Al-Saffah

Al-Saffah سفّاح
Khalīfah Amir al-Mu'minin
Dirham of Al-Saffah minted in Kufah. AH 133 (AD 750/1)
1st Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate
Reign	25 January 750 – 10 June 754
Predecessor	Dynasty established Marwan II (as Umayyad caliph)
Successor	Al-Mansur
Born	c. 721 Humeima, Bilad al-Sham
Died	10 June 754 (aged 33) Al-Anbar, Abbasid Caliphate
Burial	Anbar (beneath the minbar)
Spouse	Umm Salama bint Ya'qub ibn Salama al-Makhzumi
Issue	Abbas Muhammad Raita
Dynasty	Abbasid
Father	Muhammad ibn Ali
Mother	Rayta bint Ubayd Allah
Religion	Islam

Abd Allah ibn Muhammad (Arabic: عبد الله ابن محمد, romanized: ‘Abd Allāh ibn Muḥammad; c. 721–June 754), commonly known as al-Saffah (Arabic: سفاح, romanized: Saffāḥ) was the founder and first caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate, ruling from 750 until his death. Previously, he served as the figurehead of the Abbasid Revolution, which overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate.

Saffah was a patrilineal great-great grandson of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. During the Third Fitna, with the aide of the Banu Hashim, Saffah revolted against the Umayyads in their important northeastern province of Khurasan. He relied on loyalist pro-Alid groups, ensuring their support in favor of the revolution. Saffah heavily depended on his commander-in-chief Abu Muslim. Following the death of the last Umayyad caliph Marwan II (r. 744–750) in the decisive Battle of the Zab, Saffah was acknowledged caliph throughout the caliphate.

Origins and early life

Saffah was born in Humeima, and his year of birth is cited as 721. His father Muhammad ibn Ali was a great-grandson of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, an uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Ibn Ali became the 6th Imam of the Kaysanites, following his cousin Abu Hashim's death in 713, who nominated the former as his successor. Saffah's mother was named Rayta was possibly a daughter of Ubayd Allah ibn Abd Allah, one of the Seven Fuqaha of Medina.

As narrated in many hadith, many believed that in the end times a great leader or mahdi would appear from the family of Muhammad, to which Ali belonged, who would deliver Islam from corrupt leadership. The half-hearted policies of the late Umayyads to tolerate non-Arab Muslims and Shi'as had failed to quell unrest among these minorities. During the reign of late Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik this unrest led to a revolt in Kufa in southern Iraq, mainly by the town's slaves. Shi'ites revolted in 736 and held the city until 740, led by Zayd ibn Ali, a grandson of Husayn and another member of the Banu Hashim. Zayd's rebellion was put down by Umayyad armies in 740. The revolt in Kufa indicated both the strength of the Umayyads and the growing unrest in the Muslim world.

Ascension to throne

Main articles: Abbasid Revolution and Third Fitna

Following the tenth Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik's death in 743, the Umayyads faced a civil war within the caliphate, as Hisham's nephew al-Walid II (r. 743–744) was acknowledged caliph. Al-Walid II's accession was initially well received due to Hisham's unpopularity but quickly the mood changed as al-Walid was reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion. Subsequently, Yazid III (r. April 744 – October 744), a son of sixth Umayyad caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715), entered the caliphate's capital Damascus and was proclaimed caliph. Al-Walid fled the city, but was later found by Yazid's forces and subsequently killed near Palmyra. The usurpation of the Yazid was contested by Marwan II (r. 744–750), who allied himself with the Qays tribe, rivals of the Yaman which supported Yazid.

On the other hand, Saffah and his clan began their rebellion in the northeastern province of Khurasan. In 743, the death of the Umayyad Caliph Hishām provoked a rebellion in the east. Abu al-`Abbās, supported by Shi'as and the residents of Khurasān, led his forces to victory over the Umayyads. The civil war was marked by millennial prophecies encouraged by the beliefs of some Shi'as that As-Saffāḥ was the mahdi. In Shi'ite works such as the Al-Jafr faithful Muslims were told that the brutal civil war was the great conflict between good and evil. The choice of the Umayyads to enter battle with white flags and the Abbasids to enter with black encouraged such theories. The color white, however, was regarded in much of Persia as a sign of mourning.

Elimination of Marwan II

Main article: Battle of the Zab

Prior to the Battle of the Zab, Marwan II executed Saffah's brother Ibrahim. In early October 749 (132 AH), Saffah's rebel army entered Kufa, a major Muslim center in Southern Iraq. As-Saffah had not been yet declared caliph. One of his priorities was to eliminate his Umayyad rival, caliph Marwan II. The latter was defeated in February 750 at a battle on the (Great) Zab river north of Baghdad, effectively ending the Umayyad caliphate, which had ruled since 661 AD. Marwan II fled back to Damascus, which didn't welcome him, and was ultimately killed on the run in Egypt that August.

Caliphate

A view of modern-day Kufa, the first capital of Saffah, and its Great Mosque, where he was proclaimed caliph

In January 750, Saffah was proclaimed caliph in the Great Mosque of Kufa. He established Kufa as the new capital of the caliphate, ending the dominance of Damascus in the Islamic political world, and Iraq became the seat of Abbasid power for many centuries. Saffah did not come forward to receive the pledge of allegiance from the people until after the Umayyad caliph and a large number of his princes were already killed.

Later tales recount that, concerned that there would be a return of rival Umayyad power, as-Saffāh invited all of the remaining members of the Umayyad family to a dinner party where he had them clubbed to death before the first course, which was then served to the hosts. The only survivor, Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya, escaped to the province of al-Andalus (Spain), where the Umayyad caliphate would endure for three centuries in the west in the Emirate of Córdoba. Another version is that as-Saffāḥ's new governor to Syria, 'Abd Allāh ibn 'Ali, hunted down the last of the family dynasty, with only Abd al-Rahmān escaping. Ultimately, 'Abbasid rule was accepted even in Syria, and the beginning of the new Islamic dynasty was considered "free from major internal dissensions."

Al-Saffah's proclamation as caliph, from a illustrated manuscript of Balami's Tarikhnama

As-Saffāh's four-year reign was marked with efforts to consolidate and rebuild the caliphate. His supporters were represented in the new government, but apart from his policy toward the Umayyad family, as-Saffāh is widely viewed by historians as having been a mild victor. Jews, Nestorian Christians, and Persians were well represented in his government and in succeeding Abbasid administrations. Education was also encouraged, and the first paper mills, staffed by skilled Chinese prisoners captured at the Battle of Talas, were set up in Samarkand.

Equally revolutionary was as-Saffāh's reform of the army, which came to include non-Muslims and non-Arabs in sharp contrast to the Umayyads who refused any soldiers of either type. As-Saffāh selected the gifted Abu Muslim as his military commander, an officer who would serve until 755 in the Abbasid army.

Not all Muslims accept the legitimacy of his caliphate, however. According to later Shi'ites, as-Saffāh turned back on his promises to the partisans of the Alids in claiming the title caliph for himself. The Shi'a had hoped that their imam would be named head of the caliphate, inaugurating the era of peace and prosperity the millennialists had believed would come. The betrayal alienated as-Saffāh's Shi'a supporters, although the continued amity of other groups made Abbasid rule markedly more solvent than that of the Umayyads.

Caliph Abu al-`Abbās `Abdu’llāh as-Saffāḥ died of smallpox on 10 June 754 (136 AH), only four years after taking the title of caliph. Before he died, as-Saffah appointed his brother Abu Ja'far al-Mansur and, following him, the caliph's nephew Isa ibn Musa as his successors; ibn Musa, however, never filled the position.

Military campaigns

Main article: Battle of Talas

During his reign a great battle took place in 751 known as the Battle of Talas or Battle of Artlakh was a military engagement between the Abbasid Caliphate along with their ally the Tibetan Empire against the Chinese Tang dynasty. In July 751 AD, Tang and Abbasid forces met in the valley of the Talas River to vie for control over the Syr Darya region of central Asia. After several days of stalemate, the Karluk Turks originally allied to the Tang defected to the Abbasids and tipped the balance of power, resulting in a Tang rout.

The defeat marked the end of Tang westward expansion and resulted in Muslim control of Transoxiana for the next 400 years. Control of this region was economically beneficial for the Abbasids because it was on the Silk Road. Historians debate whether or not Chinese prisoners captured in the aftermath of the battle brought paper-making technology to the Middle East, where it eventually spread to Europe.

The numbers of combatants involved in the Battle of Talas are not known with certainty; however, various estimates exist. The Abbasid army (200,000 Muslim troops according to Chinese estimates, though these numbers may be greatly exaggerated) which included contingents from their Tibetan ally met the combined army of 10,000 Tang Chinese and 20,000 Karluk mercenaries (Arab records put the Chinese forces at 100,000 which also may be greatly exaggerated).

In the month of July 751, the Abbasid forces joined in combat with the Tang Chinese force (the combined army of Tang Chinese and Karluk mercenaries) on the banks of the Talas river.

Modern view of Talas River, which starts in the mountains of Kyrgyzstan and winds down into Kazakhstan. On the right side of the river is the city of Taraz.

The Tang army was subjected to a devastating defeat. The Tang dynasty's defeat was due to the defection of Karluk mercenaries and the retreat of Ferghana allies who originally supported the Chinese. The Karluk mercenaries, two-thirds of the Tang army, defected to the Abbasids during the battle; Karluk troops attacked the Tang army from close quarters while the main Abbasid forces attacked from the front. The Tang troops were unable to hold their positions, and the commander of the Tang forces, Gao Xianzhi, recognized that defeat was imminent and managed to escape with some of his Tang regulars with the help of Li Siye. Out of an estimated 10,000 Tang troops, only 2,000 managed to return from Talas to their territory in Central Asia. Despite losing the battle, Li did inflict heavy losses on the pursuing Arab army after being reproached by Duan Xiushi. After the battle, Gao was prepared to organize another Tang army against the Arabs when the devastating An Shi Rebellion broke out in 755. When the Tang capital was taken by rebels, all Chinese armies stationed in Central Asia were ordered back to China proper to crush the rebellion.

Also in 751, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V led an invasion across the frontier of the Caliphate. The Byzantines captured Theodosiopolis (Erzurum) and Melitene (Malatya), which was demolished. There was no serious attempt to retain control of the captured cities, except for Camachum (modern Kemah, Erzincan), which was garrisoned.

Death and succession

Genealogical tree of the Abbasids, the ruling family of the Caliphate (750–809) established by Saffah

As-Saffah died after a five-year reign and Al-Mansur took on the responsibility of establishing the Abbasid caliphate by holding on to power for nearly 22 years, from Dhu al-Hijjah 136 AH until Dhu al-Hijjah 158 AH (754 – 775). Al-Mansur was proclaimed Caliph on his way to Mecca in the year 753 (136 AH) and was inaugurated the following year. Abu Ja'far Abdallah ibn Muhammad took the name Al-Mansur ("the victorious") and agreed to make his nephew Isa ibn Musa his Heir to the Abbasid caliphate. This agreement was supposed to resolve rivalries in the Abbasid family, but Al-Mansur's right to accession was particularly challenged by his uncle Abdullah ibn Ali. Once in power, caliph Al-Mansur had his uncle imprisoned in 754 and killed in 764.

Assessments, legacy and family

Unlike his successor and later Abbasid caliphs, Saffah didn't have an official title. Saffah's eldest son was named al-Abbas, hence his kunya ('paedonymic') Abu al-Abbas ('father of al-Abbas).

Abbasid Caliphate was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name.

See also

• Al-Mahdi nephew and son-in-law of As-Saffah.
• Ubaydallah ibn al-Mahdi an Abbasid Prince and Grandson of As-Saffah.
• Sulayman ibn Ali al-Hashimi an Abbasid governor of Basra from 750 to 755.
• Battle of the Zab a battle that took place on 25 January 750. It spelled the end of the Umayyads and the rise of the Abbasids
• Abbasid Revolution was the overthrow of the Caliph Marwan II by As-Saffah.

Bibliography

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• El-Hibri, Tayeb (2021). The Abbasid Caliphate: A History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107183247.
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• Williams, John Alden, ed. (1985). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXVII: The ʿAbbāsid Revolution, A.D. 743–750/A.H. 126–132. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-884-4.
• Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). ""Abbasid Dynasty"". Encyclopedia Britannica. I: A-Ak – Bayes (15th ed.). ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
• The Oxford History of Islam, p. 25. Ed. John Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

External links

• Works by or about As-Saffah at Wikisource