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Greenish-yellow edible okra [[vegetable oils|oil]] is pressed from okra seeds; it has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in [[unsaturated fat]]s such as [[oleic acid]] and [[linoleic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Okra, Potential Multiple-Purpose Crop for the Temperate Zones and Tropics|author= Martin, Franklin W.|volume=36|year=1982|pages=340–345|journal=Economic Botany|doi=10.1007/BF02858558|issue=3}}</ref> The oil content of some varieties of the seed is about 40%. At 794&nbsp;kg/ha, the yield was exceeded only by that of [[sunflower oil]] in one trial.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mays, D.A., W. Buchanan, B.N. Bradford, and P.M. Giordano|year=1990|title=Fuel production potential of several agricultural crops|pages=260–263|journal=Advances in New Crops}}</ref> A 1920 study found that a sample contained 15% oil.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/ja01446a023|title=Okra Seed Oil.1|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=42|page=166|year=1920|last1=Jamieson|first1=George S.|last2=Baughman|first2=Walter F.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1428824}}</ref> A 2009 study found okra oil suitable for use as a [[biofuel]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farooq|first=Anwar|author2=Umer Rashid |author3=Muhammad Ashraf |author4=Muhammad Nadeem |date=March 2010|title=Okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil for biodiesel production|journal=Applied Energy|volume=87|issue=3|pages=779–785|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.09.020}}</ref>
Greenish-yellow edible okra [[vegetable oils|oil]] is pressed from okra seeds; it has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in [[unsaturated fat]]s such as [[oleic acid]] and [[linoleic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Okra, Potential Multiple-Purpose Crop for the Temperate Zones and Tropics|author= Martin, Franklin W.|volume=36|year=1982|pages=340–345|journal=Economic Botany|doi=10.1007/BF02858558|issue=3}}</ref> The oil content of some varieties of the seed is about 40%. At 794&nbsp;kg/ha, the yield was exceeded only by that of [[sunflower oil]] in one trial.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mays, D.A., W. Buchanan, B.N. Bradford, and P.M. Giordano|year=1990|title=Fuel production potential of several agricultural crops|pages=260–263|journal=Advances in New Crops}}</ref> A 1920 study found that a sample contained 15% oil.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/ja01446a023|title=Okra Seed Oil.1|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=42|page=166|year=1920|last1=Jamieson|first1=George S.|last2=Baughman|first2=Walter F.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1428824}}</ref> A 2009 study found okra oil suitable for use as a [[biofuel]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farooq|first=Anwar|author2=Umer Rashid |author3=Muhammad Ashraf |author4=Muhammad Nadeem |date=March 2010|title=Okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil for biodiesel production|journal=Applied Energy|volume=87|issue=3|pages=779–785|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.09.020}}</ref>

=== Male infertility ===
Okra, like other members of [[malvaceae]] family, contains [[gossypol]] a toxic, yellow, polyphenolic compound. One of the effects of gossypol consumption by humans, is the increased incidence of male infertility.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Coutinho|first=Elsimar Metzker|date=2002-4|title=Gossypol: a contraceptive for men|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12020773|journal=Contraception|volume=65|issue=4|pages=259–263|doi=10.1016/s0010-7824(02)00294-9|issn=0010-7824|pmid=12020773}}</ref> Due to the presence of gossypol, okra should be avoided among infertile men who are under medical investigation for infertility.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.caasn.com/okra-may-cause-infertility.html|title=Okra May Cause Infertility:|last=abazar|website=www.caasn.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2019-10-13}}</ref>


=== Industrial uses ===
=== Industrial uses ===

Revision as of 15:18, 13 October 2019

Okra
Okra plant with mature and developing fruits in Hong Kong
Okra in longitudinal section
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Abelmoschus
Species:
A. esculentus
Binomial name
Abelmoschus esculentus
Map showing worldwide okra production
Worldwide okra production
Synonyms[1]
  • Abelmoschus bammia Webb
  • abelmoschus longifolius (Willd.) Kostel.
  • Abelmoschus officinalis (DC.) Endl.
  • Abelmoschus praecox Sickenb.
  • Abelmoschus tuberculatus Pal & Singh
  • Hibiscus esculentus L.
  • Hibiscus hispidissimus A.Chev. nom. illeg.
  • Hibiscus longifolius Willd.
  • Hibiscus praecox Forssk.

Okra (US: /ˈkrə/, UK: /ˈɒkrə/), Abelmoschus esculentus, known in many English-speaking countries as ladies' fingers or ochro, is a flowering plant in the mallow family. It is valued for its edible green seed pods. The geographical origin of okra is disputed, with supporters of West African, Ethiopian, and South Asian origins. The plant is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions around the world.[2]

Etymology and common name

First used around 1670, the name okra is from a West African language, possibly Igbo ọ́kụ̀rụ̀.[3] Gombo (from American-French)[4] has origin around 1805, becoming the name gumbo used in parts of the Southeastern United States and the English-speaking Caribbean (via Portuguese and Spanish quingombo).[3][4] In India, it is known by the names vendakkai (alternatively bendakkai) and bhindi even in English.[5][6]

Origin and distribution

Whole plant with blossom and immature pod

Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage (proposed parents include Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus and a reported "diploid" form of okra). Truly wild (as opposed to naturalised) populations are not known with certainty and the species may be a cultigen. The geographical origin of okra is disputed, with supporters of South Asian, Ethiopian and West African origins. The Egyptians and Moors of the 12th and 13th centuries used the Arabic word for the plant, bamya, suggesting it had come into Egypt from Arabia, but earlier it was probably taken from Ethiopia to Arabia. The plant may have entered southwest Asia across the Red Sea or the Bab-el-Mandeb straight to the Arabian Peninsula, rather than north across the Sahara, or from India. One of the earliest accounts is by a Spanish Moor who visited Egypt in 1216 and described the plant under cultivation by the locals who ate the tender, young pods with meal.[7] From Arabia, the plant spread around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and eastward. The plant was introduced to the Americas by ships plying the Atlantic slave trade[8] by 1658, when its presence was recorded in Brazil. It was further documented in Suriname in 1686. Okra may have been introduced to southeastern North America from Africa in the early 18th century. By 1748, it was being grown as far north as Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson noted it was well established in Virginia by 1781. It was commonplace throughout the Southern United States by 1800, and the first mention of different cultivars was in 1806.[7]

Botany and cultivation

Latitudinal cross-section of the okra pod

The species is a perennial, often cultivated as an annual in temperate climates, and often grows to around 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall. As a member of the Malvaceae, it is related to such species as cotton, cocoa, and hibiscus. The leaves are 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in) long and broad, palmately lobed with 5–7 lobes. The flowers are 4–8 centimetres (1.6–3.1 in) in diameter, with five white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal. The pollens are spherical with approximately 188 microns diameter.

Pollens of Abelmoschus esculentus

The fruit is a capsule up to 18 centimetres (7.1 in) long with pentagonal cross-section, containing numerous seeds.

Abelmoschus esculentus is cultivated throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world for its fibrous fruits or pods containing round, white seeds. It is among the most heat- and drought-tolerant vegetable species in the world and will tolerate soils with heavy clay and intermittent moisture, but frost can damage the pods. In cultivation, the seeds are soaked overnight prior to planting to a depth of 1–2 centimetres (0.39–0.79 in). Germination occurs between six days (soaked seeds) and three weeks. Seedlings require ample water. The seed pods rapidly become fibrous and woody and, to be edible as a vegetable, must be harvested when immature, usually within a week after pollination.[9] Okra is available in two varieties, green and red. Red okra carries the same flavor as the more popular green okra and differs only in color. When cooked, the red okra pods turn green.[10]

The most common disease afflicting the okra plant is verticillium wilt, often causing a yellowing and wilting of the leaves. Other diseases include powdery mildew in dry tropical regions, leaf spots, and root-knot nematodes.[11]

Food and uses

Stir-fried okra with diced chili peppers
Okra, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy138 kJ (33 kcal)
7.46 g
Sugars1.48 g
Dietary fibre3.3 g
0.19 g
1.9 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV
Vitamin A equiv.
4%
36 μg
Thiamine (B1)
17%
0.2 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
5%
0.06 mg
Niacin (B3)
6%
1 mg
Folate (B9)
15%
60 μg
Vitamin C
26%
23 mg
Vitamin E
2%
0.27 mg
Vitamin K
26%
31.3 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV
Calcium
6%
82 mg
Iron
3%
0.62 mg
Magnesium
14%
57 mg
Phosphorus
5%
61 mg
Potassium
10%
299 mg
Zinc
5%
0.58 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water89.6 g

Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[12] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[13]

The products of the plant are mucilaginous, resulting in the characteristic "goo" or slime when the seed pods are cooked; the mucilage contains soluble fiber.[14] Pods are cooked, pickled, eaten raw, or included in salads. In India the pods stuffed with spices are a popular dish.[15] Okra may be used in developing countries to mitigate malnutrition and alleviate food insecurity.[14]

Nutrition

Raw okra is 90% water, 2% protein, 7% carbohydrates and negligible in fat. In a 100 gram amount, raw okra is rich (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) in dietary fiber, vitamin C and vitamin K, with moderate contents of thiamin, folate and magnesium (table).

Leaves and seeds

Young okra leaves may be cooked in a similar way to the greens of beets or dandelions.[16] The leaves are also eaten raw in salads. Okra seeds may be roasted and ground to form a caffeine-free substitute for coffee.[7] When importation of coffee was disrupted by the American Civil War in 1861, the Austin State Gazette said, "An acre of okra will produce seed enough to furnish a plantation with coffee in every way equal to that imported from Rio."[17]

Greenish-yellow edible okra oil is pressed from okra seeds; it has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in unsaturated fats such as oleic acid and linoleic acid.[18] The oil content of some varieties of the seed is about 40%. At 794 kg/ha, the yield was exceeded only by that of sunflower oil in one trial.[19] A 1920 study found that a sample contained 15% oil.[20] A 2009 study found okra oil suitable for use as a biofuel.[21]

Industrial uses

Bast fibre from the stem of the plant has industrial uses such as the reinforcement of polymer composites.[22] The mucilage produced by the okra plant can be used for the removal of turbidity from waste water by virtue of its flocculent properties.[23][24]

References

  1. ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved 3 October 2014.
  2. ^ National Research Council (2006-10-27). "Okra". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables. Lost Crops of Africa. Vol. 2. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-10333-6. Retrieved 2008-07-15. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b "Okra". Etymology Online Dictionary, Douglas Harper, Inc. 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  4. ^ a b "Gumbo". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  5. ^ Srikrishna, Chitra (29 October 2017). "A strange correlation between maths and a vegetable". The Hindu. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
  6. ^ Sharma, Priyanka (25 August 2012). "'Food was my saviour'". Business Standard. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  7. ^ a b c "Okra, or 'Gumbo,' from Africa, tamu.edu
  8. ^ " Okra gumbo and rice" Archived 2005-10-28 at the Wayback Machine by Sheila S. Walker, The News Courier, unknown date
  9. ^ "Okra Seed" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-10-17.
  10. ^ "Red Okra Information, Recipes and Facts". Retrieved 2015-09-30.
  11. ^ "Growing okra". Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland. 19 September 2007. Archived from the original on June 11, 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
  12. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  13. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  14. ^ a b Gemede, H. F.; Haki, G. D.; Beyene, F; Woldegiorgis, A. Z.; Rakshit, S. K. (2015). "Proximate, mineral, and antinutrient compositions of indigenous Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) pod accessions: Implications for mineral bioavailability". Food Science & Nutrition. 4 (2): 223–33. doi:10.1002/fsn3.282. PMC 4779480. PMID 27004112.
  15. ^ Shubhra Ramineni (25 June 2013). Healthy Indian Vegetarian Cooking: Easy Recipes for the Hurry Home Cook [Vegetarian Cookbook, Over 80 Recipes]. Tuttle Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4629-1177-6.
  16. ^ network.com: Okra Greens and Corn Saute Archived 2007-10-15 at the Wayback Machine, M.S. Milliken & S. Feniger, 1996
  17. ^ Austin State Gazette [TEX.], November 9, 1861, p. 4, c. 2, copied in Confederate Coffee Substitutes: Articles from Civil War Newspapers Archived September 28, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, University of Texas at Tyler
  18. ^ Martin, Franklin W. (1982). "Okra, Potential Multiple-Purpose Crop for the Temperate Zones and Tropics". Economic Botany. 36 (3): 340–345. doi:10.1007/BF02858558.
  19. ^ Mays, D.A., W. Buchanan, B.N. Bradford, and P.M. Giordano (1990). "Fuel production potential of several agricultural crops". Advances in New Crops: 260–263.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Jamieson, George S.; Baughman, Walter F. (1920). "Okra Seed Oil.1". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 42: 166. doi:10.1021/ja01446a023.
  21. ^ Farooq, Anwar; Umer Rashid; Muhammad Ashraf; Muhammad Nadeem (March 2010). "Okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil for biodiesel production". Applied Energy. 87 (3): 779–785. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.09.020.
  22. ^ De Rosa, I.M.; Kenny, J.M.; Puglia, D.; Santulli, C.; Sarasini, F. (2010). "Morphological, thermal and mechanical characterization of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) fibres as potential reinforcement in polymer composites". Composites Science and Technology. 70 (1): 116–122. doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2009.09.013.
  23. ^ Konstantinos Anastasakis, Dimitrios Kalderis, and Evan Diamadopoulos (2009), "Flocculation behavior of mallow and okra mucilage in treating wastewater", Desalination, 249 (2): 786–791, doi:10.1016/j.desal.2008.09.013{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Monika Agarwal, Rajani Srinivasan, and Anuradha Mishra (2001), "Study on Flocculation Efficiency of Okra Gum in Sewage Waste Water", Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 286 (9): 560–563, doi:10.1002/1439-2054(20010901)286:9<560::AID-MAME560>3.0.CO;2-B{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)