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m →‎Entertainers: George Lopez doesn't fit the category of Afro-Mexican. Being at only 5% African admixture with no African cultural traits or heritage doesn't justify to call him Afro-Mexican.
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'''Afro Mexican''' ({{lang-es|afromexicano}}) is a term used to identify [[Mexico|Mexican]]s of [[African people|African]] ancestry or African descended people elsewhere who have part Mexican ancestry. Now largely assimilated into the general population, Afro Mexicans historically have been located in certain communities, most notably in two coastal areas of [[Guerrero]] and [[Oaxaca]] (called [[Costa Chica]]), and in parts of [[Veracruz]], [[Campeche]], and [[Quintana Roo]].
'''Afro Mexican''' ({{lang-es|afromexicano}}) is a term mainly used outside of Mexico to identify [[Mexico|Mexican]]s of predominantly [[African people|African]] ancestry or African descended people elsewhere who have part Mexican ancestry{{Citation needed}}. Now largely assimilated into the general population, Afro Mexicans historically have been located in certain communities, most notably in two coastal areas of [[Guerrero]] and [[Oaxaca]] (called [[Costa Chica]]), and in parts of [[Veracruz]], [[Campeche]], and [[Quintana Roo]].


The term is not widely used by Mexicans or within Mexico itself because in Mexican culture and society it is not customary to use adjuncts to one's nationality as they do in the United States to classify subgroups such as: African-Americans, Mexican-Americans, Asian-Americans etc. In other words, Mexicans do not use adjunct phrases such as African-Mexicans, Asian-Mexicans or White-Mexicans in their common speech; each group is respectively named by their category alone. Afro-Mexicans are usually just called "Negros" ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for Black).
The term is not widely used in Mexico outside of academic circles. Afro Mexicans usually are simply called "negro" ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for black).


==History==
==History==

Revision as of 05:41, 27 August 2010

Afro Mexican
File:Kalimba Marichal and fan crop.jpg
Notable Afro Mexicans:
Melvin Brown, Giovani Dos Santos, Pío Pico, Kalimba
Total population
Estimated at 1% (whether full blooded or visibly significantly black)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Costa Chica of Guerrero, Costa Chica of Oaxaca, and small communities in Veracruz
Languages
Spanish
Religion
Christianity (Predominantly Roman Catholic, with a minority of Protestants or and African tribal religions)
Related ethnic groups
African people, Afro-Latin American, Afro-Brazilian and Mexican people

Afro Mexican (Spanish: afromexicano) is a term mainly used outside of Mexico to identify Mexicans of predominantly African ancestry or African descended people elsewhere who have part Mexican ancestry[citation needed]. Now largely assimilated into the general population, Afro Mexicans historically have been located in certain communities, most notably in two coastal areas of Guerrero and Oaxaca (called Costa Chica), and in parts of Veracruz, Campeche, and Quintana Roo.

The term is not widely used by Mexicans or within Mexico itself because in Mexican culture and society it is not customary to use adjuncts to one's nationality as they do in the United States to classify subgroups such as: African-Americans, Mexican-Americans, Asian-Americans etc. In other words, Mexicans do not use adjunct phrases such as African-Mexicans, Asian-Mexicans or White-Mexicans in their common speech; each group is respectively named by their category alone. Afro-Mexicans are usually just called "Negros" (Spanish for Black).

History


When the Spanish first arrived in Mesoamerica, they brought with them a small number Africans as servants. One of these was Juan Cortés, a slave who accompanied the conquistador Hernán Cortés in 1519. Mexican anthropologist Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán estimates there were about six Africans who took part in the conquest of Mexico. They contributed to the conquistadors' success in New Spain, but they did not share in the spoils.

The decline of the Amerindian population and the difficulty of turning the reluctant Native Americans into slaves - plus a later papal prohibition against enslaving Indians, caused the Spanish to import large numbers of slaves from Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal, Gambia, Nigeria, the Congo, and Angola.

The Spanish restricted contact between the slaves and the Indians to discourage them from joining forces against them. Intermarriage between them was also discouraged by the Roman Catholic clergy. Those children born of mixed African and Indian parentage were called Lobos in the caste system of New Spain; they were known as Zambos in other parts of Spanish America. Ironically, Africans soon outnumbered Europeans in some areas, and the Spanish had to resort to discriminatory laws to ensure they remained the dominant group.

Slavery in the early colonial period was often harsh and led to occasional resistance. In 1609 Gaspar Yanga and Francisco de la Matosa led an African revolt in Veracruz. After several fierce battles, Yanga succeeded in negotiating peace with the Spanish viceroy, Luis de Velasco. A black community of "San Lorenzo" (later renamed Yanga) was founded and still exists. However, this did not end all hostilities. The Spanish crown sent a mixed force of Indians, Creoles (Mexican-born Spanish), and Mestizos (mixed race Spanish and Indian) to pacify the area to end to the actions of the fugitive slaves.

Jesuit priest Juan Florencio Laurencio recorded the events. He said the Spanish troops who left Puebla to put down the rebellions in January of 1609 numbered around 550, of which some 100 were Spanish soldiers and the rest recruits and adventurers.[2] In 1612 Spanish authorities feared a new rebellion was about to begin. They imprisoned, tortured and eventually executed 33 slaves (twenty-nine men and four women). Their heads were cut off and placed on display in the main square of Mexico City as an example.[3]

Some of the Afro Mexicans in Yucatán relocated to Belize, where there is a still a small African presence. In recent years, Afro Mexican numbers been have increased by immigrants from Caribbean countries and even Africans who came as contract workers. Many Afro Mexicans have migrated elsewhere to improve themselves economically. Most went to the United States, where they are simply included in the general category of Hispanic Americans.

The black population of New Spain in the very early sixteenth century constituted only about one percent of the total.[4] However, by 1646 their number had grown to 35,089 due to the importation of many African slaves. The number declined in later years, and by 1742 only 15,980 remained.[5]

Palenques

To escape the oppression of slavery, some African cimarrón slaves fled to the mountains and formed their own settlements. These were called palenques throughout the Spanish colonies in North and South America. The palenque in Veracruz was composed of mostly Afro Mexican males. The cimarrónes in the Veracruz region were a force of 100 fighters with firearms, plus 400 more armed with clubs, machetes, and bows and arrows; they would periodically raid Indian villages or rob merchants. They were led by an Angolan runaway slave named Francisco de la Matosa. Gaspar Yanga, who was already old, showed them how to use their superior knowledge of the ground to cause the Spanish enough casualties that they were willing to negotiate.[2]

Another palenque was Cuajinicuilapa in the state of Guerrero. It was home to Afro Mexicans descended from slaves who escaped from the sugar and coffee plantations along the coast and settled in the mountains of Guerrero.[citation needed] The villagers today maintain a museum that displays their history. They continue their African heritage by preserving traditional dances and music.

The end of slavery

The 1810 declaration of Independence of Mexico called for the banning of slavery and the caste system. This was not accomplished until independence was accomplished in 1821. The ban called for the death penalty for those who violated it. Nevertheless, some forms of virtual slavery", such as the tienda de raya (workers under perpetual debt), continued until the early 20th century; the victims of this type of slavery were usually American Indians.

Admixture Graph, Bonilla et al. 2005

Mixed population

The Afro Mexican population today is of very mixed ancestry; many ignore, or have forgotten, the African part of their ancestry. The predominant mainstream Mexican culture has only minor African influences. The Mexican hero Emiliano Zapata was one of the few with obvious African ancestry. African ancestry is still noticeable in small groups such as those in the Costa Chica region, and some other Mexicans may retain phenotypical clues to African ancestry.

Admixture levels in Mexico have been studied by the genome project of the National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN). Their studies have shown a strong presence of Amerindian and European genetic contributions to the overall Mexican population, with only a very small African contribution that is slightly above the East Asian genetic admixture.[1][6]

According to antropologist Beltran, miscegenation began almost immediately and was encouraged with the hope of the children being free.[citation needed] The ship manifests found by Beltran account for at least 250,000 African slaves, and this does not include probably doctored manifests after the international slave trade had been outlawed on the high seas.

Current situation

Many Afro Mexicans live the Costa Chica, a 300-km (200-mile) long coastal region beginning southeast of Acapulco and ending at Huatulco. (Vaughn, 2004). Most make their living by farming and fishing. The Costa Chica is also occupied by many indigenous people, and Bobby Vaughn, creator of the website "Black Mexico," describes the relationship between those of African descent and the Native Americans as strained.[7].

In recent years, discourse has taken place over why so little is known about the African-origin population of Mexico. During the nationalistic movement in the 1940s, the Mexican government argued that there is no distinction made between white, mestizo, mulatto, black, or Amerindian. Thus the population is classified on cultural bases instead of racial. Most of the population is classified as mestizo, a term used in Mexico only for those of just European and American Indian ancestry. Charles Henry Rowell, editor of the Callaloo Journal, believes the majority of the descendants of African slaves have become indistinuishable through assimilation and miscegenation (2004). In Mexico, only those with very dark skin and obvious African features are called "negros", and the Afro Mexican population is not viewed as a community.

Lack of acknowledgment makes it difficult for Afro Mexicans to take pride in their African heritage. Many have chosen to assimilate completely into Mexican society, and a survey in 2005 found that most who show obvious African ancestry prefer to be considered mestizos. There is also outside pressure from other Mexicans that causes them to assimilate. Because their existence is not widely known, they are often mistaken for illegal immigrants from Belize or elsewhere in Latin America (Sailer, 2002). There have been many reports of Afro Mexicans being stopped by the police and being forced to sing the Mexican national anthem (Graves, 2004). This discrimination [1] causes many Afro-Mexicans to try to conceal their African ancestry.

Despite being faced with discrimination and poverty, some Afro Mexicans openly embrace their African heritage and want it to be recognized. Afro Mexicans in Coyolillo, in Veracruz, celebrate Carnival, which has its roots in Africa. In the village of El Ciruelo, a small number of Afro-Mexicans have organized as Mexico Negro and are fighting to have racial categories added to the census (Graves, 2004). The National Institute of Statistics, Geography, and Data Processing (INEGI) [2] census does not record race. It is based only on socio-economic criteria.

A total of at least 200,000 Africans were brought to Mexico as slaves during the time of the Spanish Empire (Sailer, 2002). Although it is not common knowledge, anthropologist Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán calls them "The third root".

Costa Chica

Costa Chica is one two regions in Mexico with significant black population today, the other being Veracruz. Costa Chica is a 200-mile (320 km) long coastal region. The climate is very hot most of the year, and the summer rains make transportation difficult. There are few tourist attractions in the parts of the Costa Chica where most Afro Mexicans live, though there are a few pleasant local beaches: Playa Ventura and Punta Maldonado in Guerrero and the beach at Corralero in Oaxaca.

Most homes in the region traditionally are round mud huts, whose form has been traced to what is now Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Nowadays, however, more popular is a one-room or two-room house with wall of either adobe or cement cinder block.

The economic base of the Costa Chica, like most of the rest of the countryside, is agricultural. These campesinos (peasant farmers) concentrate on cultivating corn, used mainy to make tortillas for their own consumption. Other crops are coconut, mango, sesame, and some watermelon.

Notable Afro-Mexicans

Athletes

Entertainers

Historical figures

Writers

Politicians

Fictional figures

The comic character Memín Pinguín, whose magazine has been available in Latin America, the Philippines, and the United States newsstands for more than 60 years, is an Afro-Cuban. The Mexican Government issued a series of five stamps in 2005 honoring the Memín comic book series. The issue of these stamps was considered racist by some groups in the United States and praised by the Mexican audience who remember growing up with the magazine.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b www.inmegen.gob.mx
  2. ^ a b Pasquel, Leonardo. Campaña contra Yanga en 1608. Indiana University: 1974.
  3. ^ http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/04701733133526751032268/p0000001.htm
  4. ^ http://etzakutarakua.colmich.edu.mx/videoteca/eventos/XXVIIColoquio/pdf/01Poblaci%C3%B3n%20de%20Chiapas%20y%20M%C3%A9xico%20(1585-2000).pdf
  5. ^ http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/1934-blacks-in-mexico-a-brief-overview
  6. ^ www.pnas.org
  7. ^ http://www.afromexico.com

Bibliography

  • Bennett, Herman L. "Africans in Colonial Mexico: Absolutism, Christianity, and Afro-Creole Consciousness, 1570-1640." Bloomington, Indiana.: Indiana University Press, 2003.
  • Bennett, Herman L. "Colonial Blackness: A History of Blacks in Mexico." Bloomington, Indiana.: Indiana University Press, 2009.
  • Cuevas, Marco Polo Hernandez. "African Mexicans and the Discourse on Modern Nation." Lanham, Maryland.: University Press of America, 2004.
  • Bristol, Joan Cameron. "Christians, Blasphemers and Witches: Afro Mexican Ritual Practice in the Seventeenth Century." Albuquerque.: University of New Mexico Press, 2007.
  • Carroll, Patrick J. "Blacks in Colonial Veracruz: Race, Ethnicity and Regional Development." Austin.: University of Texas Press, 2001.
  • Githiora, Chege. "Afro Mexicans: Discourse of Race and Identity in the African Diaspora." Newark, New Jersey, Africa World Press, 2008.
  • Restall, Matthew. "The Black Middle: Africans, Mayans and Spaniards in Colonial Yucatan." Palo Alto, California.: Stanford University Press, 2009.
  • Salas, Mario Marcel. "Patterns of Persistence: Paternal Colonialist Structures and the Radical Opposition in the African American Community of San Antonio, Texas 1937-2001." M.A. Thesis, University of Texas at San Antonio, College of Liberal and Fine Arts, 2004. Copies at John Peace Library, University of Texas at San Antonio, 2004.
  • Vinson III, Ben. Bearing Arms for His Majesty: The Free-Colored Militia in Colonial Mexico. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001.
  • Vinson III, Ben, Bobby Vaughn, and Clara García Ayluardo. Afroméxico: el pulso de la población negra en México, una historia recordada, olvidada y vuelta a recordar. México, D.F.: Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económica, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2004.
  • Vinson III, Ben. "Black Mexico: Race and Society from Colonial to Modern Times." Albuquerque, New Mexico.: University of New Mexico Press, 2009.
  • Von Germeten, Nicole. "Black Blood Brothers: Confraternities and Social Mobility for Afro Mexicans." Gainesville, Florida.: University Press of Florida, 2006.
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