Jump to content

Draft:Likbez Propaganda: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
CVosb7337 (talk | contribs)
54 edits
m intro
CVosb7337 (talk | contribs)
54 edits
mNo edit summary
Line 2: Line 2:
<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE -->
<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE -->


[[Propaganda in the Soviet Union|Propaganda]] played a key role in the Soviet pro-literacy and [[Education in the Soviet Union|education]]-reforming [[Likbez]] campaign of the 1920s and 1930s. For the campaign's active phase (December 26, 1919-1936), the Soviet [[General Directorate for the Protection of State Secrets in the Press|regime]] relied heavily upon propaganda posters to spread a desire to read throughout all strata of Soviet [[Culture of the Soviet Union|society]]. Pro-literacy propaganda in the 1920s and 1930s had a significant impact on the daily lives of Soviet citizens and paralleled the improvement of literacy rates throughout the Soviet Union that occurred by 1937. According to Soviet [[Soviet Census (1937)|census data,]] literacy rates had risen to 75% by 1937 as compared to 56.6% in 1926.
[[Propaganda in the Soviet Union|Propaganda]] played a key role in the Soviet [[Education in the Soviet Union|pro-literacy]] [[Likbez]] ([[Russian language|Russian]]: ликбе́з, <small>Russian pronunciation: </small>[[Help:IPA for Russian|[lʲɪɡˈbʲɛs]]]; from a Russian abbreviation for "'''lik'''vidatsiya '''bez'''gramotnosti", ликвида́ция безгра́мотности, [lʲɪkvʲɪˈdatsɨjə bʲɪzˈɡramətnəsʲtʲɪ], meaning "elimination of illiteracy") campaign of the 1920s and 1930s. For the campaign's active phase (December 26, 1919-1936), the Soviet [[General Directorate for the Protection of State Secrets in the Press|regime]] relied heavily upon propaganda posters to spread a desire to read throughout all strata of Soviet [[Culture of the Soviet Union|society]]. Pro-literacy propaganda in the 1920s and 1930s had a significant impact on the daily lives of Soviet citizens and paralleled the improvement of literacy rates throughout the Soviet Union that occurred by 1937. According to Soviet [[Soviet Census (1937)|census data,]] literacy rates had risen to 75% by 1937 as compared to 45% in 1917, though these statistics do bare some potential for Soviet exaggeration of success<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Portalus.ru|date=2007-01-01|title=© Literacy and Education in the Early Soviet Union (RUSSIA (TOPICS))|url=http://portalus.ru/modules/english_russia/rus_readme.php?subaction=showfull&id=1190296667&archive=&start_from=&ucat=&|journal=Portalus.ru|language=ru|issn=2413-6352}}</ref>.


==Origins of pro-literacy propaganda ==
==Origins of pro-literacy propaganda ==
[[File:Irbit - Fur market.jpg|thumb|Fur market in [[Irbit]]]]
[[File:Irbit - Fur market.jpg|thumb|Fur market in [[Irbit]]]]
Pro-literacy propaganda, usually in the form of posters, came into popular Soviet culture largely because of the government's policy of ''likbez.'' After the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the Soviet [[People's Commissariat for Education]] made a conscious effort to introduce political propaganda into Soviet schools, particularly the labour schools that had been established in 1918 with the ''Statutniihge of the Uniform Labour School'' decree . These posters artistically embodied the core values of the Soviet push for literacy in both rural and urban settings, namely the concept espoused by Lenin that "Without literacy, there can be no politics, there can only be rumors, gossip and prejudice.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/910370690|title=The challenge of science education,|last=1902-|first=Roucek, Joseph Slabey,|publisher=Books for Libraries Press|isbn=9780836920703|oclc=910370690}}</ref>" Indeed, at this time, millions of illiterate Soviets in both town and country were being enrolled in [[Literacy school|literacy schools]] and made to engage with this Leninist ideology of pro-literacy. [[Komsomol]] members and [[Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union|Young Pioneer]] detachments were commissioned to spread this propaganda and ideology to illiterate people in [[villages]].
In accordance with the [[Sovnarkom]] decree of December 26, 1919, signed by its head [[Vladimir Lenin]], the new [[policy]] of [[likbez]] ("liquidation of illiteracy"), was introduced. The new system of universal [[compulsory education]] was established for [[Child|children]]. Millions of illiterate adult people all over the country, including residents of small towns and villages, were enrolled in special [[Literacy school|literacy schools]]. [[Komsomol]] members and [[Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union|Young Pioneer]] detachments played an important role in the education of illiterate people in [[villages]]. The most active phase of ''likbez'' lasted until 1939. In 1926, the [[literacy rate]] was 56.6 percent of the population. By 1937, according to [[Soviet Census (1937)|census data]], the literacy rate was 86% for men and 65% for women, making a total literacy rate of 75%.


The Siberian fur trade began in the sixteenth century, peaked in the seventeenth century, and continues to the present day.<ref name="answers1">Fur Trade: Russia. Answers.com <http://www.answers.com/topic/fur-trade-russia></ref> While sable has always been the most coveted fur from Siberia, the Siberian fur trade has included a large variety of animals pelts used for a variety of products, most frequently clothing. Some of the richest fur regions in Siberia are the [[Yakutsk]], [[Kamchatka]], and [[Okhotsk]] Peninsulas.{{sfnp|Cutler|1918}}
The Siberian fur trade began in the sixteenth century, peaked in the seventeenth century, and continues to the present day.<ref name="answers1">Fur Trade: Russia. Answers.com <http://www.answers.com/topic/fur-trade-russia></ref> While sable has always been the most coveted fur from Siberia, the Siberian fur trade has included a large variety of animals pelts used for a variety of products, most frequently clothing. Some of the richest fur regions in Siberia are the [[Yakutsk]], [[Kamchatka]], and [[Okhotsk]] Peninsulas.{{sfnp|Cutler|1918}}

Revision as of 14:24, 15 May 2017


Propaganda played a key role in the Soviet pro-literacy Likbez (Russian: ликбе́з, Russian pronunciation: [lʲɪɡˈbʲɛs]; from a Russian abbreviation for "likvidatsiya bezgramotnosti", ликвида́ция безгра́мотности, [lʲɪkvʲɪˈdatsɨjə bʲɪzˈɡramətnəsʲtʲɪ], meaning "elimination of illiteracy") campaign of the 1920s and 1930s. For the campaign's active phase (December 26, 1919-1936), the Soviet regime relied heavily upon propaganda posters to spread a desire to read throughout all strata of Soviet society. Pro-literacy propaganda in the 1920s and 1930s had a significant impact on the daily lives of Soviet citizens and paralleled the improvement of literacy rates throughout the Soviet Union that occurred by 1937. According to Soviet census data, literacy rates had risen to 75% by 1937 as compared to 45% in 1917, though these statistics do bare some potential for Soviet exaggeration of success[1].

Origins of pro-literacy propaganda

Fur market in Irbit

Pro-literacy propaganda, usually in the form of posters, came into popular Soviet culture largely because of the government's policy of likbez. After the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the Soviet People's Commissariat for Education made a conscious effort to introduce political propaganda into Soviet schools, particularly the labour schools that had been established in 1918 with the Statutniihge of the Uniform Labour School decree . These posters artistically embodied the core values of the Soviet push for literacy in both rural and urban settings, namely the concept espoused by Lenin that "Without literacy, there can be no politics, there can only be rumors, gossip and prejudice.[2]" Indeed, at this time, millions of illiterate Soviets in both town and country were being enrolled in literacy schools and made to engage with this Leninist ideology of pro-literacy. Komsomol members and Young Pioneer detachments were commissioned to spread this propaganda and ideology to illiterate people in villages.

The Siberian fur trade began in the sixteenth century, peaked in the seventeenth century, and continues to the present day.[3] While sable has always been the most coveted fur from Siberia, the Siberian fur trade has included a large variety of animals pelts used for a variety of products, most frequently clothing. Some of the richest fur regions in Siberia are the Yakutsk, Kamchatka, and Okhotsk Peninsulas.[4]

The Stroganov family, wealthy merchant-capitalists with extensive resources and influence in Russia, played a significant role in developing Siberia's fur trade.[5][6] The Stroganovs owned several pieces of land in Siberia and made large profits trading with the natives for fur on these lands.[5] The Stroganov family lead the way to fur trading in Siberia, which became both economically and culturally important to both Russia and Siberia.

Spread of pro-literacy Propaganda

Siberian fur trader at the fair in Leipzig, Germany (c. 1800)

Russians implemented several methods of acquiring the fur pelts from the Siberian furriers: yasak, purchase, confiscation, hunting expeditions, trade with natives, and in much later years, farming of the most valued fur-bearing animals.[7] Yasak was the easiest way of collecting furs, as the furs were simply demanded as a tribute or tax from the Siberian natives. Russian explorers and hunters were not as skilled as the Siberian natives at hunting fur-bearing animals without damaging the fur, which made trading with the Siberians the second easiest way to obtain pelts. The Siberian natives knew how to kill the animals without ruining the fur.

1920's

This chart shows the annual yasak collections during the seventeenth century, divided by the native peoples of Siberia.

Yasak, otherwise known as Iasak, refers to the fur tax that the natives of Siberia were forced to pay to the tsarist government of Russia.[8] Russians would set up winter camps known as zimovya while they waited for the Siberians to hunt and pay their taxes in fur.[9] In return, the Siberians were promised to be able to look to the Russian government for protection. If a native tribe, community, or individual did not comply to the tax or otherwise resisted, they would face government-backed Cossack raids.[10]

Yasak could be levied on an individual, a tribe, or both.[7] All men between the ages of eighteen and fifty years were subject to this tax.[7] The type of fur and the amount of fur pelts required for this tax varied, depending on how available the pelts were.[7] For example, in the beginning of the 17th century, yasak could be anywhere from five to twenty-two sables per man, but this dropped to three sable pelts by the mid-1600s due to decreases in the sable population.[7] In 1601, Russian tax collectors in the Verkhoturye district collected about ten sables a year from every married man and five sables a year from every bachelor.[11] Officials collecting the yasak tribute also demanded extra furs as "gifts".[10] Fox, squirrel, and ermine pelts were also accepted as yasuk after sable populations began to decline due to overhunting.[11] Instead of one sable pelt, the following was accepted as its equivalent: one fox, glutton (relative of the marten), or otter pelt; two blue-fox pelts; sixteen polar-fox pelts; or one hundred squirrel pelts.[11] The Russian government decided the amount of other pelts that were equivalent to the sable pelt.

Within forty years, almost all Siberian natives were forced into paying fur tribute to the Russians.[10] Russian traders, hunters, and explorers reached the Pacific coastline by 1650 and were collecting fur tribute from most natives along the coast.[10]

1930's

Beyond the yasuk, the Russians had two principal ways of obtaining Siberian furs: through hunting the animals themselves or through trading.[5] Promyshlenniki was the Russian name for the small groups of Russian traders and trappers who took part in the Siberian fur trade.[10] They were free-men who used fur trapping as a way of making a living.[12] They worked together as a group making traps, collecting food and drink, and building camps in the harsh climate. These groups would evenly split the fur caught between all the members of the group. Working in groups gave these trappers protection against harsh Siberian winters, against unexpected attacks, and other dangers they could encounter if they were alone.At the peak of the Siberia fur trade during the seventeenth century, over a thousand of these trappers and traders ventured into Siberia each year.[3] Men were infected with "fur fever," wanting to strike it rich like the Stroganovs.[10]

Plate of squirrel fur backs
Squirrel fur bellies

The Siberian fur trade was composed of two main types of traders. Small groups of traders braved the dangers of Siberia's taiga wilderness to trade with natives themselves, but many more traders stayed in Russia and sent agents to work for them in Siberia. Both the independent traders and the agents of the traders in Russia would stay in Siberia typically anywhere from two to six years, depending on how far they wanted to travel, their luck at trading with natives and trapping the animals, and the harshness of the weather.[10] The most commonly traded items included Russian-made goods such as metal wares and ironworks, hunting equipment and firearms, and food and drink supplies. For most of the natives, the hunting equipment and metal products were the most useful and coveted trade items.[5] There was no oversight or rules for the traders who participated in the Siberian fur trade, especially in the first few centuries of fur trading. The native Siberians did not have much knowledge of the worth of their furs, and Russian traders commonly took advantage of this ignorance. For example, names would commonly pay for one copper kettle with the amount of sable pelts that would fit inside of the pot, a tiny fraction of the pelts' actual worth.[10] Traders frequently used force and terror tactics to collect additional furs from the natives. For example, one report from Okhotosk told of a trader who kidnapped all the children from the local native Tungus so he could sell them back to their parents for a sable pelt apiece.[10] In some cases, the traders would hold the native women and children as hostages and in doing so they would force the fathers, brothers, and husbands to bring them furs in return for their loved ones’ safety.[12]

The fur hunting expeditions into Siberia were mostly conducted in groups ranging from six to sixty men based at small winter peasant huts in the Siberian taiga. The groups baited pit traps with fish or meat to catch sable, and tracked other prey with nets and dogs.[7] They would usually spend up to six or seven weeks at a time hunting. While hunting on land, they would usually use a dog team trained to smell and hunt animals, particularly sable. The dogs were trained not to kill the animals; hunters feared that the dogs would destroy the precious fur by tearing it to pieces. The hunters also occasionally used dogs to retrieve animals once they were killed.[11] Hunters typically killed the animals themselves, doing their best not to damage the pelts in the process.

Hunters utilized bows, traps, snares, and nets to catch and kill animals for their pelts.[11] Hunters would also follow the footprints of the animals to their dwellings and catch the animals as they emerged.[13] Water mammals, such as sea otters, were also hunted for their pelts. Hunters would balance on small kayaks and would throw spears to kill the water animals.[12] This skill was commonly passed down from father to son and taught at a young age.[12]

Few Russian hunters were as skilled at the Siberian natives at killing animals without damage to the pelts, which made trading the superior method of acquiring these pelts.[7] Hunting was also dangerous for the participants - hunters faced the possibility of disease, accidents, injury from animals, or violent confrontations with the indigenous peoples of Siberia when hunting fur-bearing animals.[12] Under the best conditions, the hunting and trading parties exploring Siberia had a mere seven months after the spring thaw before the Siberian winter drove the animals into winter shelters, which stopped hunting for the season.[10] Early routes taken by fur traders followed the large rivers in Siberia, as the furs were easier to transport over water than land.[5] These rivers connected the major fur gathering centers and provided for relatively quick transport between them. The fur pelts were tied between two boards for transport along these rivers, and were thus called "timbers".[7]

By the twentieth century, prime fur-bearing animals were raised on farms. However, the most valuable pelts still come from the wilderness, because the farm-raised animals were believed to not have as luxurious pelts.[14] The wild animal furs are the most valuable because the harsh climates forced the animals to naturally grow thick warm fur, whereas the ones grown in farms do not need to grow such thick fur for protection from the harsh climate.

Women's role in pro-literacy propoganda

A Siberian sable depicted on a 35 kopeck stamp.

Sables were the first fur-bearing animals in Siberia to interest Russians.[15] Sables were known as the "Golden Fleece" because they of their extreme value, both on the local and the world markets.[7] A fur clothing store describes the sable fur as follows: "It is difficult to describe Russian sable fur in words: almost weightless, silky, satin like, lustrous, sparkling, glistening, incredibly beautiful. In addition it is very warm and durable."[16]

Sable continues to be the world's most valuable fur.[7] The most sought-after sable furs in the world come from the Barguzin region of Siberia.[17] The sable is a small mammal resembling a mix between a weasel and a cat. It feeds on pine nuts, mice, and squirrels and hunts mostly at night.[17] The sable fur surpasses all other types of fur due to its silky dense texture and luminous shades of beige, brown, gold, silver, and black.[17] The darkest shades of sable fur are the most valuable.[16] Next to sable, Siberian fox furs and squirrel pelts are the most valued furs from the region.

Bargusinski fur skins (best sort), tanned
Raw Bargusinski skins

In addition to sable, black and white fox, ermine, beaver, squirrel, lynx, wolf, wolverine, rabbit, marten, walrus, sea otter, and polar bear were also hunted for their pelts.[7] Most of these fur bearing animals are found in the Siberian taiga, except for the sea otters and walrus that were found on the North Pacific coasts.[18] In more recent times, fur farming has been used to breed animals for their fur. Silver fox farms were started in 1936, mostly in Yakutia.[7] These farms eliminated some of the dangers and uncertainties involved with hunting in the wilderness.

This trade of valuable fur-bearing animals from Siberia has a definite impact on the world fur trading industry. In 1910, the pelts of seventy thousand sables, ten times that many ermine, five million rabbits, and fifteen million squirrels from Siberia accounted for almost half the world's furs.[10] Today, the most valuable furs still come from Siberia.

Outcomes

The Siberian fur trade was not completely advantageous and had several direct negative consequences for Siberia. By the beginning of the 18th century, there was a sharp decline in the number of fur-bearing animals across Siberia as trappers and traders collected furs without any thought for population control.[10] Hunters would hunt in an area until the animal population was decimated and then move on to another hunting ground. In 1913 a ban was put on sable hunting in order to keep this animal from extinction.[4]

Many animals have been killed for the Siberian fur trade, which has had severe negative effects on Siberian ecology. In the middle of the nineteenth century, about 10-15 million squirrels were killed in Siberia each year, in addition to tens of thousands of ermines, rabbits, martens, foxes, sables, lynx and wolverine.[7] Most of these animals are small and a single jacket requires many pelts. For example, several hundred squirrel pelts are needed to make one fur cloak.[18] In Irkutsk, a major fur trade center, more than 150,000 sable pelts, thousands of Arctic foxes, and hundreds of thousands of squirrels passed through its customs house each year.[10] Hunters also came to Siberia with the false image of Siberia as an endless wilderness that could not be exhausted, and they hunted and killed without regard to maintaining the animal populations.

References

  1. ^ Portalus.ru (2007-01-01). "© Literacy and Education in the Early Soviet Union (RUSSIA (TOPICS))". Portalus.ru (in Russian). ISSN 2413-6352.
  2. ^ 1902-, Roucek, Joseph Slabey,. The challenge of science education,. Books for Libraries Press. ISBN 9780836920703. OCLC 910370690. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b Fur Trade: Russia. Answers.com <http://www.answers.com/topic/fur-trade-russia>
  4. ^ a b Cutler (1918).
  5. ^ a b c d e Fisher (1943), [1].
  6. ^ Brumfield (2011).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bobrick (1992).
  8. ^ Rethmann (2001).
  9. ^ Gibson (1980), pp. 127–136.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lincoln (1994).
  11. ^ a b c d e Shinkarev (1973).
  12. ^ a b c d e Miller (2005).
  13. ^ Bychkov & Jacobs (1994), pp. 75–80.
  14. ^ Kerttula (2000).
  15. ^ Vitebsky (2006).
  16. ^ a b "Sable Coat is King." The Haute Women's Fur Clothing Boutique. 14 May 2009. Web. 16 January 2012. < http://www.luxfurclothing.com/blog/?cat=11>
  17. ^ a b c Tyler (2000).
  18. ^ a b Bryant (2002).

Bibliography

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:Likbez_Propaganda&oldid=780500916"