greek tzitzikas—both names being onomatopoeic.

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Taxonomy

Cicadas are arranged into two families: Tettigarctidae (q.v.) and Cicadidae. There are two extant species of Tettigarctidae, one in southern Australia, and the other in Tasmania. The family Cicadidae is subdivided into the subfamilies Cicadinae, Tettigadinae, and Cicadettinae,[8] and they exist on all continents except Antarctica. Some previous works also included a family-level taxon called the Tibiceninae.

A 17-year cicada, or Magicicada

The largest cicadas are in the genera Megapomponia, Pomponia and Tacua.

There are some 200 species in 38 genera in Australia, about 450 in Africa, about 100 in the Palaearctic, and only one species in England, the New Forest cicada, Melampsalta montana, widely distributed throughout Europe. There are about 150 species in South Africa.

Most of the North American species are in the genus Tibicen: the annual or jar fly or dog-day cicadas (so named because they emerge in late July and August). [1] The best-known North American genus is Magicicada, however. These periodical cicadas have an extremely long life cycle of 13 or 17 years and emerge in large numbers.[1] Another American species is the Apache cicada, Diceroprocta apache.

Australian cicadas differ from many other types because of that continent's diversity of climate and terrain. In Australia, cicadas are found on tropical islands and cold coastal beaches around Tasmania; in tropical wetlands; high and low deserts; alpine areas of New South Wales and Victoria; large cities like Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane; and Tasmanian highlands and snowfields.

Forty-two species from five genera populate New Zealand, and all are endemic to New Zealand and the surrounding islands (Norfolk Island, New Caledonia).[9] Many New Zealand cicada species differ from those of other countries by being found high up on mountain tops.

Description

Head of Magicicada septendecim showing red eyes and ocelli

The adult insect, known as an imago, is 2 to 5 centimetres (0.79–1.97 in) in total length in most species, although the largest, Pomponia (Megapomponia) imperatoria, has a head-body length of about 7 centimetres (2.8 in) and its wingspan is 18 to 20 centimetres (7–8 in).[10][11] Cicadas have prominent eyes set wide apart on the sides of the head, short antennae protruding between or in front of the eyes, and membranous front wings. Also, commonly overlooked, cicadas have three small eyes, or ocelli, located on the top of the head between the two large eyes that match the colour of the large eyes.

Physiology and adaptations

Some species of desert cicadas such as Diceroprocta apache are unusual among insects in that they have been shown to cool themselves by evaporative cooling, analogous to sweating in mammals. When their temperature rises above about 39 °C (102 °F) they suck excess sap from the food plants and extrude the excess water through pores in the tergum, at a modest cost in energy. Such a rapid loss of water can only be sustained by feeding on water rich xylem sap. At lower temperatures, feeding cicadas would normally need to excrete the excess water. By evaporative cooling desert cicadas can reduce their bodily temperature by some 5°C (9°F).[12][13]

Some non-desert cicada species such as Magicicada tredecem also cool themselves by such a mechanism, but less dramatically.[14]

Conversely, many other cicadas can voluntarily raise their body temperatures as much as 22.1 °C (39.8 °F) above ambient temperature.[15]

Cicada song

Cicada song
The song of a cicada in Lower Hutt, New Zealand. Recorded February 2006.
Cicada chorus in Japan
A chorus of Higurashi in Hayano Cemetery Park, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan. Recorded July 2011.
Cicadas in Greece
The sound of a tree full of Cicadas in Ithaca, Greece. Recorded July 2008.
A single Cicada calling
A Cicada calling on a hot afternoon in Irving, Texas. Recorded June 2012.
Problems playing these files? See media help.

The male cicada has loud noisemakers called "tymbals" on the sides of the abdominal base. Its "singing" is not the stridulation (where one structure is rubbed against another) that characterizes many other familiar sound-producing insects, such as crickets. Rather, the tymbals are regions of the exoskeleton that form a complex membrane with thin, membranous portions and thickened ribs; contracting the internal tymbal muscles produces a clicking sound as the tymbals buckle inwards, and the relaxing of the muscles causes the tymbals to return to their original position, producing another click. The interior of the male abdomen is mostly hollow, which amplifies the sound. A cicada rapidly vibrates these membranes, and enlarged chambers derived from the tracheae make its body serve as a resonance chamber, further amplifying the sound. The cicada modulates the sound by positioning its abdomen toward or away from the substrate. Additionally, each species has its own distinctive song.[1]

Average temperature of the natural habitat for the South American species Fidicina rana is approximately 29 °C (84 °F). During sound production, the temperature of the tymbal muscles was found to be significantly higher.[16] Cicadas sing most actively in hot weather and do their most spirited singing during the hotter hours of a summer day, in a roughly 24 hour cycle.

Although only males produce the cicadas' distinctive sound, both sexes have tympana, which are membranous structures used to detect sounds. They are thus the cicadas' equivalent of ears. Males can disable their own tympana while calling.[17]

Some cicadas produce sounds up to 120 dB (SPL),[17] among the loudest of all insect-produced sounds.[18] This is notable because the song is loud enough to cause permanent hearing loss in humans should the cicada sing just outside the listener's ear. Conversely, some small species have songs so high in pitch that the noise is inaudible to humans.[6] Species have different mating songs, ensuring that the appropriate mate is attracted. It can be difficult to determine from which direction(s) a cicada song is coming because the low pitch carries well.

In addition to the mating song, many species also have a distinct distress call, usually a broken and erratic sound that the insect emits when seized. A number of species also have a courtship song, which is often a quieter call and is produced after a female has been drawn by the calling song.

Life cycle

File:Adult Cicada Emerging from Nymph Skin.jpg
Adult cicada emerging.
Time sequence photos of a Tibicen cicada moulting.
Cicada exuviae

Cicadas live underground as nymphs for most of their lives, at depths ranging from about 30 centimetres (0.98 ft) down to 2.5 metres (8.2 ft). The nymphs feed on xylem sap from roots and have strong front legs for digging.

In the final nymphal instar, they construct an exit tunnel to the surface and emerge. They then molt (shed their skins) on a nearby plant for the last time and emerge as adults. The exuvia, or abandoned exoskeleton, remains, still clinging to the bark of trees.

After mating, the female cuts slits into the bark of a twig, and into these she deposits her eggs. She may do so repeatedly, until she has laid several hundred eggs. When the eggs hatch, the newly hatched nymphs drop to the ground, where they burrow. Most cicadas go through a life cycle that lasts from two to five years. Some species have much longer life cycles, such as the North American genus, Magicicada, which has a number of distinct "broods" that go through either a 17-year or, in some parts of the world, a 13-year life cycle. These long life cycles perhaps developed as a response to predators, such as the cicada killer wasp and praying mantis.[19][20][21] A predator with a shorter life cycle of at least two years could not reliably prey upon the cicadas.[22]

Diet

Cicada nymphs suck sap from the xylem of various species of tree, including oak, cypress, willow, ash, and maple. While it is common folklore that adults do not eat, in reality they do have their own sucking mouthparts, and also drink plant sap.[23]

Predation

Cicadas are commonly eaten by birds, and sometimes by squirrels,[24] but Massospora cicadina (a fungal disease) is the biggest enemy of cicadas. Another known predator is the cicada killer wasp. In eastern Australia, the native freshwater fish Australian bass are keen predators of cicadas that crash-land on the surface of streams.

Some species of cicada also have an unusual defense mechanism to protect themselves from predation, known as predator satiation: because so many emerge at once, the number of cicadas in any given area exceeds the amount predators can eat; all available predators are thus satiated, and the remaining cicadas can breed in peace.

Cicadas in Australia

The Australian red eye cicada (Psaltoda moerens)
See also: List of cicadas of Australia

Around 220 cicada species have been identified in Australia, many of which go by common names such as: cherry nose, brown baker, red eye (Psaltoda moerens), green grocer/green Monday, yellow Monday, whisky drinker, double drummer (Thopha saccata), and black prince. The Australian green grocer, Cyclochila australasiae, is among the loudest insects in the world.[25]

Being principally tropical insects, most Australian species are found in the northern states. However, cicadas occur in almost every part of Australia: the hot wet tropical north; Tasmanian snowfields; Victorian beaches and sand dunes such as Torquay and deserts. Some species, such as the Green Grocer, are not restricted to coastal or desert zones in Victoria. Each year for a period of a few weeks, an astonishing number of newly mature Green Grocer Cicadas emerge from the ground. Their numbers, combined with the ear shattering noise produced by a single adult male, are sufficient to make their entrance throughout suburbia absolutely unmistakable and 'Cicada Season' as some Victorian residents know this time, is clearly noticeable even in central business district areas of major cities such as Bendigo and Melbourne where this species flourish. According to Max Moulds of the Australian Museum in Sydney, "the 'green grocer' is unusual in its ability to adapt perfectly to the urbanized environment."[18] Cicada sounds are a defining quality of Melbourne, Sydney, and Canberra during late spring and the summer months.

Australian green grocer cicada (Cyclochila australasiae)

Cicadas inhabit both native and exotic plants, including tall trees, coastal mangroves, suburban lawns, and desert shrubbery. The great variety of flora and climatic variation found in north-eastern Queensland results in its being the richest region for the spread of different species. The area of greatest species diversity is a 100 km (60 mi) wide region around Cairns. In some areas, they are preyed on by the cicada killer wasp (Exeirus lateritius), which stings and stuns cicadas high in the trees, making them drop to the ground where the cicada-hunter mounts and carries them, pushing with its hind legs, sometimes over a distance of a hundred meters, until they can be shoved down into its burrow, where the numb cicada is placed onto one of many shelves in a 'catacomb', to form the food-stock for the wasp grub that grows out of the egg deposited there.[26]

Symbolism

The cicada has represented insouciance since classical antiquity. Jean de La Fontaine began his collection of fables Les fables de La Fontaine with the story La Cigale et la Fourmi (The Cicada and the Ant) based on one of Aesop's fables: in it the cicada spends the summer singing while the ant stores away food, and finds herself without food when the weather turns bitter.[27]

In 2004, "cicada" ranked 6th in Merriam-Webster's Words of the Year.

Americas

In America (not Mexico), the mariachi song "La Cigarra" (lit. "The Cicada") romanticises the insect as a creature that sings until it dies.

Asia

China

In China, the phrase "to shed off the golden cicada skin"(金蝉脱壳, pinyin: jīnchán tuōqiào) is the poetic name of the tactic of using deception to escape danger, specifically of using decoys (leaving the old shell) to fool enemies. It became one of the 36 classic Chinese strategems. In the Chinese classic novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms (14th century), Diaochan also got her name from the sable (diāo) tails and jade decorations in the shape of cicadas (chán), which at the time adorned the hats of high-level officials. In the Chinese classic novel Journey to the West (16th century), the protagonist Priest of Tang was named the Golden Cicada; in this context the multiple shedding of shell of the cicada symbolizes the many stages of transformation required of a person before all illusions have been broken and one reaches enlightenment. This is also referred to in Japanese mythical ninja lore, as the technique of utsusemi (i.e., literally cicada), where ninjas would trick opponents into attacking a decoy.

Japan

In Japan, the cicada is associated with the summer season. The songs of the cicada are often used in Japanese film and television to indicate the scene is taking place in the summer. The song of Meimuna opalifera, called "tsuku-tsuku boshi", is said to indicate the end of summer, and it is called so because of its particular call. During the summer, it is a pastime for children to collect both cicadas and the shells left behind when moulting.

Since the cicada emerges from the ground to sing every summer, in Japan it is seen as a symbol of reincarnation[citation needed]. Of special importance is the fact that the cicada moults, leaving behind an empty shell. But furthermore, since the cicada only lives for the short period of time long enough to attract a mate with its song and complete the process of fertilization, they are seen as a symbol of evanescence.

In the Japanese novel The Tale of Genji, the title character poetically likens one of his many love interests to a cicada for the way she delicately sheds her scarf the way a cicada sheds its shell when molting. A cicada shell also plays a role in the manga Winter Cicada. They are also a frequent subject of haiku, wherein, depending on type, they can indicate spring, summer, or fall.[28]

Java

Javanese version of cycle of months, called pranata mangsa, uses cicadas sound as an indicator of the beginning of dry season (April–May). Farmers who still depend on rain irrigation will interpret this as time for planting of non-rice crops.

Cicadas play a major role in the short story collection, The Society On Da Run: Dragons and Cicadas. They are sacred to dragons and are worshipped as gods.

Europe

In France, the cicada is used to represent the folklore of Provence and Mediterranean cities (although some species live in Alsace or the Paris Basin).[29]

In the Ancient Greek myth, Tithonus eventually turns into a cicada after being granted immortality, but not eternal youth, by Zeus. The Greeks also used a cicada sitting on a harp as emblematic of music.[30]

In Tuscany, the Italian word for the cicada (cicala) is the euphemism for "vagina" used by children (the usage is equivalent to "fanny" in British/Australian English).[31][unreliable source?]

Culinary use

Deep-fried Cryptotympana atrata in Shandong cuisine

Cicadas have been eaten in China, Burma, Latin America, and the Congo. In North China, cicadas are skewered, deep fried or stir-fried as a delicacy.

In 2011, cicadas were incorporated into a single batch of ice cream in Columbia, Missouri at Sparky's. The ice creamery was advised by the public health department against making a second batch, a suggestion with which store owners complied.[32] Other creative recipes include Banana Bread Cicadas.[33]

Genera

Diemeniana frenchi, an Australian species
A Japanese Minminzemi (Oncotympana maculaticollis)
  • Abagazara
  • Abricta
  • Abroma
  • Adeniana
  • Aestuansella
  • Afzeliada
  • Ahomana
  • Akamba
  • Albanycada
  • Aleeta
  • Ambragaeana
  • Amphipsalta
  • Anapsaltodea
  • Angamiana
  • Arcystasia
  • Arenopsaltria
  • Arfaka
  • Arunta
  • Attenuella
  • Auta
  • Ayuthia
  • Azanicada
  • Babras
  • Baeturia
  • Balinta
  • Bavea
  • Beameria
  • Becquartina
  • Bijaurana
  • Birrima
  • Brevisiana
  • Burbunga
  • Buyisa
  • Cacama
  • Calopsaltria
  • Calyria
  • Capcicada
  • Carineta
  • Chinaria
  • Chlorocysta
  • Chonosia
  • Chremistica
  • Chrysocicada
  • Cicada
  • Cicadatra
  • Cicadetta
  • Cicadivetta
  • Cigarra
  • Clidophleps
  • Coata
  • Conibosa
  • Cornuplura
  • Cosmopsaltria
  • Crassisternata
  • Cryptotympana
  • Cyclochila
  • Cystopsaltria
  • Cystosoma
  • Daza
  • Decebalus
  • Derotettix
  • Diceroprocta
  • Diceropyga
  • Diemeniana
  • Dilobopyga
  • Dinarobia
  • Distantalna
  • Dorachosa
  • Dulderana
  • Dundubia
  • Durangona
  • Elachysoma
  • Esada
  • Euryphara
  • Euterpnosia
  • Fidicina
  • Formotosena
  • Fractuosella
  • Froggattoides
  • Gaeana
  • Garabecka
  • Gazuma
  • Gerodi
  • Glaucopsaltria
  • Graptopsaltria
  • Graptotettix
  • Guaranisaria
  • Gudanga
  • Guineapsaltria
  • Gymnotympana
  • Hainanosemia
  • Hemidictya
  • Henicopsaltria
  • Henicotettix
  • Herrera
  • Higurashi
  • Hilaphura
  • Hovana
  • Huechys
  • Hyantia
  • Hylora
  • Illyria
  • Imbabura
  • Inyamana
  • Ioba
  • Iruana
  • Jacatra
  • Jafuna
  • Jassopsaltria
  • Jiraiya
  • Kalabita
  • Kanakia
  • Karenia
  • Katoa
  • Kikihia
  • Klapperichicen
  • Kobonga
  • Keckgazara
  • Koma
  • Kongota
  • Koranna
  • Kumanga
  • Lacetas
  • Lembeja
  • Lemuriana
  • Leptopsalta
  • Leptopsaltria
  • Ligymolpa
  • Lisu
  • Lohbergian[6]
  • Luangwana
  • Lycurgus
  • Lyristes
  • Macrosemia
  • Macrotristria
  • Magicicada
  • Malagasia
  • Malgachialna
  • Malgotilia
  • Maoricicada
  • Mapondera
  • Mardalana
  • Marteena
  • Masupha
  • Maua
  • Mauricia
  • Megapomponia
  • Meimuna
  • Melampsalta
  • Mendozana
  • Mogannia
  • Monomatapa
  • Mouia
  • Muansa
  • Muda
  • Mura
  • Musimoia
  • Musoda
  • Munza
  • Nabalua
  • Nablistes
  • Nelcynadana
  • Neocicada
  • Neomuda
  • Neoplatypedia
  • Nosola
  • Notopsalta
  • Novemcella
  • Okanagana
  • Okanagodes
  • Orapa
  • Orientopsaltria
  • Oudeboschia
  • Owra
  • Oxypleura
  • Pacarina
  • Paectira
  • Pagiphora
  • Paharia
  • Panka
  • Paragudanga
  • Paranistria
  • Parnisa
  • Parnkalla
  • Parvittya
  • Pauropsalta
  • Pinheya
  • Platylomia
  • Platypedia
  • Platypleura
  • Plautilia
  • Polyneura
  • Pomponia
  • Prasia
  • Procollina
  • Prosotettix
  • Prunasis
  • Psallodia
  • Psaltoda
  • Psilotympana
  • Purana
  • Puranoides
  • Pycna
  • Quesada
  • Quintilia
  • Rhinopsalta
  • Rhodopsalta
  • Rustia
  • Sadaka
  • Salvazana
  • Sapantanga
  • Saticula
  • Scieroptera
  • Selymbria
  • Severiana
  • Sinosena
  • Sinotympana
  • Soudaniella
  • Spoerryana
  • Stagea
  • Stagina
  • Stellenboschia
  • Strumosella
  • Subpsaltr
  • Suisha
  • Systophlochius
  • Tacua
  • Taipinga
  • Takapsalta
  • Talainga
  • Tamasa
  • Taphura
  • Tanna
  • Terpnosia
  • Tettigades
  • Tettigarcta
  • Tettigetta
  • Tettigomyia
  • Tettigotoma
  • Tahlaemmey'
  • Thaumastopsaltria
  • Thopha
  • Tibicen
  • Tibicina
  • Tibicinoides
  • Tosena
  • Toxopeusella
  • Trengganua
  • Trismarcha
  • Tryella
  • Tugelana
  • Tympanistalna
  • Ueana
  • Ugada
  • Umjaba
  • Urabunana
  • Venustria
  • Viettealna
  • Xosopsaltria
  • Xossarella
  • Yanga
  • Zammara
  • Zouga

References

  1. ^ a b c d Milne, Lorus; Milne, Margery (1992). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Insects and Spiders. New York: Alfred A Knopf. ISBN 0-394-50763-0.
  2. ^ "Periodical Cicada", UMMZ, U. Mich.
  3. ^ "The Cicadas Are Coming, The Cicadas Are Coming", The New York Times, Ohio State University, 27 April 2004.
  4. ^ "Periodical Cicadas, Life Cycles & Behavior". OSU. Retrieved 2009-09-20.
  5. ^ Ohio Cultivator vol. 3 No. 1 Columbus, Ohio, January 1, 1847. 1847. pp. 3–. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  6. ^ a b c d "Insect education". 2008-09-09. Retrieved 2009-09-20. {{cite web}}: |contribution= ignored (help)
  7. ^ Li Shizhen, Bencao Gangmu, Section of Insect. 李时珍, 本草纲目, 虫部
  8. ^ Moulds, MS (2005). "An appraisal of the higher classification of cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadoidea) with special reference to the Australian fauna" (PDF). Records of the Australian Museum. 57 (3): 375–446. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1975.57.2005.1447.
  9. ^ 1. Introducing cicadas - Cicadas - Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
  10. ^ Flindt, R. (2006). Amazing Numbers in Biology, p. 10. ISBN 978-3540301462
  11. ^ Burton, M, and Burton, R. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Vol. 4, Chickaree-Crabs, p. 455. 3rd edition. ISBN 0-7614-7270-3
  12. ^ Neil F. Hadley, Michael C. Quinlan & Michael L. Kennedy (1991). "Evaporative cooling in the desert cicada: thermal efficiency and water/metabolic costs". Journal of Experimental Biology. 159 (1): 269–283.
  13. ^ Toolson, Eric C. Water Profligacy as an Adaptation to Hot Deserts: Water Loss Rates and Evaporative Cooling in the Sonoran Desert Cicada, Diceroprocta apache. Physiological Zoology Vol. 60, No. 4 (Jul. - Aug., 1987), pp. 379-385
  14. ^ Toolson, Eric C & Toolson Elizabeth K. Evaporative cooling and endothermy in the 13-year periodical cicada, Magicicada tredecem. Journal of Comparative Physiology B. March 1991, Volume 161, Issue 1, pp 109-115
  15. ^ Allen F. Sanborn, Martin H. Villet & Polly K. Phillips (2003). "Hot-blooded singers: endothermy facilitates crepuscular signaling in African platypleurine cicadas (Homóptera: Cicadidae: Platypleura spp.)". Naturwissenschaften. 90 (7): 305–308. doi:10.1007/s00114-003-0428-1. PMID 12883772.
  16. ^ Aidley, DJ; White, DCS (1969). "Mechanical properties of glycerinated fibres from the tymbal muscles of a Brazilian cicada". Journal of Physiology. 205 (1): 179–92. PMC 1348633. PMID 5347716.
  17. ^ a b "Cicada noise". 50/50. NZ. June 2, 2002. Archived from the original on October 14, 2006. Retrieved August 3, 2011. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; October 4, 2006 suggested (help)
  18. ^ a b Craig 2001.
  19. ^ Haga, Enoch (1994–2007), "6. Eratosthenes goes bugs!", Exploring Prime Numbers on Your PC and the Internet, Enoch Haga, pp. 71–80, fig. 8, table 9, ISBN 978-1-885-79424-6, LCCN 2007900755.
  20. ^ Sloane, Enoch (2009), "Sequence A161664, Safe periods for the emergence of cicada species on prime number cycles", The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences {{citation}}: |editor-first= missing |editor-last= (help).
  21. ^ "Commons" (JPEG) (image). Wikimedia. Retrieved 2009-09-20. {{cite web}}: |contribution= ignored (help)
  22. ^ Dawkins, Richard (1986). The Blind Watchmaker. Norton. p. 100. ISBN 0-393-31570-3.
  23. ^ Periodical Cicadas - Genus Magicicada
  24. ^ C. L. Marlatt (1898). The Periodical Cicada. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 106.
  25. ^ "Cicadas". Australian Museum. Retrieved 2007-12-05.
  26. ^ Tillyard, P (1926), The Insects of Australia and New Zealand, Sydney: Angus & Robertson, pp. 298–99.
  27. ^ Chevrier, Irène (April 24, 2007). "La Fontaine, fabuleusement inspiré par Esope – Un autre regard sur la Grèce" (in French). Archived from the original on December 28, 2008.
  28. ^ "Cicadas", Haiku topical dictionary, VA: Virginia.
  29. ^ "La cigale, emblème de la Provence" (in French). FR: Notre Provence. Archived from the original on March 15, 2009.
  30. ^ "THE CICADA". The Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954). NSW: National Library of Australia. 21 January 1928. p. 21. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
  31. ^ "Tanti modi per dire vagina", Salute (forum) (in Italian), IT.
  32. ^ http://www.columbiatribune.com/business/saturday_business/cicada-ice-cream-causes-international-buzz/article_f91720ec-a62b-55c3-bd27-64380724bc79.html
  33. ^ http://www.livesummitnj.com/2013/06/01/banana-bread-cicada-recipe/

Bibliography

  • Craig, Owen (2001-02-17), "Summer of singing cicadas", Scribbly gum, AU: ABC, retrieved 2006-12-23.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cicadidae.
Wikispecies has information related to cicadidae.
Look up cicada in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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