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[[Image:Ganesha Nurpur miniature circa 1810 Dubost p64.jpg|left|thumb|A common four-armed form. Miniature of [[Nurpur]] school (circa 1810).<ref>Four-armed {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}. Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: "On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster, {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellow [[dhoti]] and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace salute {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} by joining their tiny feet together. {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk."</ref>]]
[[Image:Ganesha Nurpur miniature circa 1810 Dubost p64.jpg|left|thumb|A common four-armed form. Miniature of [[Nurpur]] school (circa 1810).<ref>Four-armed {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}. Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: "On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster, {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellow [[dhoti]] and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace salute {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} by joining their tiny feet together. {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk."</ref>]]


Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.<ref>Nagar, p. 77.</ref> Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.<ref>Brown, p. 3.</ref> One of his popular forms (called [[Sritattvanidhi#11._hEraMba_gaNapati|Heramba-Ganapati]]) has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.<ref>Nagar, p. 78.</ref>
Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.<ref>Nagar, p. 77.</ref> Some Hindus believe Ganesha grows a new tusk every time a Hindu is born. If this was true, Ganesha would have over 1 billion tusks. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.<ref>Brown, p. 3.</ref> One of his popular forms (called [[Sritattvanidhi#11._hEraMba_gaNapati|Heramba-Ganapati]]) has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.<ref>Nagar, p. 78.</ref>


While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, in most stories he acquires the head later, with several accounts given.<ref>Brown, p. 76.</ref> The most common ''motif'' in these stories is that Ganesha was born with a human head and body and that Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.<ref>Brown, p. 77.</ref> Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary according to different sources.<ref>Brown, pp. 77-78.</ref> In another story, when Ganesha was born his mother, Parvati, showed off her new baby to the other gods. Unfortunately, the god [[Shani]] (Saturn) – who is said to have the "evil eye" – looked at him, causing the baby's head to be burned to ashes. The god [[Vishnu]] came to the rescue and replaced the missing head with that of an elephant.<ref>Brown, pp. 76-77.</ref> Another story tells that Ganesha is created directly by Shiva's laughter. Shiva became concerned that Ganesha was too alluring, so he cursed Ganesha to have the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.<ref>For creation of Ganesha from Shiva's laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see ''Varaha Purana'' 23.17 as cited in Brown: p. 77.</ref>
While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, in most stories he acquires the head later, with several accounts given.<ref>Brown, p. 76.</ref> The most common ''motif'' in these stories is that Ganesha was born with a human head and body and that Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.<ref>Brown, p. 77.</ref> Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary according to different sources.<ref>Brown, pp. 77-78.</ref> In another story, when Ganesha was born his mother, Parvati, showed off her new baby to the other gods. Unfortunately, the god [[Shani]] (Saturn) – who is said to have the "evil eye" – looked at him, causing the baby's head to be burned to ashes. The god [[Vishnu]] came to the rescue and replaced the missing head with that of an elephant.<ref>Brown, pp. 76-77.</ref> Another story tells that Ganesha is created directly by Shiva's laughter. Shiva became concerned that Ganesha was too alluring, so he cursed Ganesha to have the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.<ref>For creation of Ganesha from Shiva's laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see ''Varaha Purana'' 23.17 as cited in Brown: p. 77.</ref>

Revision as of 16:58, 5 September 2007

For other uses, see Ganesha (disambiguation).
Ganesha (Gaṇeśa)
Devanagariगणेश

Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेश; Gaṇeśa; listenⓘ, also spelled Ganesa or Ganesh, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in Hinduism.[8] Although he is known by many attributes, Ganesha's elephant head makes him easy to identify.[9] Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography. Ganesha is worshipped as the lord of beginnings and as the lord of obstacles (Vighnesha),[10] patron of arts and sciences, and the god of intellect and wisdom.[11] He is honoured with affection at the start of any ritual or ceremony and invoked as the "Patron of Letters" at the beginning of any writing.[12]

Ganesha appears as a distinct deity in clearly-recognizable form beginning in the fourth and fifth centuries, during the Gupta Period. His popularity rose quickly, and he was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism (a Hindu denomination) in the ninth century. A sect of devotees (called Ganapatya; Sanskrit: gāṇapatya) who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity arose during this period.[13] The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa.

Ganesha is one of the most-worshipped divinities in India.[14][15] Worship of Ganesha is considered complementary with other forms of the divine. Various Hindu sects worship him regardless of other affiliations.[16][17][18] Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains, Buddhists, and beyond India.[19][20][21][22][23]

Etymology and other names

A statue of Ganesha carved in wood.

Ganesha has many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneśvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri (Sanskrit: श्री; śrī, also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name. One popular way to worship Ganesha is to chant one of the Ganesha Sahasranamas, which literally means "a thousand names of Ganesha." Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. There are at least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama. One of these is drawn from the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture that venerates Ganesha.[24]

The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (Sanskrit: गण; gaṇa), meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha (Sanskrit: ईश; īśa), meaning lord or master.[25][26] The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva (IAST: "Śiva").[27] The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[28] Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of created categories," such as the elements.[29] The translation "Lord of Hosts" may convey a familiar sense to Western readers. Ganapati (Sanskrit: गणपति; gaṇapati) is a synonym for Ganesha, being a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning "group", and pati, meaning "ruler" or "lord."[30] Monier-Williams mentions that the term Gaṇapati was used for other deities in the Vedas [31] but the term Gaṇapati was used for Gaṇeśa in Pañchatantra [32].Pañchatantra is a post-Vedic work, and its original stories were composed between 400 BCE and 200 BCE [33], which makes Pañchatantra the earliest known source of the term Gaṇapati used for Gaṇeśa [34].

The Amarakośa, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonymns of Ganeśa : Vināyaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighneśa), Dvaimātura, Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Gaṇapati and Gaṇeśa), Ekadanta, Heramba, Lambodara and Gajānana.[35]

Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[36] This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the aṣṭavināyaka.[37] The name Vignesha, meaning "Lord of Obstacles," refers to his primary function in Hindu mythology as the creator and remover of obstacles (vighna).

A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pille or Pillaiyar, which translates as "Little Child."[38] A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pille means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child." He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk of an elephant" but more generally "elephant."[39] In discussing the name Pillaiyar, Anita Raina Thapan notes that since the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant" it is possible that the word pille originally meant "the young of the elephant."[40]

Iconography

See also: Sritattvanidhi
This statue of Ganesha was created in the Mysore District of Karnataka in the 13th century.

Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art.[41] Unlike some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variation with distinct patterns changing over time.[42][43][44] He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the sixth century.[45] The figure shown to the right is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900-1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973-1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,[46] and another similar statue is dated circa twelfth century by Pratapaditya Pal.[47] He has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha . He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.[48] A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the seventh century.[49] Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown; in this standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a noose in the other upper arm as symbols of his ability to cut through obstacles or to create them as needed.

The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but rather is turned toward the viewer in a gesture of protection or "no fear" (abhaya mudra).[50][51] The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing,[52] which is a very popular theme.[53]

Common attributes

For stories mentioning Ganesha's attributes, see Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha.
A common four-armed form. Miniature of Nurpur school (circa 1810).[54]

Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.[55] Some Hindus believe Ganesha grows a new tusk every time a Hindu is born. If this was true, Ganesha would have over 1 billion tusks. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.[56] One of his popular forms (called Heramba-Ganapati) has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.[57]

While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, in most stories he acquires the head later, with several accounts given.[58] The most common motif in these stories is that Ganesha was born with a human head and body and that Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.[59] Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary according to different sources.[60] In another story, when Ganesha was born his mother, Parvati, showed off her new baby to the other gods. Unfortunately, the god Shani (Saturn) – who is said to have the "evil eye" – looked at him, causing the baby's head to be burned to ashes. The god Vishnu came to the rescue and replaced the missing head with that of an elephant.[61] Another story tells that Ganesha is created directly by Shiva's laughter. Shiva became concerned that Ganesha was too alluring, so he cursed Ganesha to have the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.[62]

Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta ("One Tusk"), referring to his single whole tusk, the other having been broken off.[63] Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[64] The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta.[65]

Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (fourth to sixth centuries).[66] This feature is so important that according to the Mudgala Purana two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it, Lambodara ("Pot Belly", or literally "Hanging Belly") and Mahodara ("Great Belly").[67] Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (Sanskrit: udara).[68] The Brahmanda Purana says that he has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs; Sanskrit brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in Ganesha.[69][70]

The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.[71] Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[72] His earliest images had two arms.[73][74] Forms with fourteen and twenty arms appeared in Central India during the ninth and tenth centuries.[75]

The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography, where it appears in many forms.[76][77] According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vāsuki around his neck.[78][79] Other common depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (Sanskrit: yajñyopavīta)[80][81] wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead there may be a third eye or the Shaivite sectarian mark (Sanskrit: tilaka), three horizontal lines.[82][83] The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.[84][85][86] A distinct form called Bhālacandra ("Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element.[87][88]

The colors most often associated with Ganesha are red [89] and yellow, but specific other colors are associated with certain forms.[90] Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, which is a treatise on Hindu iconography that includes a section on variant forms of Ganesha. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati ("Ganapati Who Releases From Bondage").[91] Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation on that form.[92]

Vahanas of Ganesha

The earliest Ganesha images are without a Vahana (mount).[93] Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha has a mouse in five of them, uses a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation of Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.[94] Of the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana, Mohotkata has a lion, Mayūreśvara has a peacock, Dhumraketu has a horse, and Gajanana has a rat.[95][96] Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse,[97] an elephant,[98] a tortoise, a ram, or a peacock.[99]

Mouse or rat as vahana

Ganesha riding on his mouse. A sculpture at the Vaidyeshwara temple in Talakkadu, Karnataka, India. Note the red flowers offered by the devotees.

Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse or rat.[100][101] Martin-Dubost says that in central and western India the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Gaṇeśa in the seventh century A.D., where the rat was always placed close to his feet.[102] The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle only in his last incarnation.[103] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.[104] The names Mūṣakavāhana ("Mouse-mount") and Ākhuketana ("Rat-banner") appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.[105]

There are a variety of interpretations regarding what the mouse symbolizes. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire."[106] Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.[107] Krishan notes that the rat is a destructive creature and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ which means "stealing, robbing." It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāmata-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.[108] Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.[109][110]

Associations

Obstacles

He is the Lord of Obstacles both of a material and spiritual order.[111] He can place obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked and can remove blockages just as easily. The Sanskrit terms vighnakartā ("obstacle-creator") and vighnahartā ("obstacle-destroyer") summarize the dual roles.[112] Both functions are vital to his character, as Robert Brown explains:

Even after the Purāṇic Gaṇeśa is well-defined, in art Gaṇeśa remained predominantly important for his dual role as creator and remover of obstacles, thus having both a negative and a positive aspect.[113]

Paul Courtright says that:

Gaṇeśa is also called Vighneśvara or Vighnarāja, the Lord of Obstacles. His task in the divine scheme of things, his dharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation.[114]

Buddhi

Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of Intelligence.[115] In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[116] The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, where many stories showcase his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya.[117] This name also appears in a special list of twenty-one names that Gaṇeśa says are of special importance at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama.[118] The word priya can mean "fond of," but in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband." Buddhipriya probably refers to Ganesha's well-known association with intelligence.

This association with wisdom also is reflected in the name Buddha, which appears as a name of Ganesha in the second verse of the Ganesha Purana version of the Ganesha Sahasranama.[119] The positioning of this name at the beginning of the Ganesha Sahasranama reveals the name's importance. Bhaskararaya's commentary on the Ganesha Sahasranama says that this name means that the Buddha was an avatar of Ganesha.[120] This interpretation is not widely known even among Ganapatya. Buddha is not mentioned in the lists of Ganesha's incarnations given in the main sections of the Ganesha Purana and Mudgala Purana. Bhaskararaya also provides a more general interpretation of this name as simply meaning that Ganesha's very form is "eternal elightenment" (nityabuddaḥ), so he is named Buddha.

Aum

Ganesha (Devanagari) Aum jewel

Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum (ॐ, also called Om). The term oṃkārasvarūpa ("Aum is his form") when identified with Ganesha refers to the notion that he is the personification of the primal sound.[121] This association is attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. The relevant passage is translated by Paul Courtright as follows:

You are Brahmā, Vişņu, and Rudra [Śiva]. You are Agni, Vāyu, and Sūrya. You are Candrama. You are earth, space, and heaven. You are the manifestation of the mantra "Oṃ."[122]

A variant version of this passage is translated by Chinmayananda as follows:

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire and air. You are the sun and the moon. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka, Antariksha-loka, and Swargaloka. You are Om. (that is to say, You are all this).[123]

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of his body in iconography and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.[124]

First chakra

Ganesha is associated with the first or "root" chakra (mūlādhāra). This association is attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. As translated by Courtright this passage reads:

You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra].[125]

A variant version of this passage is translated by Chinmayananda:

You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called "Muladhara,"[126]

Family and consorts

Shiva and Pārvatī giving a bath to Gaṇeśa. Kangra miniature, 18th century. Allahbad Museum, New Delhi.[127]

While Ganesha is popularly considered to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic myths relate several different versions of his birth.[128][129] These include versions in which he is created by Shiva,[130] by Parvati,[131] by Shiva and Parvati,[132] or simply appears in a mysterious manner and is then discovered by Shiva and Parvati.[133]

The family includes his brother Skanda, who is also called Karttikeya, Murugan, and other names.[134][135] Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In North India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder brother, while in the South, Ganesha is considered the first born.[136] Prior to the emergence of Ganesha, Skanda had a long and glorious history as an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, when his worship declined significantly in North India. The period of this decline is concurrent with the rise of Ganesha. Several stories relate episodes of sibling rivalry between Ganesha and Skanda[137] and may reflect historical tensions between the respective sects.[138]

Ganesha's marital status varies widely in mythological stories, and the issue has been the subject of considerable scholarly review.[139] One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmacārin[140]

This view is common in southern India, but it is also held in some areas of northern India.[141] Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses who are considered to be Ganesha's wives.[citation needed] He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi).[142] Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra).[143] He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi.[144] Another pattern mainly prevalent in the Bengal region links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.[145]

The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had two sons: Kshema (Kşema, prosperity) and Labha (profit). In Northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (Hindi Shubh) (auspiciousness) and Lābha. [citation needed] The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. However, this story has no Puranic basis. Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.[146][147]

Further information: Consorts of Ganesha

Worship and festivals

Celebrations of Ganesh by the Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil community in Paris, France

Whether the reason is a religious ceremony, a new vehicle, student exams, sessions of devotional chanting, or a new business, Ganesha is worshipped. Throughout India and the Hindu culture, Ganesha is the first icon placed into any new home or abode. Devotees widely believe that wherever there is Ganesha, there is success and prosperity. By calling on him, people believe that he will come to their aid and grant them success.

The worship of Ganesha is believed to complement the worship of other deities.[citation needed] Hindus of all sects begin prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies with an invocation to Ganesha. Dancers and musicians also adore Ganesha and begin their performances of arts such as Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to him, particularly in South India.[148] Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah ("Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha") are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (literally, "Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts").

Devotees offer Ganesha various sweets, such as modaka and small sweet balls (laddus).[149] He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra, which is one of his iconographic elements.[150] Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with things such as red sandalwood paste (raktacandana)[151] or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and various other materials are used in his worship.[152]

Ganesh Chaturthi

A large Ganesha statue at a Chaturthi festival in Mumbai, 2004

An important festival honours Ganesha for ten days starting with Ganesh Chaturthi, typically in late August or early September.[153] This festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi when images (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed into the most convenient body of water.

Hindus celebrate the Ganapati festival with great devotional fervour. While it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra,[154] it is performed all over India.[155] In Mumbai and in surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples the festival assumes huge proportions. On the last day of the festival, millions of people of all ages descend onto the streets leading up to the sea, dancing and singing to the rhythmic accompaniment of drums and cymbals.

In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed the annual Ganesh festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event. [156] He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra.[157][158] Thus, Tilak chose Ganesha as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman."[159][160] Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.[161]

Rise to prominence

First appearance

Ganesha appears in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes from the early fourth to fifth centuries.[162] Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known cult image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period.[163] By about the tenth century his independent cult had come into existence.[164] Narain sums up controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:

[W]hat is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.[165]

Possible influences

Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:

In this search for a historical origin for Gaņeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaņeśa.[166]

Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that:

Although by the second century AD the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut.[167]

One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vināyakas.[168][169] In Hindu mythology the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties[170] but who were easily propitiated.[171] The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[172] Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha that "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century B.C.) who cause various types of evil and suffering."[173]

Vedic and epic literature

5th C Ganesh by Shahi King Khingala, found at Gardez, Afghanistan now at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath

Ganesha as we know him today does not appear in the Vedas. The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, the teacher of the gods. H. H. Wilson translates the Sanskrit verse "gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam" (RV 2.23.1 [2222]) as "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages."[174] While there is no doubt that this verse refers to Brahmanaspati, the verse was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is used even to this day.[175][176] In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati - who is the deity of the hymn - and Bṛhaspati only."[177] The second passage (RV 10.112.9) equally clearly refers to Indra.[178] Wilson translates the Sanskrit verse "ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām" as "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".[179]

Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature. There is a late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata saying that the sage Vyāsa asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed to this but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. This is the single passage in which Ganesha appears in the epic. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,[180] in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[181] Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation to the text.[182] Richard L. Brown dates the story as eighth century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but he maintains that it had not yet been added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.[183]

Puranic period

Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering," the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, circa 600–1300.[184] Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he came to acquire an elephant's head are in the later Puranas composed from about 600 onwards and that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas are later interpolations made during the seventh to tenth centuries.[185]

In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:

Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.[186]

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the ninth century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The ninth-century philosopher Śaṅkarācārya popularized the "worship of the five forms" (pañcāyatana pūjā) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smārta tradition.[187][188] This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devī, and Sūrya.[189][190] Śaṅkarācārya instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

Ganesha scriptures

Further information: [[:Ganesha Purana and Mudgala Purana]]
Statue of Ganesha with a flower

Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some brāhmaṇas chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.[191]

The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana, and their dating relative to one another, has sparked academic debate. Both works developed over periods of time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews different views on dating and provides her own judgement. She states that it appears likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana came into existence around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries but was subject to interpolations during succeeding ages.[192] Lawrence W. Preston considers that the period 1100–1400 is the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana because that period agrees with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.[193]

R.C. Hazra suggested that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400 A.D.[194] However Phillis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha because, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) that deal at length with Ganesha.[195] While the kernel of the text must be old, it continued to receive interpolations until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.[196] Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries A.D.[197]

Beyond India and Hinduism

Further information: Ganesha outside Hinduism
"Dancing Ganesh. Central Tibet. Early fifteenth century. Colours on cotton. Height: 68 centimetres." [198] This form is also known as Maharakta ("The Great Red One").[199]

India had an impact on the regions of West and Southeast Asia as a result of commercial and cultural contacts. Ganesha is one of many Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.[200] The worship of Ganesha by Hindus outside of India shows regional variation.

Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.[201] The period from approximately the tenth century onwards was marked by the development of new networks of exchange, the formation of trade guilds, and a resurgence of money circulation. It was during this time that Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[202] The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.[203]

Hindus migrated to the Malay Archipelago and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.[204] Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the Malay Archipelago in great numbers, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences.[205] The gradual emigration of Hindus to Indochina established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side-by-side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.[206] In Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.[207] Even today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles and thus the god of success.[208]

Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. A few examples of sculptures from the fifth to the seventh centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.[209][210]

Ganesha appears in Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name (Vināyaka).[211] His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.[212] As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing, a form called Nṛtta Ganapati that was popular in North India, later adopted in Nepal and then in Tibet.[213] In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha known as Heramba is very popular, where he appears with five heads and rides a lion.[214] Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.[215] In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākala, a popular Tibetan deity.[216][217] Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing.[218] Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In North China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated 531 CE.[219] In Japan the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806 CE.[220]

The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the cult of Ganesha.[221] However Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of Kubera.[222] Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections.[223] The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the ninth century.[224] A fifteenth century Jain text provides procedures for the installation of Ganapati images.[225] Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[226]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Ganesha getting ready to throw his lotus. Basohli miniature, circa 1730. National Museum, New Delhi. Attired in an orange dhoti, his body is enitirely red. On the three points of his tiny crown, budding lotuses have been fixed. Gaṇeśa holds in his two right hands the rosary and a cup filled with three modakas (a fourth substituted by the curving trunk is just about to be tasted). In his two left hands, Gaṇeśa holds a large lotus above and an axe below, with its handle leaning against his shoulder. In the Mudgalapurāṇa (VII, 70), in order to kill the demon of egotism (Mamāsura) who had attacked him, Gaṇeśa Vighnarāja throws his lotus at him. Unable to bear the fragrance of the divine flower, the demon surrenders to Gaṇeśa." For quotation of description of the work, see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 73.
  2. ^ For the paraśu (axe) as a weapon of Ganesha, see: Jansen, p. 40.
  3. ^ For the paraśu as an attribute of Ganesha, see: Nagar, Appendix I.
  4. ^ For the snare as a weapon of Ganesha, see: Jansen, p. 46.
  5. ^ For the pāśa as weapon of Ganesha in various forms, see: Nagar, Appendix I.
  6. ^ For the elephant hook as a weapon of Ganesha, see: Jansen. p. 46.
  7. ^ For the aṅkuśa as an attribute of Ganesha, see: Nagar, Appendix I.
  8. ^ Rao, p. 1.
  9. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 2.
  10. ^ These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For the name Vighnesha, see: Courtright, pp. 156, 213.
  11. ^ Heras, p. 58.
  12. ^ Getty, p. 5.
  13. ^ For history of the development of the gāṇapatya and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship, see: Chapter 6, "The Gāṇapatyas" in: Thapan (1997), pp. 176-213.
  14. ^ "Gaṇeśa is often said to be the most worshipped god in India." Brown, p. 1.
  15. ^ "Gaṇeśa, Lord of the Gaṇas, although among the latest deities to be admitted to the Brahmanic pantheon, was, and still is, the most universally adored of all the Hindu gods, and his image is found in practically every part of India." Getty, p. 1.
  16. ^ Rao, p. 1.
  17. ^ Martin-Dubost, pp. 2-4.
  18. ^ Brown, p. 1.
  19. ^ For a review of Ganesha's geographic spread and popularity outside of India, see: Chapter XVII, "The Travels Abroad", in: Nagar (1992), pp. 175-187.
  20. ^ For discussion of the spread of Ganesha worship to Nepal, Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, Burma, Siam, Indo-China, Java, Bali, Borneo, China, and Japan, see: Getty, pp. 37-88.
  21. ^ Martin-Dubost, pp. 311-320.
  22. ^ Thapan, p. 13.
  23. ^ Pal, p. x.
  24. ^ For an English translation of Ganesha Purana 1.46, see: Bailey, pp. 258-269.
  25. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". Brown, pp. 21-22.
  26. ^ Apte, p. 395.
  27. ^ For the derivation of the name and relationship with the gaņas, see: Martin-Dubost. p. 2.
  28. ^ Apte, p. 395.
  29. ^ The word gaņa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on the gaṇeśasahasranāma. See in particular commentary on verse 6 including names Gaṇeśvaraḥ and Gaṇakrīḍaḥ Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  30. ^ Apte, p. 395.
  31. ^ According to Monier-Williams, SED p.343, Gaṇapati was used for Brihaspati in the Rgveda 2.23.1, for Indra in Rgveda 10.112.9, and for the leader of a class or troop or assemblage in Vajsaneyi Samhita. Cf. Wilson for Rgvedic references. MW's reference to VS is from VS 23.19, which is a part of Aśvamedha yajña.
  32. ^ Cf. SED of Monier-Williams , p.343 (Pañchatantra is mentioned in column-2). MW puts Pañchatantra after Vedic references, which is natural, and gives primacy to Pañchatantra as an ancient source for the use of the term Gaṇapati for Gaṇeśa .
  33. ^ Joseph Jacobs (1888). The earliest English version of the Fables of Bidpai, London (induced from The Morall Philosophie of Doni by Sir Thomas North , 1570), Introduction, p. xv : "The latest date at which the stories were thus connected is fixed by the fact that some of them have been sculpted round the sacred Buddhist shrines of Sanchi, Amaravati, and the Bharhut, in the last case with the titles of the Jatakas inscribed above them. These have been dated by Indian archaeologists as before 200 BC, and Mr Rhys-Davids produces evidence which would place the stories as early as 400 BC. Between 400 BC and 200 BC, many of our tales were put together in a frame formed of the life and experience of the Buddha."
  34. ^ Mahābhārata also mentions Gaṇeśa , but many modern scholars believe these verses to be interpolations. All other references to Gaṇeśa belong to ca. 400 AD or later. That is why MW named Pañchatantra as an early source. Cf. Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon", in: Brown, p. 19.
  35. ^ For text of Amarakośa versified as 1.1.38, see: Śāstri 1978.
  36. ^ Thapan, p. 20.
  37. ^ For the history of the aṣṭavināyaka sites and a description of pilgrimage practices related to them, see: Mate, pp. 1-25.
  38. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 367.
  39. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon". Brown, p. 25.
  40. ^ Thapan, p. 62.
  41. ^ Pal, p. ix.
  42. ^ For a comprehensive review of iconography abundantly illustrated with pictures, see: Martin-Dubost.
  43. ^ For a survey of iconography with emphasis on developmental themes, well-illustrated with plates, see: Krishan. In particular, Chapter X, "Development of the Iconography of Gaņeśa".
  44. ^ For a richly illustrated collection of studies on specific aspects of Ganesha with a focus on art and iconography, see: Pal.
  45. ^ Brown, p. 175.
  46. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200).
  47. ^ Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art that is dated as circa twelfth century. Pal shows an example of this form dated circa thirteenth century on p. viii.
  48. ^ Brown, p. 176.
  49. ^ See photograph 2, "Large Ganesh", in: Pal, p. 16.
  50. ^ Martin-Dubost, pp. 197-198.
  51. ^ For an example of a large image of this type being carried in a festival procession, see photograph 9, "Ganesh images being taken for immersion", in: Pal, pp. 22-23. For two similar statues about to be immersed, see: Pal, p. 25.
  52. ^ For many examples of Ganesha dancing, see: Pal, pp. 41-64.
  53. ^ For popularity of the dancing form, see: Brown, p. 183.
  54. ^ Four-armed Gaṇeśa. Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: "On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster, Gaṇeśa is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellow dhoti and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace salute Gaṇeśa by joining their tiny feet together. Gaṇeśa counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk."
  55. ^ Nagar, p. 77.
  56. ^ Brown, p. 3.
  57. ^ Nagar, p. 78.
  58. ^ Brown, p. 76.
  59. ^ Brown, p. 77.
  60. ^ Brown, pp. 77-78.
  61. ^ Brown, pp. 76-77.
  62. ^ For creation of Ganesha from Shiva's laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see Varaha Purana 23.17 as cited in Brown: p. 77.
  63. ^ Getty, p. 1.
  64. ^ Heras, p. 29.
  65. ^ Granoff, Phyllis. "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor". Brown, p. 90.
  66. ^ "Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art" and Passim. Nagar, p. 101.
  67. ^ Granoff, Phyllis. "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor". Brown, p. 91.
  68. ^ For translation of udara as "belly" see: Apte, p. 268.
  69. ^ Br. P. 2.3.42.34
  70. ^ For a description of how a variant of this story is used in the Mudgala Purana 2.56.38-9, see: Thapan, p. 200.
  71. ^ For an inconographical chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form, see: Nagar, pp. 191-195. Appendix I.
  72. ^ Krishan, p. 89.
  73. ^ Krishan, p. 89.
  74. ^ Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri say in "Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism" that the presence of only two arms on a Ganesha image points to an early date. See: Brown, p. 103.
  75. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 120.
  76. ^ For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography, see: Martin-Dubost, p. 202.
  77. ^ For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography, see: Krishan, pp. 50-53.
  78. ^ For the Ganesha Purana references for Vāsuki around the neck and use of a serpent-throne, see: Martin-Dubost, p. 202.
  79. ^ For the story of wrapping Vāsuki around the neck and Śeṣa around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama as Sarpagraiveyakāṅgāda ("Who has a serpent around his neck"), which refers to this standard iconographic element, see: Krishan, pp. 51-52.
  80. ^ For text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha's sacred thread as the serpent Śeṣa, see: Martin-Dubost, p. 202.
  81. ^ For the snake as a common type of yajñyopavīta for Ganesha, see: Nagar, p. 92.
  82. ^ For third eye or Shaiva tilaka with three horizontal lines, see: Nagar, p. 81.
  83. ^ For Ganesa visualized as trinetraṁ (having three eyes), see the dhyānam in: Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.1.
  84. ^ For citation to Ganesha Purana I.14.21-25 see: Nagar, p. 81.
  85. ^ For translation of Ganesha Purana I.14, which includes a meditation form with moon on forehead, see: Bailey (1995), pp. 198-199.
  86. ^ For citation to Padma Purana as prescribing the crescent for decoration of the forehead of Ganesha, see: Nagar, p. 81.
  87. ^ For Bhālacandra as a distinct form worshipped, see: Nagar, p. 81.
  88. ^ For the name Bhālacandra appearing in the Ganesha Sahasranama see: Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.15.
  89. ^ Nagar, Preface.
  90. ^ "The Colors of Ganesha". Martin-Dubost, pp. 221-230.
  91. ^ Martin-Dubost, pp. 224-228
  92. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 228.
  93. ^ Krishan, pp. 48, 89, 92.
  94. ^ Krishan, p. 49.
  95. ^ Krishan, pp. 48-49.
  96. ^ For the Ganesha Purana story of Mayūreśvara with the peacock mount (GP I.84.2-3), see: Bailey (1995), p. 348.
  97. ^ Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, "Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism", in: Brown, pp.101.
  98. ^ Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, "Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism", in: Brown, pp.102.
  99. ^ Krishan, p. 49.
  100. ^ Nagar. Preface.
  101. ^ Martin-Dubost, pp. 231-244.
  102. ^ See note on figure 43 in: Martin-Dubost, p. 144.
  103. ^ Citations to Matsya Purana 260.54, Brahmananda Purana Lalitamahatmya XXVII, and Ganesha Purana 2.134-136 are provided by: Martin-Dubost, p. 231.
  104. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 232.
  105. ^ For Mūṣakavāhana see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In: Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  106. ^ For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see: Grimes (1995), p. 86.
  107. ^ A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification, by Michael Wilcockson, pg.117
  108. ^ Krishnan pp. 49-50.
  109. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 231.
  110. ^ For mention of the interpretation that "the rat is 'the animal that finds its way to every place,' " see: Rocher, Ludo. "{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature," in: Brown (1991), p. 73.
  111. ^ "Lord of Obstacles," a common name, appears in the title of Courtright's Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For equivalent Sanskrit names Vighneśvara and Vighnarāja, see: Courtright, p. 136.
  112. ^ Yuvraj Krishhan notes that some of his names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have shifted over time in this quote: "Gaṇeśa has a dual nature; as Vināyaka, as a grāmadevatā, he is vighnakartā, and as Gaṇeśa he is vighnahartā, a paurāṇic devatā." Krishan, p. viii.
  113. ^ Brown, p. 6.
  114. ^ Courtright, p. 136.
  115. ^ Nagar, p. 5.
  116. ^ Apte, p. 703.
  117. ^ Ganesha Purana I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.
  118. ^ Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204-206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads Buddhipriya, Bailey translates "Granter-of-lakhs."
  119. ^ Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Includes the full source text and the commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit. The name "Buddha" is in verse 7 of the volume cited, which corresponds to verse 2 of the śasahasranāma proper.
  120. ^ Bhaskararaya's commentary on the name Buddha with commentary verse number is: "नित्यबुद्धस्वरूपत्वात् अविद्यावृत्तिनाशनः । यद्वा जिनावतारत्वाद् बुद्ध इत्यभिधीयते ॥ १५ ॥"
  121. ^ Grimes, p. 77.
  122. ^ Translation. Courtright, p. 253.
  123. ^ Chinmayananda, p. 127. In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is upamantra 8.
  124. ^ For examples of both, see: Grimes, pp. 79-80.
  125. ^ Translation. Courtright, p. 253.
  126. ^ Chinmayananda, p. 127. In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is part of upamantra 7.
  127. ^ This work is reproduced and described in Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 51, which describes it as follows: "This square shaped miniature shows us in a Himalayan landscape the god Śiva sweetly pouring water from his kamaṇḍalu on the head of baby Gaṇeśa. Seated comfortably on the meadow, Pārvatī balances with her left hand the baby Gaņeśa with four arms with a red body and naked, adorned only with jewels, tiny anklets and a golden chain around his stomach, a necklace of pearls, bracelets and armlets."
  128. ^ For a summary of Puranic variants of birth stories, see: Nagar, pp. 7-14.
  129. ^ Martin-Dubost, pp. 41-82. Chapter 2, "Stories of Birth According to the Purāṇas".
  130. ^ Linga Purana.
  131. ^ Shiva Purana IV. 17.47-57. Matsya Purana 154.547.
  132. ^ Varāha Purana 23.18-59.
  133. ^ For summary of Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganesha Khanda, 10.8-37, see: Nagar, pp. 11-13.
  134. ^ For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: Thapan, p. 300.
  135. ^ For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: Brown, p. 355.
  136. ^ Khokar and Saraswati, p.4.
  137. ^ Brown, p. 4, 79.
  138. ^ Gupta, p. 38.
  139. ^ For a review, see: Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown, pp. 115-140
  140. ^ For statement that "According to ancient tradition, Gaṇeśa was a Brahmacārin, that is, an unmarried deity; but legend gave him two consorts, personifications of Wisdom (Buddhi) and Success (Siddhi).", see: Getty 1936, p. 33.
  141. ^ For discussion on celibacy of Ganesha, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, pp. 126–129.
  142. ^ For single consort or a nameless daşi (servant), see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, p. 115.
  143. ^ For associations with Śarda and Sarasvati and the identification of those goddesses with one another, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, pp. 131–132.
  144. ^ For associations with Lakshmi see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, pp. 132–135.
  145. ^ For discussion of the Kala Bo, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, pp. 124–125.
  146. ^ Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown, pp. 130.
  147. ^ Thapan, pp. 15-16, 230, 239, 242, 251.
  148. ^ Nagar, Preface.
  149. ^ The term modaka applies to all regional varieties of cakes or sweets offered to Ganesha. Martin-Dubost, p. 204.
  150. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 204.
  151. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 369.
  152. ^ Martin-Dubost, pp. 95-99.
  153. ^ For the fourth waxing day in Māgha being dedicated to Ganesa (Gaṇeśa-caturthī) see: Bhattacharyya, B., "Festivals and Sacred Days", in: Bhattacharyya, volume IV, p. 483.
  154. ^ For Ganesh Chaturthi as the most popular festival in Maharashtra, see: Thapan, p. 226.
  155. ^ "Gaṇeśa in a Regional Setting". Courtright, pp. 202-247.
  156. ^ Metcalf and Metcalf, p. 150.
  157. ^ Brown (1991), p. 9.
  158. ^ For Tilak's role in converting the private family festivals to a public event in support of Indian nationalism, see: Thapan, p. 225.
  159. ^ Momin, A. R., The Legacy Of G. S. Ghurye: A Centennial Festschrift, p. 95.
  160. ^ For Ganesha's appeal as "the god for Everyman" as a motivation for Tilak, see: Brown (1991), p. 9.
  161. ^ For Tilak as the first to use large public images in maṇḍapas (pavillions or tents) see: Thapan, p. 225.
  162. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon", in: Brown, p. 19.
  163. ^ Nagar, p. 4.
  164. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon", in: Brown, p. 19.
  165. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". Brown, pp. 19-20.
  166. ^ Courtright, pp. 10-11.
  167. ^ Thapan, p. 75.
  168. ^ Passim. Thapan.
  169. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 70-72.
  170. ^ Aitareya Brāhmana, I, 21.
  171. ^ Bhandarkar. Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. pp. 147-48.
  172. ^ Thapan, p. 20.
  173. ^ Krishan, p. vii.
  174. ^ Wilson, H. H. Ŗgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). ISBN 81-7110-140-9 (Vol. II); ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222) gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | 2.23.1; "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages."
  175. ^ Nagar, p. 3.
  176. ^ Rao, p. 1.
  177. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 69. Bṛhaspati is a variant name for Brahamanaspati.
  178. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 69-70.
  179. ^ Wilson, H. H. Ŗgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV: Maṇḍalas 9, 10. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). ISBN 81-7110-142-5 (Vol. IV); ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set). RV 10.112.9 (10092) ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".
  180. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 71-72.
  181. ^ Mahābhārata Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.
  182. ^ Brown, p. 4.
  183. ^ Winternitz, Moriz. "Gaṇeśa in the Mahābhārata". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 80.
  184. ^ Brown, p. 183.
  185. ^ Krishan, p. 103.
  186. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 73.
  187. ^ Dating for the pañcāyatana pūjā and its connection with Smārta Brahmins is from Courtright, p. 163.
  188. ^ For the "five" divinities (pañcādevatā) becoming "the major deities" in general, and their listing as Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Ganesha, see: Bhattacharyya, S., "Indian Hymnology", in: Bhattacharyya (1956), volume IV, p. 470.
  189. ^ Grimes, p. 162.
  190. ^ Pal, p. ix.
  191. ^ Thapan, pp. 196-197. Addresses the pañcāyatana in the Smārta tradition and the relationship of the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana to it.
  192. ^ For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating, see: Thapan, pp. 30-33.
  193. ^ See: Preston, Lawrence W., "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to Gaṇeśa", in: N. K. Wagle, ed., Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India. p.103.
  194. ^ R.C. Hazra, "The Gaṇeśa Purāṇa," Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute (1951);79-99.
  195. ^ Phyllis Granoff, "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor," in Brown, pp. 94-95, note 2.
  196. ^ Thapan, pp. 30-33.
  197. ^ Courtright, p. 252.
  198. ^ This work and its description are shown in Pal, p. 125.
  199. ^ For a representation of this form identified as Maharakta, see Pal, p. 130.
  200. ^ Nagar, p. 175.
  201. ^ Nagar, p. 174.
  202. ^ Thapan, p. 170.
  203. ^ Thapan, p. 152.
  204. ^ Getty, p. 55.
  205. ^ Getty, pp. 55-66.
  206. ^ Getty, p. 52.
  207. ^ Brown, p. 182.
  208. ^ Brown, p. 182.
  209. ^ Nagar, p. 175.
  210. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 311.
  211. ^ Getty, pp. 37-45.
  212. ^ Getty, p. 37.
  213. ^ Getty, p. 38.
  214. ^ Getty, p. 40.
  215. ^ Nagar, p. 185.
  216. ^ Getty, p. 42
  217. ^ Nagar, p. 185.
  218. ^ Nagar, pp. 185-186.
  219. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 311.
  220. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 313.
  221. ^ Krishan, p. 121.
  222. ^ Thapan, p. 157.
  223. ^ Thapan, pp. 151, 158, 162, 164, 253.
  224. ^ Krishan, p. 122.
  225. ^ Krishan, p. 121.
  226. ^ Thapan, p. 158.

References

  • Agrawala, Prithvi Kumar (1978). Goddess Vināyakī: The Female Gaṇeśa. Indian Civilization Series. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) (fourth revised and enlarged edition).
  • Avalon, Arthur (1933). Śāradā Tilaka Tantram. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-1338-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) (1993 reprint edition).
  • Bailey, Greg (1995). Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index. Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-03647-8. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Bhattacharyya (Editor), Haridas (1956). The Cultural Heritage of India. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Four volumes.
  • Brown, Robert (1991), Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, Albany: State University of New York, ISBN 0-7914-0657-1
  • Chinmayananda, Swami (1987). Glory of Ganesha. Bombay: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Courtright, Paul B. (1985). Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN ISBN 0-19-505742-2. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Getty, Alice (1936), Gaņeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God (1992 reprint ed.), Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 81-215-0377-X {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help).
  • Grimes, John A. (1995). Ganapati: Song of the Self. SUNY Series in Religious Studies. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2440-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Gupta, Shakti M. (1988). Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva. Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7039-186-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Heras, H. (1972). The Problem of Ganapati. Delhi: Indological Book House. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Jansen, Eva Rudy (1993). The Book of Hindu Imagery. Havelte, Holland: Binkey Kok Publications BV. ISBN 90-74597-07-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Khokar, Ashish (2005). Ganesha-Karttikeya. New Delhi: Rupa and Co. ISBN 81-291-0776-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Krishan, Yuvraj (1999). Gaņeśa: Unravelling An Enigma. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-1413-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1996). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers. ISBN 81-215-0715-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Martin-Dubost, Paul (1997). Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds. Mumbai: Project for Indian Cultural Studies. ISBN 81-900184-3-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Mate, M. S. (1988). Temples and Legends of Maharashtra. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of India. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Nagar, Shanti Lal (1992). The Cult of Vinayaka. New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House. ISBN 81-7076-043-9. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Pal, Pratapaditya (1995). Ganesh: The Benevolent. Marg Publications. ISBN 81-85026-31-9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Ramachandra Rao, S. K. (1992). The Compendium on Gaņeśa. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. ISBN 81-7030-828-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Śāstri, Hargovinda (1978), Amarkoṣa with Hindi commentary, Vārānasi: Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office
  • Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 81-7304-195-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Wilson, H. H. (1990). Rgveda-Samhita, Text in Devanagari, English translation Notes and indices by H. H. Wilson, Ed. W.F. Webster. New Delhi: Nag Publishers,11A/U.A. Jawaharnagar. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

Most of the source scriptures on Ganesha are in Sanskrit. A collection of useful documents can be found here. At the same site can be found some documents and translations in English here.

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