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definitely not an improvement. the al kawneyn theory is already explained, it is considered unlikely by Trimmingham and should be considered fact
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{{short description|Medieval Muslim dynasty in the Horn of Africa}}
{{short description|Medieval Muslim dynasty in the Horn of Africa}}
The '''Walashma dynasty''' was a medieval [[Muslim]] dynasty of the Horn of Africa. Founded in the 11th or 12th century, it governed the [[Sultanate of Ifat|Ifat]] and [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] [[Sultan]]ates in what are present-day [[Somalia]], [[Djibouti]] and eastern [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=WORLD ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES|last=Jyee|first=Dr. Ravi|publisher=AFRO-ASIAN-AMERICAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (ACCORD)|year=2016|location=New Delhi, India|pages=360|quote=Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somalia, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains.}}</ref>
The '''Walashma dynasty''' was a medieval [[Muslim]] dynasty of the Horn of Africa. Founded in the 13th century, it governed the [[Sultanate of Ifat|Ifat]] and [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] [[Sultan]]ates in what are present-day [[Somalia]], [[Djibouti]] and eastern [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=WORLD ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES|last=Jyee|first=Dr. Ravi|publisher=AFRO-ASIAN-AMERICAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (ACCORD)|year=2016|location=New Delhi, India|pages=360|quote=Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somalia, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains.}}</ref>

==Origins and establishment==
[[Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn]] is believed to be the founder and ancestor of the Walashma Dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M|title=Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society|date=1998|publisher=The Red Sea Press|page=89}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author-link=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|title=The History of Islam in Africa|date=Mar 31, 2000|publisher=Ohio University Press|pages=242|language=en|quote=Aw Barkhadle, is the founder and ancestor of the Walashma dynasty}}</ref> He is believed to be born in [[Zeila]] during the early [[Adal Kingdom]] period with which he is associated. He is a very famous [[Somalis|Somali]] saint figure.<ref name="archive.org">Lewis, I.M. (1998). [[iarchive:saintssomalispop00lewi/page/89|"Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society"]], ''[[The Red Sea Press]]'', Retrieved on 22 September 2015.</ref> The establishment of the Walashma Dynasty in the [[Horn of Africa]] is credited due to them being native to the region.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Effects of 16th Century Upheavals on the Horn|last=Riraash|first=Mohamed Abdullahi|publisher=Service D'Information Djibouti|location=Djibouti|pages=251|quote=We can attribute its success (The Walashma dynasty), longevity and influence, to the fact that the founders of the dynasty of Walashma were native of the area.}}</ref>


==Genealogical traditions==
==Genealogical traditions==
According to some, the Walashma princes of Ifat and Adal possessed [[Arab]] genealogical traditions.<ref name="Elfasi">{{cite book|last=M. Elfasi|first=Ivan Hrbek|title=Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, General History of Africa, Volume 3|year=1988|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=9231017098|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA582|pages=580–582}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSgmwugWCGMC&q=%22maqrizi+and+the+chronicle%22&pg=PA43|title=Ethiopia: the Land, Its People, History and Culture|last=Mekonnen|first=Yohannes|date=2013-01-29|publisher=Yohannes Mekonnen|isbn=9781482311174|language=en}}</ref>
The Walashma princes of Ifat and [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] claimed to possessed [[Arab]] genealogical traditions.<ref name="Elfasi">{{cite book|last=M. Elfasi|first=Ivan Hrbek|title=Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, General History of Africa, Volume 3|year=1988|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=9231017098|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA582|pages=580–582}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSgmwugWCGMC&q=%22maqrizi+and+the+chronicle%22&pg=PA43|title=Ethiopia: the Land, Its People, History and Culture|last=Mekonnen|first=Yohannes|date=2013-01-29|publisher=Yohannes Mekonnen|isbn=9781482311174|language=en}}</ref> In terms of lineage, Walashma traditions trace descent from [[Banu Makhzum]] tribe by El Maqrisi. But Ifat Sultanate trace descent from [[Aqeel ibn Abi Talib|Akīl ibn Abī Tālib]], the brother of the Caliph [[Ali|ʿAlī]] and Djaʿfar ibn Abī Tālib. The latter was among the earliest Muslims to settle in the Horn region. However, the semi-legendary apologetic History of the Walasma asserts that ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz had as a progenitor Caliph ʿAlī's son al-Hasan.<ref name="Elfasi" /> This is not supported by both [[Al-Maqrizi|Maqrizi]] and the chronicle of the Walashma. But ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz, whom both assert was the founder of the dynasty, was of [[Quraysh tribe|Quraysh]] or [[Banu Hashim|Hashimite]] origin.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tamrat">{{cite book|last=Tamrat|first=Taddesse|title=Church and state in Ethiopia, 1270-1527|year=1972|publisher=Clarendon Press|pages=124|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZNyAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

In terms of lineage, Walashma traditions trace descent from [[Aqeel ibn Abi Talib|Akīl ibn Abī Tālib]], the brother of the Caliph [[Ali|ʿAlī]] and [[Jaʿfar ibn Abī Tālib]]. The latter was among the earliest Muslims to settle in the Horn region. However, the semi-legendary apologetic History of the Walasma asserts that ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz had as a progenitor Caliph ʿAlī's son al-Hasan <ref name="Elfasi" /> with this genealogy being owed to their ancestor [[Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn]].<ref name="archive.org"/> This is supported by both [[Al-Maqrizi|Maqrizi]] and the chronicle of the Walashma, ʿUmar Walashma, whom both assert the founder of the dynasty, was of [[Quraysh tribe|Quraysh]] or [[Banu Hashim|Hashimite]] origin.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tamrat">{{cite book|last=Tamrat|first=Taddesse|title=Church and state in Ethiopia, 1270-1527|year=1972|publisher=Clarendon Press|pages=124|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZNyAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>. Although the historical accuracy of genealogical traditions linking African Sultans to figures from the early days of Islam may be debatable, they serve as indications of Islam's desire to connect itself with the rich history of Muslim expansion and achieve unity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Waber|first=Emran M.|title=Islam of Yesterday and Today|year=2012|isbn=978-1-257-64579-6|page=130}}</ref>

However, the Walashma dynasty of Ifat is more commonly linked with the Sheikh [[Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn]],<ref name="Cerulli, Enrico 1926">Cerulli, Enrico (1926). ''Le popolazioni della Somalia nella tradizione storica locale''. L'Accademia. "Cerulli suggests that the Saint "Aw Barkhdale" (Yusuf Al Kownayn) can be associated with "Yusuf Barkatla", ancestor of Umar' Walashma, founder of the Ifat dynasty"</ref> who is described as a native Somali man from [[Zeila]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BOn3ykfBN-0C&q=barkhadle&pg=PA377|title=Localising Salafism: Religious Change Among Oromo Muslims in Bale, Ethiopia|last=Østebø|first=Terje|date=2011-09-30|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004184787|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P5AZyEhMtbkC&q=sharif+barkhadle&pg=PA89|title=Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|date=1998|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=9781569021033|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Writing of the Somali Language: A Great Landmark in Our Revolutionary History|author1=Somalia|author2=Wasaaradda Warfaafinta iyo Hanuuninta Dadweynaha|date=1972|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance|page=10|language=en|quote=Aw Barkhadle, he was a native, who lived in about 1,000 years ago and is buried now in a ruined town named after him, Aw Barkhadle, which is a few miles away from Hargeisa.}}</ref> Furthermore, in the book, "The History of Islam in Africa", the Sheikh aforementioned is known for establishing this dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of Islam in Africa|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|date=Mar 31, 2000|publisher=Ohio University Press|pages=242|language=en|quote=Aw Barkhadle, is the founder and ancestor of the Walashma dynasty}}</ref> Also, the [[Aw Barkhadle]] site is also known as an important burial site of the Muslim rulers of Adal and the Walashma dynasty, Al-Kowneyn himself of the Walashma dynasty of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries AD is buried in this town (and is known for establishing this royal dynasty.)<ref>{{cite book|title=Beiträge zur ethnographie und anthropologie der Somali, Galla und Harari|last1=Paulitschke|first1=P|date=1888|publisher=Leipzig}}</ref> Although as do most Somali and other Muslim tribes in the Horn of Africa possess mythical Arab genealogies connected to Hashimite origin, Walashma was probably a local origin.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&q=walashama&pg=PA12|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index|last1=Meri|first1=Josef W.|last2=Bacharach|first2=Jere L.|date=2006-01-01|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780415966917|language=en}}</ref>






However, most historians regard the Walashma dynasty to be of local origin, most likely ethnic [[Argobba people|Argobbas]] from eastern [[Shewa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kifleyesus |first1=Abebe |title=Tradition and Transformation |isbn=9783447053419 |pages=55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plclkFB9KZwC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fauvelle |first1=François-Xavier |title=The Awfāt Sultanate, its capital and the Walasmaʿ necropolis |publisher=French Institute of Oriental Archeology |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=https://journals.openedition.org/anisl/4054%3Flang%3Den&prev=search}}</ref> It was here in eastern Shewa that ʿUmar ibn DunyaHuz overthrew the [[Makhzumi dynasty]] and established the [[Ifat Sultanate]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of Islam in Africa|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|date=Mar 31, 2000|publisher=Ohio University Press|pages=242|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}</ref> [[Enrico Cerulli]] suggests that one of the ancestors of might of ʿUmar ibn DunyaHuz might of been the Sheikh [[Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn]].<ref name="Cerulli, Enrico 1926">Cerulli, Enrico (1926). ''Le popolazioni della Somalia nella tradizione storica locale''. L'Accademia. "Cerulli suggests that the Saint "Aw Barkhdale" (Yusuf Al Kownayn) can be associated with "Yusuf Barkatla", ancestor of Umar' Walashma, founder of the Ifat dynasty"</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P5AZyEhMtbkC&q=sharif+barkhadle&pg=PA89|title=Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|date=1998|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=9781569021033|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Writing of the Somali Language: A Great Landmark in Our Revolutionary History|author1=Somalia|author2=Wasaaradda Warfaafinta iyo Hanuuninta Dadweynaha|date=1972|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance|page=10|language=en|quote=Aw Barkhadle, he was a native, who lived in about 1,000 years ago and is buried now in a ruined town named after him, Aw Barkhadle, which is a few miles away from Hargeisa.}}</ref> [[J. Spencer Trimingham]] considers this to be unlikely, as according to local traditions, he died in the early 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=J. Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |pages=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Drake-Brockman |first1=R.E |title=British Somaliland |pages=219}}</ref>


==Language==
==Language==
According to [[Leo Africanus]] in the 16th century stated that the Walashma dynasty spoke [[Somali language|Somali]] alongside [[Arabic]] and were centred in [[Zeila]].<ref name="Leo Africanus source">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTd6QAAACAAJ&q=Leo+Africanus|title=A Geographical Historie of Africa|first=Leo|last=(Africanus)|date=6 April 1969|publisher=Theatrum Orbis Terrarum|access-date=6 April 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref>

The 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma themselves spoke Arabic.<ref name="history of sawa">{{cite book|last=Giyorgis|first=Asma|title=Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā|year=1999|publisher=Medical verlag|isbn=9783515037167|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGcwAQAAIAAJ&q=walasma+language|page=257}}</ref>
The 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma themselves spoke Arabic.<ref name="history of sawa">{{cite book|last=Giyorgis|first=Asma|title=Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā|year=1999|publisher=Medical verlag|isbn=9783515037167|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGcwAQAAIAAJ&q=walasma+language|page=257}}</ref>


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[[Islam]] was introduced to the Horn of Africa early on from the [[Arabian peninsula]], shortly after the [[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]. In the late 9th century, [[Al-Yaqubi]] wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.<ref name="Encyamer">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25|year=1965|publisher=Americana Corporation|pages=255|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OP5LAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city,<ref name="Encyamer"/><ref name="Lewispohoa">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I.M.|title=Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho|year=1955|publisher=International African Institute|pages=140|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd0mAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> suggesting that the [[Adal Sultanate]] with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly-established [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] in the [[Benadir]] region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]].<ref name="Lewispohoa"/>
[[Islam]] was introduced to the Horn of Africa early on from the [[Arabian peninsula]], shortly after the [[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]. In the late 9th century, [[Al-Yaqubi]] wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.<ref name="Encyamer">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25|year=1965|publisher=Americana Corporation|pages=255|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OP5LAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city,<ref name="Encyamer"/><ref name="Lewispohoa">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I.M.|title=Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho|year=1955|publisher=International African Institute|pages=140|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd0mAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> suggesting that the [[Adal Sultanate]] with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly-established [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] in the [[Benadir]] region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]].<ref name="Lewispohoa"/>


After the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was killed in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to [[Yemen]], before later returning in 1415.<ref name="Dekmejian">{{cite journal | last1 =mbali | first1 =mbali | title =Somaliland | journal =Basic Reference | volume =28 | issue =2 | pages =217–229 | publisher =mbali | location =London, UK | year =2010 | url =http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm | doi =10.1017/S0020743800063145 | access-date =2012-04-27 | last2 =Dekmejian | first2 =R. Hrair | s2cid =154765577 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120423062326/http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm | archive-date =2012-04-23 }}</ref> In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of [[Aw-Barkhadle|Dakkar]], where [[Sabr ad-Din II]], the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.<ref name="Bradt">{{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Philip|title=Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1841623719|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA10}}</ref><ref name="Lewispd">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa|year=1999|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=0852552807|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17}}</ref>
After the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was killed in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to [[Yemen]], before later returning in 1415.<ref name="Dekmejian">{{cite journal | last1 =mbali | first1 =mbali | title =Somaliland | journal =Basic Reference | volume =28 | issue =2 | pages =217–229 | publisher =mbali | location =London, UK | year =2010 | url =http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm | doi =10.1017/S0020743800063145 | access-date =2012-04-27 | last2 =Dekmejian | first2 =R. Hrair | s2cid =154765577 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120423062326/http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm | archive-date =2012-04-23 }}</ref> In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of [[Dakkar]], where [[Sabr ad-Din II]], the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.<ref name="Bradt">{{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Philip|title=Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1841623719|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA10}}</ref><ref name="Lewispd">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa|year=1999|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=0852552807|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17}}</ref>


Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time to [[Harar]]. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by [[Imam]] [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (Ahmad "Gurey" or Ahmad "Gran") that invaded the Abyssinian empire.<ref name="Lewispd"/> This 16th century campaign is historically known as the [[Abyssinian-Adal War|Conquest of Abyssinia]] (''Futuh al-Habash''). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of [[cannon]]s supplied by the [[Ottoman Empire]], which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their [[Portugal|Portuguese]] allies led by [[Cristóvão da Gama]].<ref name="Lewisapd">I.M. Lewis, ''A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa'', (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p.17</ref> Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of [[firearm]]s like the [[matchlock]] [[musket]], cannons and the [[arquebus]] over traditional weapons.<ref>Jeremy Black, ''Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution'', 1492-1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.</ref>
Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time to [[Harar]]. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by [[Imam]] [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (Ahmad "Gurey" or Ahmad "Gran") that invaded the Abyssinian empire.<ref name="Lewispd"/> This 16th century campaign is historically known as the [[Abyssinian-Adal War|Conquest of Abyssinia]] (''Futuh al-Habash''). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of [[cannon]]s supplied by the [[Ottoman Empire]], which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their [[Portugal|Portuguese]] allies led by [[Cristóvão da Gama]].<ref name="Lewisapd">I.M. Lewis, ''A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa'', (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p.17</ref> Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of [[firearm]]s like the [[matchlock]] [[musket]], cannons and the [[arquebus]] over traditional weapons.<ref>Jeremy Black, ''Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution'', 1492-1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.</ref>

Revision as of 15:29, 16 April 2023

The Walashma dynasty was a medieval Muslim dynasty of the Horn of Africa. Founded in the 13th century, it governed the Ifat and Adal Sultanates in what are present-day Somalia, Djibouti and eastern Ethiopia.[1]

Genealogical traditions

The Walashma princes of Ifat and Adal claimed to possessed Arab genealogical traditions.[2][3] In terms of lineage, Walashma traditions trace descent from Banu Makhzum tribe by El Maqrisi. But Ifat Sultanate trace descent from Akīl ibn Abī Tālib, the brother of the Caliph ʿAlī and Djaʿfar ibn Abī Tālib. The latter was among the earliest Muslims to settle in the Horn region. However, the semi-legendary apologetic History of the Walasma asserts that ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz had as a progenitor Caliph ʿAlī's son al-Hasan.[2] This is not supported by both Maqrizi and the chronicle of the Walashma. But ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz, whom both assert was the founder of the dynasty, was of Quraysh or Hashimite origin.[3][4]

However, most historians regard the Walashma dynasty to be of local origin, most likely ethnic Argobbas from eastern Shewa.[5][6][7] It was here in eastern Shewa that ʿUmar ibn DunyaHuz overthrew the Makhzumi dynasty and established the Ifat Sultanate.[8][9] Enrico Cerulli suggests that one of the ancestors of might of ʿUmar ibn DunyaHuz might of been the Sheikh Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn.[10][11][12] J. Spencer Trimingham considers this to be unlikely, as according to local traditions, he died in the early 16th century.[13][14]

Language

The 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma themselves spoke Arabic.[15]

Sultanate of Ifat

Main article: Sultanate of Ifat

During the end of the 13th century, northern Hararghe was seat of a Muslim sultanate named under the rule of Makhzumi dynasty.[16] A contemporary source describes the sultanate being torn apart by internal strafe and weakened by struggles with neighboring Muslim states. In 1278 one of these neighboring states, named Ifat in eastern Shewa, led by the Walashma invaded the Sultanate of Showa. After a few years of struggle the sultanate was annexed into Ifat. This annexation is usually attributed to ʿUmar, but he had been dead for 50 years by the time Showa was annexed. More likely, it was his grandson Jamal ad-Dīn or perhaps even his great-grandson Abūd. In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully conquered Hubat, Adal and other Muslim states in the region. Making Ifat the most powerful Muslim kingdom in the Horn of Africa.[17]

In 1332, the Sultan of Ifat, Haqq ad-Din I was slain in a military campaign against the Abyssinian Emperor Amda Seyon's troops.[18] Amda Seyon then appointed Jamal ad-Din as the new King, followed by Jamal ad-Din's brother Nasr ad-Din.[19] Despite this setback, the Muslim rulers of Ifat continued their campaign. The Abyssinian Emperor branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and again invaded Ifat in the early 15th century. After much struggle, Ifat's troops were defeated and the Sultanate's ruler, King Sa'ad ad-Din II, fled to Zeila. He was pursued there by Abyssinian forces, where they slayed him.[20]

Sultans of Ifat

Ruler Name Reign Note
1 Sulṭān ʿUmar DunyaHuz 1185 - 1228 Founder of the Walashma dynasty, his nickname was ʿAdūnyo or Wilinwīli
2 Sulṭān ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar 1228 - 12?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
3 Sulṭān ḤaqqudDīn ʿUmar 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
4 Sulṭān Ḥusein ʿUmar 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
5 Sulṭān NasradDīn ʿUmar 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
6 Sulṭān Mansur ʿAli 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar
7 Sulṭān JamaladDīn ʿAli 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar
8 Sulṭān Abūd JamaladDīn 12?? - 12?? Son of JamaladDīn ʿAli
9 Sulṭān Zubēr Abūd 12?? - 13?? Son of Abūd JamaladDīn
10 Māti Layla Abūd 13?? - 13?? Daughter of Abūd JamaladDīn
11 Sulṭān ḤaqqudDīn Naḥwi 13?? - 1328 Son of Naḥwi Mansur, grandson of Mansur ʿUmar
12 Sulṭān SabiradDīn Maḥamed "Waqōyi" Naḥwi 1328 - 1332 Son of Naḥwi Mansur, defeated by Emperor Amde Seyon of Abyssinia, who replaced him with his brother JamaladDīn as a vassal.
13 Sulṭān JamaladDīn Naḥwi 1332 - 13?? Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under Amde Seyon
14 Sulṭān NasradDīn Naḥwi 13?? - 13?? Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under Amde Seyon
15 Sulṭān "Qāt" ʿAli SabiradDīn Maḥamed 13?? - 13?? Son of SabiradDīn Maḥamed Naḥwi, rebelled against Emperor Newaya Krestos after the death of Amde Seyon, but the rebellion failed and he was replaced with his brother Aḥmed
16 Sulṭān Aḥmed "Harbi Arʿēd" ʿAli 13?? - 13?? Son of ʿAli SabiradDīn Maḥamed, accepted the role of vassal and did not continue to rebel against Newaya Krestos, and is subsequently regarded very poorly by Muslim historians
17 Sulṭān Ḥaqquddīn Aḥmed 13?? - 1374 Son of Aḥmed ʿAli
18 Sulṭān SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed 1374 - 1403 Son of Aḥmed ʿAli, killed in the Abyssinian invasion of Ifat under Dawit I or Yeshaq I[21]

Sultanate of Adal

Main article: Adal Sultanate

Islam was introduced to the Horn of Africa early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.[22] He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city,[22][23] suggesting that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly-established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia.[23]

After the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was killed in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen, before later returning in 1415.[24] In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of Dakkar, where Sabr ad-Din II, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.[25][26]

Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time to Harar. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or Ahmad "Gran") that invaded the Abyssinian empire.[26] This 16th century campaign is historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama.[27] Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of firearms like the matchlock musket, cannons and the arquebus over traditional weapons.[28]

Sultans of Adal

Name Reign Note
1 Sulṭān SabiradDīn SaʿadadDīn 1415–1422 Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, He returned to the Horn of Africa from Yemen to reclaim his father's realm. He subsequently became the first ruler and founder of the new Adal dynasty winning some early victories before being soundly defeated by Emperor Yeshaq I.
2 Sulṭān Mansur SaʿadadDīn 1422–1424 Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed. Him and his brother Muhammad are said to have been captured by Yeshaq I
3 Sulṭān JamaladDīn SaʿadadDīn 1424–1433 Said to have won numerous important battles against his enemies[citation needed] before his forces were defeated after an exhausting retreat to protect the capital.
4 Sulṭān Sihab ad-Din Ahmad Badlay "Arwe Badlay" 1433–1445 Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, also known as "Arwe Badlay" ("Badlay the beast"). Badlay turned the tide of war against the Abyssinians and successfully invaded the Ethiopian Empire to expand the power & reach of Adal. Badlay founded a new capital at Dakkar, near Harar. He was killed by the outnumbered forces of Zara Yaqob at the Battle of Gomit
5 Sulṭān Maḥamed AḥmedudDīn 1445–1472 Son of AḥmedudDīn "Badlay" SaʿadadDīn, Maḥamed asked for help from the Mameluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1452, though this assistance was not forthcoming. He ended up signing a very short-lived truce with Baeda Maryam I.
6 Sulṭān ShamsadDin Maḥamed 1472–1488 Son of Maḥamed AḥmedudDīn, he was attacked by Emperor Eskender of Abyssinia in 1479, who sacked Dakkar and destroyed much of the city, though the Abyssinians failed to occupy the city.
7 Sulṭān Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn 1488–1518 Great-grandson of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed of Ifat, he continued to fight to liberate Dawaro along with Garad Maḥfūẓ of Zeila. He was assassinated after a disastrous campaign in 1518 and the death of Garad Maḥfūẓ.
8 Sultan Maḥamed Abūbakar Maḥfūẓ 1518–1519 Seized the throne, sparking a conflict between the Karanle and Walashma
9 Sulṭān Abūbakar Maḥamed 1518–1526 He killed Garād Abūn and restored the Walashma dynasty, but Garād Abūn's cousin Imām Aḥmed Gurēy avenged his cousin's death and killed him. While Garād Abūn ruled in Dakkar, Abūbakar Maḥamed established himself at Harar in 1520, and this is often cited as when the capital moved. Abūbakar Maḥamed was the last Walashma sultan to have any real power.
10 Garad Abun Adashe 1519–1525 Successor to Maḥamed Abūbakar Maḥfūẓ and the Karanle party of the struggle for the throne.
11 Sulṭān ʿUmarDīn Maḥamed 1526–1553 Son of Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn, Imām Aḥmed Gurēy put Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn's young son ʿUmarDīn on the throne as puppet king in Imām Aḥmed Gurēy's capital at Harar. This essentially is the end of the Walashma dynasty as a ruling dynasty in all but name, though the dynasty hobbled on in a de jure capacity. Many king lists don't even bother with Walashma rulers after this and just list Imām Aḥmed Gurēy and then Amīr Nūr Mujahid.
12 Sulṭān ʿAli ʿUmarDīn 1553–1555 Son of ʿUmarDīn Maḥamed
13 Sulṭān Barakat ʿUmarDīn 1555–1559 Son of ʿUmarDīn Maḥamed, last of the Walashma Sultans, assisted Amīr Nūr Mujahid in his attempt to retake Dawaro. He was killed defending Harar from Emperor Gelawdewos' forces, ending the dynasty.

See also

References

  1. ^ Jyee, Dr. Ravi (2016). WORLD ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES. New Delhi, India: AFRO-ASIAN-AMERICAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (ACCORD). p. 360. Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somalia, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains.
  2. ^ a b M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbek (1988). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, General History of Africa, Volume 3. UNESCO. pp. 580–582. ISBN 9231017098.
  3. ^ a b Mekonnen, Yohannes (2013-01-29). Ethiopia: the Land, Its People, History and Culture. Yohannes Mekonnen. ISBN 9781482311174.
  4. ^ Tamrat, Taddesse (1972). Church and state in Ethiopia, 1270-1527. Clarendon Press. p. 124.
  5. ^ Trimmingham, John Spencer (1952). Islam in Ethiopia.
  6. ^ Kifleyesus, Abebe. Tradition and Transformation. p. 55. ISBN 9783447053419.
  7. ^ Fauvelle, François-Xavier. The Awfāt Sultanate, its capital and the Walasmaʿ necropolis. French Institute of Oriental Archeology.
  8. ^ Nehemia Levtzion; Randall Pouwels (Mar 31, 2000). The History of Islam in Africa. Ohio University Press. p. 242.
  9. ^ Trimmingham, John Spencer (1952). Islam in Ethiopia.
  10. ^ Cerulli, Enrico (1926). Le popolazioni della Somalia nella tradizione storica locale. L'Accademia. "Cerulli suggests that the Saint "Aw Barkhdale" (Yusuf Al Kownayn) can be associated with "Yusuf Barkatla", ancestor of Umar' Walashma, founder of the Ifat dynasty"
  11. ^ Lewis, I. M. (1998). Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 9781569021033.
  12. ^ Somalia; Wasaaradda Warfaafinta iyo Hanuuninta Dadweynaha (1972). The Writing of the Somali Language: A Great Landmark in Our Revolutionary History. Ministry of Information and National Guidance. p. 10. Aw Barkhadle, he was a native, who lived in about 1,000 years ago and is buried now in a ruined town named after him, Aw Barkhadle, which is a few miles away from Hargeisa.
  13. ^ Trimmingham, J. Spencer (1952). Islam in Ethiopia. p. 251.
  14. ^ Drake-Brockman, R.E. British Somaliland. p. 219.
  15. ^ Giyorgis, Asma (1999). Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā. Medical verlag. p. 257. ISBN 9783515037167.
  16. ^ Braukhaper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 21. ISBN 9783825856717. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
  17. ^ Trimingham, John (1952). Islam in Ethiopia. Oxford University Press. p. 58.
  18. ^ Houtsma, M. Th (1987). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936. BRILL. pp. 125–126. ISBN 9004082654.
  19. ^ The Glorious Victories, p. 107.
  20. ^ J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 74 and note explains the discrepancy in the sources.
  21. ^ He was killed either in 805 AH / 1402-3 CE during the reign of Dawit I (according to al-Maqrizi) or in 817 AH / 1414-5 during the reign of Yeshaq I (according to a History of the Walashmaʿ edited by Cerulli 1931, p. 45); see Trimingham, J. Spencer (2013) [1952]. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. p. 74, note 4. ISBN 9781136970221. Some historians pick one of the two possible dates (e.g. Paul Henze selects 1403 in Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia [New York: Palgrave, 2000], p. 67).
  22. ^ a b Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25. Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255.
  23. ^ a b Lewis, I.M. (1955). Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. International African Institute. p. 140.
  24. ^ mbali, mbali; Dekmejian, R. Hrair (2010). "Somaliland". Basic Reference. 28 (2). London, UK: mbali: 217–229. doi:10.1017/S0020743800063145. S2CID 154765577. Archived from the original on 2012-04-23. Retrieved 2012-04-27.
  25. ^ Briggs, Philip (2012). Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 10. ISBN 978-1841623719.
  26. ^ a b Lewis, I. M. (1999). A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers. p. 17. ISBN 0852552807.
  27. ^ I.M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p.17
  28. ^ Jeremy Black, Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492-1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.

Works cited

  • Cerulli, Enrico (1931). "Documenti arabi per la storia dell'Etiopia". Memorie della Reale Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. 6 (4): 39–101. OCLC 4178469.

Further reading

  • Kifleyesus, Abbebe (2006). Tradition and Transformation: The Argobba of Ethiopia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 84. ISBN 978-3-447-05341-9.
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