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The Illyrian type helmet (or Greco-Illyrian type helmet)^{[note 1]} is a style of bronze helmet, which in its later variations covered the entire head and neck, and was open-faced in all of its forms.^[4] It originated in Peloponnese, ancient Greece,^[5] and was developed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC (700–640 BC).^[4]^[6]^[7] Accurate representations on Corinthian vases are sufficient to indicate that the Illyrian type helmet was developed before 600 BC.^[8] The helmet is named today as Illyrian type for convenience due to many initial archaeological discoveries coming from the region of Illyria.^[4]^[9]^{[note 2]}

Archaeology

According to archaeological evidence, the Illyrian type helmet evolved from the Kegelhelm (or Kegel type) of the Archaic Period found in Argos.^[4] The earliest Illyrian type helmets were developed in a workshop located in the northwestern Peloponnese (possibly Olympia), although the first Type II Illyrian helmets were created in Corinthian workshops.^[6] The first Type III helmets were created in workshops situated somewhere on the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic.^[11] The Illyrian type helmet did not obstruct the wearer's critical senses of vision though the first two varieties hampered hearing. There were four types of these helmets and all were open faced:

Type I (c. 700–640 BC) left the neck unprotected and hampered hearing.
Type II (c. 600 BC) offered neck protection and again hampered hearing.
Type III (c. 550 BC) offered neck protection and allowed better hearing.
Type IV (c. 500 BC) was similar to Type III but hearing was not impaired at all.

The Illyrian type helmet was used by the ancient Greeks,^[12] Etruscans,^[13] Scythians,^[14] and became popular with the Illyrians who later adopted it.^[12]^[15] A variety of the helm had also spread to Italy based on its appearance on ivory reliefs and on a silver bowl at the "Bernardini" tomb at Praeneste.^[8] The helmet became obsolete in most parts of Greece in the early 5th century BC. Its use in Illyria had ended by the 4th century BC.^[16]

Gallery

Types of Ancient Greek helmets; top line, third from the left: Illyrian type helmet. Antikensammlung in Altes Museum, Berlin.
Illyrian type helmet (left) juxtaposed to a Corinthian type helmet (right).
Illyrian type helmet from Budva, Montenegro (c. 4th century BC).
Illyrian-Greek helmet from Budva, Montenegro (4th century BC).
Illyrian-Greek helmet from Kličevo, Montenegro (Upper Bronze Age).
Greco-Illyrian helmet from Timis, Romania with horseman and six rose-petal decorations (6th–4th century BC).

References

Notes

^ There are various names which scholars have given to this type of helmet. Besides the widespread "Illyrian",^[1] or "Greco-Illyrian",^[2] the terms "Greek-Illyrian", "Macedonian-Illyrian", "Greek-Macedonian", and "Paionian", have also been used.^[3]
^ Naming conventions and typology of ancient helmets are of modern origin and do not reflect contemporaneous usage.^[10]

Citations

^ Vasić 2010, p. 37: "There are various names, which scholars have given to this type of helmet. The term "Illyrian" is most widespread and I think it is the most suitable. It is short, practical and there is no doubt which shape is in question. On the other hand, all scholars more acquainted with the problem know very well that the Greeks and not the Illyrians invented this helmet and that it was in use in Greece as well as in Macedonia and in Illyrian lands."
^ Barnett 2014, p. 19: "The indigenous groups of the eastern Adriatic appropriated a range of Greek goods, including what have come to be known as 'Greco-Illyrian' (or just 'Illyrian') helmets."
^ Blečić 2007, p. 74: "Thanks to new finds and new data, knowledge about the Illyrian helmet has been growing in the last twenty years and its definition is gaining in precision. However, rather a lot of time was needed for scholars, although not all of them, to accept this name predominantly as a territorial designation and less as one specifying a particular ethnicity (...). It must, however, be pointed out that the different terminology reflects the chronological development of knowledge about and analysis of this kind of helmet, changing from Greek-Illyrian, Macedonian-Illyrian, down to Illyrian helmet. On the other hand, outdated terminology is still being used and there are even proposals for a completely new name such as the Paionian (...) or the Greek-Macedonian type of helmet (...)."
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Connolly 1998, p. 60.
^ Bardunias & Ray 2016, p. 41: "The basic form of the early kegelhelm did not disappear. A helmet type labeled 'Illyrian' (though actually originating in the Peloponnese) was in continuous use alongside the Corinthian [...]"
^ ^a ^b Treister 1996, pp. 59–62.
^ Wilkes 1995, p. 108; Pearce et al. 1998, p. 242.
^ ^a ^b Snodgrass 1964, p. 20.
^ Snodgrass 1999, pp. 76, 95: " is the so - called ' Illyrian ' helmet , in fact a purely Greek type which perhaps originated somewhere in the Peloponnese in the earlier seventh century" Sekunda 1998, p. 53: "Figure D2, based on a Lakonian warrior statuette from Dodona, wears a helmet of the Illyrian type, so-named because many early finds came from Illyria. However, it is now clear that it was also extremely popular in the Peloponnese, which is the most probable area of origin."
^ Connolly 1998, p. 60: "Terms such as 'Illyrian' and 'Attic' are used in archaeology for convenience to denote a particular type of helmet and do not imply its origin."
^ Treister 1996, p. 65: "The earliest variants of type 3 of the Illyrian helmet, dating primarily to the second half of the 6th century B.C., belong to the production of the workshops situated somewhere on the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic."
^ ^a ^b Snodgrass 1999, p. 52: "Another common form, superficially similar to the 'Insular', is the so-called 'Illyrian' helmet, in fact a purely Greek type which perhaps originated somewhere in the Peloponnese in the earlier seventh century, and only centuries later found its way to Illyria and other barbarian lands."
^ Richardson 1983, p. 165: "[...] Etruria to adopt Greek armor, the Cretan or Illyrian helmet and the hoplite shield [...]"
^ Cernenko, McBride & Gorelik 1983, p. 45.
^ Snodgrass 1999, p. 76.
^ Wilkes 1995, p. 241.

Sources

Bardunias, Paul M.; Ray, Fred Eugene (2016). Hoplites at War: A Comprehensive Analysis of Heavy Infantry Combat in the Greek World, 750–100 BCE. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-1-47666-602-0.
Barnett, Charles (2014). "Alcoholic Beverages and Resistance to Roman Imperialism in Dalmatia". Croatian Studies Review. 10 (1): 13–34. ISSN 1440-0448.
Blečić, Martina (2007). "Status, symbols, sacrifices, offerings: The diverse meanings of Illyrian helmets". Journal of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. 40 (1): 73–116. ISSN 0350-7165.
Connolly, Peter (1998). Greece and Rome at War. London: Greenhill Books. ISBN 1-85367-303-X.
Cernenko, E. V.; McBride, Angus; Gorelik, M. V. (1983). Scythians 700–300 B.C. London: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 0-85045-478-6.
Pearce, Mark; Tosi, Maurizio; Moravetti, Alberto; Milliken, Sarah; Vidale, Massimo (1998). Papers from the EAA Third Annual Meeting at Ravenna 1997: Pre- and Protohistory. Oxford: Archaeopress. ISBN 0-86054-894-5.
Richardson, Emeline Hill (1983). Etruscan Votive Bronzes: Geometric, Orientalizing, Archaic, Volume 1. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-0546-X.
Sekunda, Nick (1998). The Spartan Army. Elite Series. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-659-0.
Snodgrass, Anthony M. (1999) [1967]. Arms and Armor of the Greeks. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6073-3.
Snodgrass, Anthony M. (1964). Early Greek Armour and Weapons: From the End of the Bronze Age to 600 B.C. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.
Treister, Mikhail Yu (1996). The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-10473-9.
Vasić, Rastko (2010). "Reflecting on Illyrian helmets". Starinar (60): 37–55. doi:10.2298/sta1060037v.
Wilkes, John J. (1995). The Illyrians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-631-19807-5.

External links

Media related to Category:Ancient helmets at Wikimedia Commons

[4] There are various names which scholars have given to this type of helmet. Besides the widespread "Illyrian",^[1] or "Greco-Illyrian",^[2] the terms "Greek-Illyrian", "Macedonian-Illyrian", "Greek-Macedonian", and "Paionian", have also been used.^[3]

[12] Naming conventions and typology of ancient helmets are of modern origin and do not reflect contemporaneous usage.^[10]

[1] Vasić 2010, p. 37: "There are various names, which scholars have given to this type of helmet. The term "Illyrian" is most widespread and I think it is the most suitable. It is short, practical and there is no doubt which shape is in question. On the other hand, all scholars more acquainted with the problem know very well that the Greeks and not the Illyrians invented this helmet and that it was in use in Greece as well as in Macedonia and in Illyrian lands."

[2] Barnett 2014, p. 19: "The indigenous groups of the eastern Adriatic appropriated a range of Greek goods, including what have come to be known as 'Greco-Illyrian' (or just 'Illyrian') helmets."

[3] Blečić 2007, p. 74: "Thanks to new finds and new data, knowledge about the Illyrian helmet has been growing in the last twenty years and its definition is gaining in precision. However, rather a lot of time was needed for scholars, although not all of them, to accept this name predominantly as a territorial designation and less as one specifying a particular ethnicity (...). It must, however, be pointed out that the different terminology reflects the chronological development of knowledge about and analysis of this kind of helmet, changing from Greek-Illyrian, Macedonian-Illyrian, down to Illyrian helmet. On the other hand, outdated terminology is still being used and there are even proposals for a completely new name such as the Paionian (...) or the Greek-Macedonian type of helmet (...)."

[Connolly60-5] Connolly 1998, p. 60.

[6] Bardunias & Ray 2016, p. 41: "The basic form of the early kegelhelm did not disappear. A helmet type labeled 'Illyrian' (though actually originating in the Peloponnese) was in continuous use alongside the Corinthian [...]"

[Treister-7] Treister 1996, pp. 59–62.

[8] Wilkes 1995, p. 108; Pearce et al. 1998, p. 242.

[Snodgrass20-9] Snodgrass 1964, p. 20.

[10] Snodgrass 1999, pp. 76, 95: " is the so - called ' Illyrian ' helmet , in fact a purely Greek type which perhaps originated somewhere in the Peloponnese in the earlier seventh century" Sekunda 1998, p. 53: "Figure D2, based on a Lakonian warrior statuette from Dodona, wears a helmet of the Illyrian type, so-named because many early finds came from Illyria. However, it is now clear that it was also extremely popular in the Peloponnese, which is the most probable area of origin."

[FOOTNOTEConnolly1998p._60:_"Terms_such_as_'Illyrian'_and_'Attic'_are_used_in_archaeology_for_convenience_to_denote_a_particular_type_of_helmet_and_do_not_imply_its_origin."-11] Connolly 1998, p. 60: "Terms such as 'Illyrian' and 'Attic' are used in archaeology for convenience to denote a particular type of helmet and do not imply its origin."

[13] Treister 1996, p. 65: "The earliest variants of type 3 of the Illyrian helmet, dating primarily to the second half of the 6th century B.C., belong to the production of the workshops situated somewhere on the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic."

[Snodgrass52-14] Snodgrass 1999, p. 52: "Another common form, superficially similar to the 'Insular', is the so-called 'Illyrian' helmet, in fact a purely Greek type which perhaps originated somewhere in the Peloponnese in the earlier seventh century, and only centuries later found its way to Illyria and other barbarian lands."

[15] Richardson 1983, p. 165: "[...] Etruria to adopt Greek armor, the Cretan or Illyrian helmet and the hoplite shield [...]"

[16] Cernenko, McBride & Gorelik 1983, p. 45.

[17] Snodgrass 1999, p. 76.

[18] Wilkes 1995, p. 241.

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 [[File:Illyrian helmet 1.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Greek "Illyrian type" bronze helmet from [[Argolis]] (6th–5th centuries BC).]]
-The '''Illyrian type helmet''' (or '''Greco-Illyrian type helmet'''{{cn|date=July 2024}}) is a style of [[bronze]] [[helmet]], which in its later variations covered the entire head and neck, and was open-faced in all of its forms.<ref name=Connolly60>{{harvnb|Connolly|1998|p=60}}.</ref> It originated in [[Peloponnese]], [[ancient Greece]],<ref>{{harvnb|Bardunias|Ray|2016|loc=p. 41: "The basic form of the early kegelhelm did not disappear. A helmet type labeled 'Illyrian' (though actually originating in the Peloponnese) was in continuous use alongside the Corinthian [...]"}}</ref> and was developed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC (700–640 BC).<ref name="Connolly60"/><ref name="Treister">{{harvnb|Treister|1996|pp=59–62}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilkes|1995|p=108}}; {{harvnb|Pearce|Tosi|Moravetti|Milliken|1998|p=242}}.</ref> Accurate representations on [[Ancient Corinth|Corinthian]] vases are sufficient to indicate that the Illyrian type helmet was developed before 600 BC.<ref name=Snodgrass20>{{harvnb|Snodgrass|1964|p=20}}.</ref> The helmet is named today as ''Illyrian type'' for convenience due to many initial archaeological discoveries coming from the region of [[Illyria]].<ref name=Connolly60/><ref>{{harvnb|Snodgrass|1999|pp=76, 95}}: "
+The '''Illyrian type helmet''' (or '''Greco-Illyrian type helmet'''){{refn|group=note|There are various names which scholars have given to this type of helmet. Besides the widespread "Illyrian",<ref>{{harvnb|Vasić|2010|p=37}}: "There are various names, which scholars have given to this type of helmet. The term "Illyrian" is most widespread and I think it is the most suitable. It is short, practical and there is no doubt which shape is in question. On the other hand, all scholars more acquainted with the problem know very well that the Greeks and not the Illyrians invented this helmet and that it was in use in Greece as well as in Macedonia and in Illyrian lands."</ref> or "Greco-Illyrian",<ref>{{harvnb|Barnett|2014|p=19}}: "The indigenous groups of the eastern Adriatic appropriated a range of Greek goods, including what have come to be known as 'Greco-Illyrian' (or just 'Illyrian') helmets."</ref> the terms "Greek-Illyrian", "Macedonian-Illyrian", "Greek-Macedonian", and "Paionian", have also been used.<ref>{{harvnb|Blečić|2007|p=74}}: "Thanks to new finds and new data, knowledge about the Illyrian helmet has been growing in the last twenty years and its definition is gaining in precision. However, rather a lot of time was needed for scholars, although not all of them, to accept this name predominantly as a territorial designation and less as one specifying a particular ethnicity (...). It must, however, be pointed out that the different terminology reflects the chronological development of knowledge about and analysis of this kind of helmet, changing from ''Greek-Illyrian'', ''Macedonian-Illyrian'', down to ''Illyrian'' helmet. On the other hand, outdated terminology is still being used and there are even proposals for a completely new name such as the ''Paionian'' (...) or the ''Greek-Macedonian'' type of helmet (...)."</ref>}} is a style of [[bronze]] [[helmet]], which in its later variations covered the entire head and neck, and was open-faced in all of its forms.<ref name=Connolly60>{{harvnb|Connolly|1998|p=60}}.</ref> It originated in [[Peloponnese]], [[ancient Greece]],<ref>{{harvnb|Bardunias|Ray|2016|loc=p. 41: "The basic form of the early kegelhelm did not disappear. A helmet type labeled 'Illyrian' (though actually originating in the Peloponnese) was in continuous use alongside the Corinthian [...]"}}</ref> and was developed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC (700–640 BC).<ref name="Connolly60"/><ref name="Treister">{{harvnb|Treister|1996|pp=59–62}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilkes|1995|p=108}}; {{harvnb|Pearce|Tosi|Moravetti|Milliken|1998|p=242}}.</ref> Accurate representations on [[Ancient Corinth|Corinthian]] vases are sufficient to indicate that the Illyrian type helmet was developed before 600 BC.<ref name=Snodgrass20>{{harvnb|Snodgrass|1964|p=20}}.</ref> The helmet is named today as ''Illyrian type'' for convenience due to many initial archaeological discoveries coming from the region of [[Illyria]].<ref name=Connolly60/><ref>{{harvnb|Snodgrass|1999|pp=76, 95}}: "
-is the so - called ' Illyrian ' helmet , in fact a purely Greek type which perhaps originated somewhere in the Peloponnese in the earlier seventh century" {{harvnb|Sekunda|1998|p=53}}: "'''Figure D2''', based on a Lakonian warrior statuette from Dodona, wears a helmet of the Illyrian type, so-named because many early finds came from Illyria. However, it is now clear that it was also extremely popular in the Peloponnese, which is the most probable area of origin."</ref><ref group="note">Naming conventions and typology of ancient helmets are of modern origin and do not reflect contemporaneous usage. ({{harvnb|Connolly|1998|loc=p. 60: "Terms such as 'Illyrian' and 'Attic' are used in archaeology for convenience to denote a particular type of helmet and do not imply its origin.")}}</ref>
+is the so - called ' Illyrian ' helmet , in fact a purely Greek type which perhaps originated somewhere in the Peloponnese in the earlier seventh century" {{harvnb|Sekunda|1998|p=53}}: "'''Figure D2''', based on a Lakonian warrior statuette from Dodona, wears a helmet of the Illyrian type, so-named because many early finds came from Illyria. However, it is now clear that it was also extremely popular in the Peloponnese, which is the most probable area of origin."</ref>{{refn|group=note|Naming conventions and typology of ancient helmets are of modern origin and do not reflect contemporaneous usage.{{sfn|Connolly|1998|loc=p. 60: "Terms such as 'Illyrian' and 'Attic' are used in archaeology for convenience to denote a particular type of helmet and do not imply its origin."|ps=none}}}}
 ==Archaeology==
@@ Line 35: / Line 35: @@
 {{refbegin|2}}
 *{{cite book|last1=Bardunias|first1=Paul M.|last2=Ray|first2=Fred Eugene|title=Hoplites at War: A Comprehensive Analysis of Heavy Infantry Combat in the Greek World, 750–100 BCE|date=2016|location=Jefferson, NC|publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc.|isbn=978-1-47666-602-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qj8hDQAAQBAJ}}
+*{{cite journal |last=Barnett |first=Charles |date=2014 |title=Alcoholic Beverages and Resistance to Roman Imperialism in Dalmatia |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/143271 |journal=Croatian Studies Review |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=13–34 |issn=1440-0448}}
+*{{cite journal |last=Blečić |first=Martina |date=2007 |title=Status, symbols, sacrifices, offerings: The diverse meanings of Illyrian helmets |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/28835 |journal=Journal of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb |language=en |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=73–116 |issn=0350-7165}}
 *{{cite book|last=Connolly|first=Peter |author-link=Peter Connolly |title=Greece and Rome at War|location=London|publisher=Greenhill Books|year=1998|isbn=1-85367-303-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k_LbAAAAMAAJ}}
 *{{cite book|last1=Cernenko|first1=E. V.|last2=McBride|first2=Angus|last3=Gorelik|first3=M. V.|title=Scythians 700–300 B.C|location=London|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=1983|isbn=0-85045-478-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozA8d9AFiMgC}}
@@ Line 43: / Line 45: @@
 *{{cite book|last=Snodgrass|first=Anthony M. |author-link=Anthony Snodgrass |title=Early Greek Armour and Weapons: From the End of the Bronze Age to 600 B.C|location=Edinburgh|publisher=University of Edinburgh|year=1964|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nFkIAQAAIAAJ}}
 *{{cite book|last=Treister|first=Mikhail Yu|title=The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History|location=Leiden|publisher=E. J. Brill|year=1996|isbn=90-04-10473-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dcTexDa4I0kC}}
+*{{cite journal |last=Vasić |first=Rastko |date=2010 |title=Reflecting on Illyrian helmets |url=https://doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=0350-02411060037V |journal=Starinar |language=en |issue=60 |pages=37–55 |doi=10.2298/sta1060037v}}
 *{{cite book|last=Wilkes|first=John J.|title=The Illyrians|location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited|year=1995|isbn=0-631-19807-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C}}
 {{refend|2}}
-==Further reading==
-{{refbegin}}
-*{{cite journal|last=Vasić|first=Rastko|title=Reflecting on Illyrian Helmets|journal=Starinar|publisher=Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade|issue=60|year=2010|pages=37–55|doi=10.2298/STA1060037V |url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0350-0241/2010/0350-02411060037V.pdf}}
-{{refend}}
 ==External links==