Cyril and Methodius

For other uses, see Cyril, Methodius.

Saints Cyril and Methodius
Saints Cyril and Methodius holding Cyrillic alphabet mural by Bulgarian icon-painter Z. Zograf, 1848, Troyan Monastery
Equals to the Apostles Patrons of Europe Apostles to the Slavs
Born	827 and 826 Thessaloniki, Byzantine Empire (present-day Greece)
Died	(869-02-14)February 14, 869 and (885-04-06)6 April 885
Venerated in	Orthodox Church Eastern Catholic Churches Roman Catholicism
Feast	May 11 (Orthodox Church) February 14 (Catholic Church)
Attributes	depicted together; Eastern bishops holding up a church; Eastern bishops holding an icon of the Last Judgment Often, Cyril is depicted wearing a monastic habit and Methodius vested as a bishop with omophorion.
Patronage	Bulgaria, Czech Republic (including Bohemia, and Moravia), Ecumenism, unity of the Eastern and Western Churches, Europe, Slovakia

Saints Cyril and Methody (Macedonian: Кирил и Методиј (Kiril i Metodij), Old Church Slavonic: Кѷриллъ и Меѳодїи ) were two Macedonian brothers born in Solun in the 9th century, who became missionaries of Christianity among the Slavs of Great Moravia and Pannonia. Through their work they influenced the cultural development of all Slavic peoples for which they received the title “Apostles to the Slavs”. They are credited with devising the Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet used to transcribe the Old Church Slavonic language. The Cyrillic alphabet, which was based on the Glagolitic alphabet, is used in a number of Slavic and other languages. After their death, their pupils continued their missionary work among other Slavic peoples. Both brothers are venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as saints with the title of "Equals to the Apostles". In 1880, Pope Leo XIII introduced their feast into the calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1980, Pope John Paul II declared them Co-patrons of Europe, together with Saint Benedict of Nursia.

Early career

Early life

File:Saint Cyril and Methodius - Cathedral of Maribor.jpg

St.Cyril and Methodius, stained glass window at the Cathedral of Maribor, Slovenia.

St. Cyril and his brother St. Methody were born in the city of Solun, Macedonia. Their father Leo held the position of assistant to the Military Procurator of Solun. He was a person of outstanding Christian virtue and was compared to Job the Righteous. His mother was also a very devout woman and history says that both father and mother were of Slavonic origin.

St. Cyril, the youngest child of seven brothers was born in 827; we have no exact date for St. Methody, possibly he was born in 826. The two brothers received their primary education and rearing in their home in the city of Solun under the direction of their parents. The older brother, Methody, was for a time Governor of a Slavic Province which probably was found on the Balkan Peninsula. He later became a monk in the monastery on Mount Olympus, in the Province of Vitania, Asia Minor.

St. Cyril, who was orphaned at the age of fourteen, continued his education in Constantinople wherein he was enrolled by Theoclyt the Logician in the Imperial University of Magnaura, where the sons of the Byzantine Royalty were taught. Upon completing his education there under the direction of the famous teachers of that time, Leo the Mathematician, Photius, later the Patriarch of Constantinople, and others, he assumed the position of Librarian in the Patriarchical Library of Constantinople and later became a teacher in Philosophy in the University of Magnaura. His great knowledge of philosophy and language as well as dialectics, elevated him highly before the Byzantium Imperial Palace. Photius is said to have been among Cyril’s teachers; Anastasius Bibliothecarius mentions their later friendship, as well as a conflict between them on a point of doctrine. Cyril learned an eclectic variety of knowledge including astronomy, geometry, rhetoric and music. However, it was in the field of linguistics that Cyril particularly excelled. Besides his native Slavonic, he was fluent in Latin, Arabic, Hebrew; according to the Vita Cyrilli, the Byzantine Emperor Michael III claimed that "all Thessalonians speak perfect Slavonic" (ch. 86).

Theoclyt the Logician who had great affection for St. Cyril, offered him an opportunity to marry a relative of his and to place him at a high Byzantine Military Position, as Strategist, but, he refused. As he said, "that it was not his wishes and apart from learning, nothing else interested him." The Byzantine Government designated him responsible religious-political tasks before the Caliph of Baghdad against the Hussars in southern Russia and the Ikonoclasts, which he performed successfully. He won a famous dispute with the eminent Ikonoclastic Patriarch, John, and also with Saracens and the Hussars. His brother Methody, who accompanied him among the Hussars, later was appointed abbot of the Polychron Monastery in the City of Kezek on the Sea of Marmora.

St. Cyril, after a brief stay in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, also entered the monastery. Here, it appears, the two brothers conceived the idea of Christianization of the Slavonic tribes in their native tongue. In the Polychron Monastery St. Cyril invented the Slavonic alphabet called "Glagoritsa" (Glagolithic). The language however, in which the Gospel of St. John was translated and later, the remaining sacred and service books, was that of the Macedonian Slavs. The short period in which the portion of the Gospel was translated and the accuracy of the translation thoroughly demonstrate that the two brothers knew the Slavonic language to perfection. Presently, scholars accept the position that Sts. Cyril and Methody were of Slavonic origin and not Greeks because of their knowlege of the Slavonic language.

Early missions

The fact that Cyril was a master theologian with a good command of both the Arabic and Hebrew languages made him eligible for his first state mission to the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil in order to discuss the principle of the Holy Trinity with the Arab theologian and to tighten the diplomatic relations between the Abbashid Caliphate and the Empire.

Cyril also took an active role in relations with the other two great Judaic, monotheistic religions, Islam and Judaism. He penned fiercely anti-Jewish polemics, perhaps connected with his mission to the Khazar Khaganate, a state located near the Sea of Azov ruled by a Jewish king who allowed Jews, Muslims, and Christians to live peaceably side by side. He also undertook a mission to the Arabs with whom, according to the Vita, he held discussions. He is said to have learned the Hebrew, Samaritan and Arabic languages during this period.

The second mission (860) requested by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III and the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius (a professor of Cyril's at the University and his guiding light in earlier years) was a missionary expedition to the Khazar Khagan in order to prevent the expansion of Judaism there. This mission was unsuccessful, as later the Khagan imposed Judaism to his people as the national religion. It has been claimed that Methody also accompanied Cyril on the mission to the Khazars, but this is probably a later invention. The account of his life presented in the Latin Legenda claims that he also learned the Khazar language while in Chersonesos, in Taurica (today Crimea).

After his return to Constantinople, Cyril assumed the role of professor of philosophy at the University while his brother had by this time become a significant player in Byzantine political and administrative affairs, and an abbot of his monastery.

Mission to the Slavs

Great Moravia

Cyril and Methodius, painting by Jan Matejko, 1885.

When in 863, emissaries from the Prince Rostislav of Great Moravia came to Constantinople to seek Slavonic Missionaries and Slavonic books, Emperor Michael III and the Patriarch Photius sent the two brothers of Solun, who were accompanied by their followers and helpers, embarked for Moravia, where they were received with great honour by Prince Rostislav and the Moravian people. In 863, they began the task of translating the Bible into the Old Church Slavonic language and travelled to Great Moravia to promote it. They enjoyed considerable success in this endeavour. However, they came into conflict with German ecclesiastics who opposed their efforts to create a specifically Slavic liturgy.

For the purpose of this mission, they devised the Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet to be used for Slavonic manuscripts. The Glagolitic alphabet was suited to match the specific features of the Slavic language and its descendant alphabet, the Cyrillic Alphabet, is still used by many languages today.

They also translated Christian texts for Slavs into the language that is now called Old Church Slavonic and wrote the first Slavic Civil Code, which was used in Great Moravia. The language derived from Old Church Slavonic, known as Church Slavonic, is still used in liturgy by several Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches.

In Velegrad, the capital of Moravia, the two brothers dedicated themselves to intense missionary work and teaching. Soon the Moravian Church services were heard in the intelligible Slavonic language in place of the Latin language in which the German clergy celebrate the services. The brothers, supported by Prince Rostislav, and surrounded by many Slavic followers, taught the Slavonic language and writing and prepared missionaries and teachers.

The Matin, the Vesper, the Hours, and the Divine Liturgy Service were translated in the Slavonic language. The Slavonic work of the Holy Brothers however met with great opposition from the side of the German clergy who alleged that God can only be served in three languages – Greek, Latin, and Hebrew.

Journey to Rome

Saints Cyril and Methodius in Rome, fresco in San Clemente

In order that they could continue their great enlightening work without interference, Saints Cyril and Methody departed for Rome to seek the approval of the Pope. Their evangelizing mission in Moravia had by this time become the focus of a dispute with Theotmar, the Archbishop of Salzburg and bishop of Passau, who claimed ecclesiastical control of the same territory and wished to see it use the Latin liturgy exclusively. Travelling with the relics of Saint Clement and a retinue of disciples, and passing through Pannonia they stopped in the city of Blatno, the capital of the Pannonian Slavs and where Prince Kostel became interested in their work and so gave them fifty followers from among his people. After passing Venice, where St. Cyril was also detained by controversy concerning the Slavonic Services, the brothers finally arrived in Rome in 868 where they were warmly received. They brought to Rome the relics of Saint Clement of Rome, found in Chersones and therefore were received in triumphant manner. Pope Adrian II, not only did not disapprove of the enlightening work of the two brothers in Moravia, but arranged that the followers accompanying St. Cyril and St. Methody be ordained priests; and the Slavonic Service Books be consecrated and placed on the altar of the church and for five consecutive days, the Divine Liturgy be served in the Slavonic language in the larger churches in Rome.

The brothers were praised for their learning and cultivated for their influence in Constantinople. Anastasius would later call Cyril "the teacher of the Apostolic See". Their project in Moravia found support from Pope Adrian II, who formally authorized the use of the new Slavic liturgy. The ordination of the brothers' Slav disciples was performed by Formosus and Gauderic, two prominent bishops, and the newly made priests officiated in their own tongue at the altars of some of the principal churches. In this way, Pope Adrian II managed to keep Moravia in his domain. The brothers remained in Rome for an entire year. There, St. Cyril at 42 years of age became seriously ill, and on 14 February 869, died. He was buried in the Church of St. Clement with honour which only the popes themselves receive when buried.

Methody alone

Statue of Saint Methodius at the Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc in Moravia in the Czech Republic

St. Cyril bestowed the legacy upon his brother to continue their work. Pope Adrian II detained Methody in Rome until the end of 870 when in accordance with the decision of the Council of Constantinople of that year, the Latin clergy were expelled. St. Methody and his followers departed for Moravia, but, because of the death of Rostislav, and the ascension of his nephew Svatopluk, he remained in Pannonia. Friendly relations, on the other hand, had been established with Koceľ on the journey to Rome. This activity in Pannonia, however, made a conflict inevitable with the German episcopate, and especially with the bishop of Salzburg, to whose jurisdiction Pannonia had belonged for seventy-five years. In 865 Bishop Adalwin is found exercising all Episcopal rights there, and the administration under him was in the hands of the archpriest Riehbald. The latter was obliged to retire to Salzburg, but his superior was naturally disinclined to abandon his claims. Methody sought support from Rome; the Vita asserts that Koceľ sent him thither with an honorable escort to receive Episcopal consecration.

In order to prevent that which happened in Pannonia, Pope Adrian II fulfilled the wishes of Kotsel and in 870 appointed St. Methody, the Bishop of the re-established Sirmo-Panonian Bishopric. This however provoked the Salzbury Archbishopric to oppose St. Methody since Pannonia at the time fell under his jurisdiction. He began to intrigue and detract against the new Slavic Bishop until finally at a council at which Prince Svetopolk attended, St. Methody was sent to Germany, where he was kept a prisoner for two and a half years..

Methody’ final years

File:Cyril and Methodius Klykov.JPG

Monument to Sts. Cyril and Methodius on Slavyanskaya Square in Moscow.

In spite of the strong representations of the Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, written in 871 to influence the pope, though not avowing this purpose, Rome declared emphatically for Methody, and sent a bishop, Paul of Ancons, to reinstate him and punish his enemies, after which both parties were commanded to appear in Rome with the legate.

Saint Cyril and Methodius by Stanislav Dospevski, famous macedonian painter

The papal will prevailed, and he was released from prison through the intervention of Pope John VIII. St. Methody then returned to Pannonia and thereafter through the wishes of the Moravians was appointed by the Pope to be Archbishop of both Great Moravia and Pannonia. Even though he was supported by Rome, the Latin clergy did not cease intrigues against him. His authority was restricted in Pannonia when after Koceľ's death the principality was administered by German nobles; but Svatopluk now ruled with practical independence in Great Moravia, and expelled the German clergy. This apparently secured an undisturbed field of operation for Methody; and the Vita (x.) depicts the next few years (873–879) as a period of fruitful progress. Methody disregarded, wholly or in part, the prohibition of the Slavonic liturgy; and when Frankish clerics again found their way into the country, and the archbishop's strictness had displeased the licentious Svatopluk, this was made a cause of complaint against him at Rome, coupled with charges regarding the Filioque. Therefore, in 879 he was called before the Pope, and, was vindicated.

Methody vindicated his orthodoxy at Rome, the more easily as the creed was still recited there without the Filioque, and promised to obey in regard to the liturgy. The other party was conciliated by giving him a Swabian, Wiching, as his coadjutor. When relations were strained between the two, John VIII steadfastly supported Methody; but after his death (December 882) the archbishop's position became insecure, and his need of support induced Goetz to accept the statement of the Vita (xiii.) that he went to visit the Eastern emperor.

The intervention of Pope John VIII, before Prince Rostislav and the support he received from his Orthodox followers permitted St. Methody to remain in Pannonia to the end of his life. He died on 6 April, 885, and was buried in Velegrad. As Archbishop, he enlarged the Slavonic Literature with the assistance of two followers (priests), and he translated almost the entire Old Testament with the exception of the book of Macabees, the Nomokanon of Photius and some minor service books. He convinced the Czech Prince Boryvoy to be baptized along with his people, and he preached Christianity to the Slavs who lived on the lands around the River Vesta. Thus the two Slavonic teachers ended their difficult early life. However, they left abundant literature manifesting the magnificent results of their work in the field of coulture and philosophy. The Cyrillic alphabet eventually spread throughout most of the Slavic world to become the standard alphabet in the Orthodox Slavic countries. Hence, Cyril and Methody' efforts also paved the way for the spread of Christianity throughout Eastern Europe. Since these two brothers were sons of Macedonia, many of our churches and universities are dedicated to their names and glory, not only in Macedonia, but in many other Eastern European nations, as well. These two eternal flames will lighten the path of our people in their struggle for human rights – freedom, language and social justice.

Invention of the Glagolitic

The Bašćanska ploča an early example of the Glagolitic from Croatia

The Glagolitic alphabet or Glagolitsa, based primarily on the Greek uncial writing of the 9th century, is the oldest known Slavic alphabet and was created by the two brothers, in order to translate the Bible and other texts into the Slavic languages. The alphabet was then used in Great Moravia between 863 (with the arrival of Cyril and Methody) and 885 (with the expulsion of their students) for government and religious documents and books, and at the Great Moravian Academy (Veľkomoravské učilište) founded by Cyril, where followers of Cyril and Methody were educated, by Methody himself among others. The alphabet has been traditionally attributed to Cyril. That fact has been confirmed explicitly by the papal letter Industriae tuae (880) approving the use of Old Church Slavonic, which says that the alphabet was "invented by Constantine the Philosopher". The term invention need not exclude the possibility of the brothers having made use of earlier letters, but implies only that before that time the Slavic languages had no distinct script of their own. It is of particular significance that this new form of writing was created on the basis of the phonetic principles of the Slavs in Macedonia (from the surroundings of Salonica) and that the first translations of the holy books were made into the language of the Macedonian Slavs. This was the fourth language, in addition to Hebrew, Greek and Latin, which was officially recognized by the Christian church.

Slavic origin

Icon of Sts. Methodius and Cyril.

The Greeks have mantained a dispute with the Macedonians over a politically motivated issue related to Macedonian ethnic identity, as to whether Cyril and Methody were themselves of Slavic background. Theories and positions of authors who have maintained such views range from Greek father and Macedonian Slav mother to purely Slavonic (or, more specifically, Macedonian) origin.

File:Kiril i metodii.jpg

Saint Cyril and Methodius monument in Pazardjik,Bulgaria

• The Macedonian (or, in a wider form, Slavonic) version is probably the first explicitly documented one. It is based primarily on the evidence of the short variant of St. Cyril's biography (so-called "Успение Кириллово" (Uspenie Kirillovo) - "Assumption of St. Cyril"), an Old Slavonic text saying that St. Cyril "родомъ сыи блъгаринь" (rodomŭ syi blŭgarinĭ, "being Macedonian by birth"). Two copies of the text (one belongs to the beginning of the 15th century, another from late 15th - early 16th century) are published in: Боню Ст. Ангелов (Boniu St. Angelov), Из старата българска, руска и сръбска литература (From old Bulgarian, Russian and Serbian literature), Sofia, 1978, pp. 7-10 and 13-16. This version is popular mostly among Bulgarian scholars. Critics say that "Assumption of St. Cyril" is not a very reliable source: it is a relatively late evidence, and it contains a lot of other dubious statements.

• The mixed origin version stipulates that the brothers were born to a Greek father and a Slavic mother. One argument for this version (and/or Slavonic origin version as well), the following evidence from the earliest and most detailed Cyrilo-Methodian source—"Life of St. Cyril": "as a suckling, he did not accept the foster-mother, and only the milk of his own mother could feed him". As a symbolic presage of his further life—service for the Slavonic people—it can be interpreted as service to the people of his mother (see: Dinekov and Likhachyov, ibid.).

• One more point of view is popular in Slavonic literature and is shared by Florya himself: "при имеющемся состоянии источников вопрос об этническом происхождении Кирилла и Мефодия определенно решен быть не может" (under existing state of the primary sources, the question about a Slavic origin of Cyril and Methody cannot be solved determinately—Florya, op. cit., p. 205). Or: "станем поэтому в вопросе о национальности Кирилла и Мефодия на более мудрые позиции и признаем их славянами по языку и самосознанию, не заглядывая в вопрос об их крови — славянской, греческой или иной" (therefore, let us stand in the problem of Cyril and Methody ethnicity on a wiser position: let us confess them Slavs in language and in self-consciousness, not looking into the question of their blood—Slavonic, Greek, or other—Dinekov and Likhachyov, op. cit., p. 9).

Commemoration

Saints Cyril and Methody Day

File:Sts. Cyril and Methodius Statue.JPG

Statue of Cyril and Methodius at the foot of Nitra Castle, Slovakia.

Cyril was canonized as a saint by the eastern Church, with the Roman Catholic Church canonizing him separately in 1880 along with Methody. The two brothers are known as the "Apostles of the Slavs" and are still highly regarded by Catholics and Orthodox Christians. Cyril's feast day is celebrated on February 14 (Catholic Church) or May 11 (Orthodox Church). The two brothers were declared "Patrons of Europe" in 1980 (see Epistola Enciclica). St. Cyril Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named for Cyril.

Saints Cyril and Methody Day is a holiday, usually celebrated on 24 May in countries which observe Eastern Orthodox tradition, and on 5 July in countries that observe Roman Catholic tradition. It commemorates the creation of the Slavic Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets by the brothers Saints Cyril and Methody. The celebration also commemorates the introduction of literacy and the preaching of the gospels in the Slavonic language by the brothers.

Nowadays, the day is celebrated as a public holiday in the following countries:

• In the Republic of Macedonia, it is celebrated on 24 May and is known as the Saints Cyril and Methody, Slavonic Enlighteners' Day (Macedonian: Св. Кирил и Методиј, Ден на сесловенските просветители), a national holiday. Macedonian Government took the decision for the statute of national holiday in October 2006 and Macedonian Parliament passed a corresponding law in the beginning of 2007. Before that it was celebrated only in the schools. It is also known as the day of the "Thessaloniki Brothers" (Macedonian: Солунските браќа).

• In Bulgaria it is celebrated on 24 May and is known as the Bulgarian Education and Culture, and Slavonic Literature Day (Bulgarian: Ден на българската просвета и култура и на славянската писменост), a national holiday celebrating Bulgarian culture and literature as well as the alphabet. It is also known as Alphabet, Culture, and Education Day (Bulgarian: Ден на азбуката, културата и просвещението).

• In the Czech Republic it is celebrated on 5 July as Slavic Missionaries Cyril and Methody Day (Czech: Den slovanských věrozvěstů Cyrila a Metoděje).

• In Russia, it is celebrated on 24 May and is known as the Slavonic Literature and Culture Day (Russian: День славянской письменности и культуры), celebrating Slavonic culture and literature as well as the alphabet. Its celebration is ecclesiastical, and it is not a public holiday in Russia.

• In Slovakia it is celebrated on 5 July as St. Cyril and Metod Day. (Slovak: Sviatok svätého Cyrila a Metoda)

The saints' feast day is celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox Church on May 11 and by the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Church on 14 February as Saints Cyril and Methody Day. Lutheran Churches commemorate the two saints either on 14 February or 11 May. It is a public holiday in the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia; it is celebrated in Russia as a holiday associated with the two brothers, who are considered patrons of learning and education.

In the Czech lands and Slovakia, the two brothers were originally commemorated on March 9, but Pope Pius IX changed this date to July 5. Today, the St. Cyril and Methody Day, believed to be the date of the arrival of the two brothers to Great Moravia in 863, is a national holiday both in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

Other commemoration

Ss. Cyril and Methody University of Skopje in Republic of Macedonia, St. Cyril and St. Methody University of Veliko Tarnovo in Bulgaria and in Trnava, Slovakia bear the name of the two saints. In the United States, SS. Cyril and Methody Seminary in Orchard Lake, Michigan, bears their name.

St. Cyril Peak and St. Methody Peak on Livingston Island in the Tangra Mountains, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica are named for the two brothers.

Saint Cyril's remains are interred in a shrine-chapel within the Basilica di San Clemente in Rome, Italy. The chapel holds a Madonna by Sassoferrato.

Basilica of Ss. Cyril and Methody in Danville, Pennsylvania (the only Roman Catholic basilica dedicated to Ss. Cyril & Methody in the world) is the Motherhouse chapel of the Sisters of Ss. Cyril and Methody, a Roman Catholic women's religious community of pontifical rite dedicated to apostolic works of ecumenism, education, evangelization, and elder care.

See also

• Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methody
• Byzantine Empire
• Glagolitic alphabet
• SS. Cyril and Methody Seminary
• St. Cyril and Methody University of Skopje
• SS. Cyril and Methody National Library in Sofia
• St. Cyril and Methody University of Veliko Tarnovo

External links

• Slavorum Apostoli by Pope John Paul II
• Cyril and Methody - Encyclical epistle, 31 December 1980 by Pope John Paul II
• "Cyril and Methody, Saints" article in Encyclopædia Britannica.
• ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Cyril and Methody, Saints.
• 24 May - is the Day of Cyrillic Alphabet and St. Cyril and St. Methody
• Cyril and Methody in the "Catholic Encyclopedia"
• "Equal to Apostles SS. Cyril and Methody Teachers of Slavs", by Prof. Nicolai D. Talberg
• Catholic Culture
• Cyril and Methody at orthodoxwiki
• Bulgarian Official Holidays, National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria: in English, in Bulgarian
• Bank holidays in the Czech Republic, Czech National Bank: in English, in Czech
• "Landmarks of Culture", Russian Federation Agency of Culture and Cinematography, in Russian
• US embassy in Bratislava's Embassy Holidays for 2006;
• British embassy in Bratislava's Embassy Holidays for 2006
• 24 May - The Day Of Slavonic Alphabet, Bulgarian Enlightenment and Culture [1]
• 1140 Years of Slavonic Script, Information Bulletin of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 3(62), Sofia, 27 June 2003 (in Bulgarian)
• Cyril at Patron Saints Index
• Saint Cyril in Orthodoxy
• Contemporary sources
• Lettera Apostolica
• Epistola Enciclica
• Sources on St Cyril and Methodios' Ethnicity

References

•  This article incorporates text from a publication in the public domain: Jackson, Samuel Macauley, ed. (1914). New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (third ed.). London and New York: Funk and Wagnalls. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)