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| accessdate = 11 October 2010
| accessdate = 11 October 2010
}}</ref> The main troops of the army were the infantry, artillery and light and heavy cavalry. The function of the heavy cavalry was to protect the light armored infantry and artillery, while the other corps delivered random, surprise assaults on the enemy. One important victory of the Black Army of Hungary was at the [[Battle of Breadfield]] where the [[Hungarians]] defeated the Ottomans. The death of Matthias Corvinus meant the end of the ''Black Army'' since [[Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Vladislaus II]] was not able to cover the cost of the army.
}}</ref> The main troops of the army were the infantry, artillery and light and heavy cavalry. The function of the heavy cavalry was to protect the light armored infantry and artillery, while the other corps delivered random, surprise assaults on the enemy. One important victory of the Black Army of Hungary was at the [[Battle of Breadfield]] where the [[Hungarians]] defeated the Ottomans. The death of Matthias Corvinus meant the end of the ''Black Army'' since [[Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Vladislaus II]] was not able to cover the cost of the army.

==Captain-General John Hunyadi and Origins==

[[Image:Louis role.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The high point of Hungary's territory expansion under [[Louis the Great]]'s leadership in 1370s]]
[[Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages|Medieval Hungary]] had long standing strong and well known European military traditions prior to the [[15th century]]. Under the aegis of [[Louis the Great]], Hungary had assembled the zenith of her territorial expansion that covered a prodigious block of allied and [[vassal]] nations in [[Central Europe]] whose end points where the [[Baltic]], [[Adriatic]] and [[Black Sea]]. All of the region around [[Naples]] and Italian holdings south of the city on the [[Italian Peninsula]] were under the administration of the Hungarian Crown. Hungary was one of the more prosperous empires in Europe that went largely unaffected by the [[Black Death]], allowing it to focus its preeminent power in Europe during this era with a fine navy to match. This brought it into unavoidable and inevitable collision with the expansionist Muslim [[Ottoman Empire]] encroaching into the [[Balkans]].

By the 1440s, the Turkish military onslaught in the south had seemed unstoppable to [[Christian world|Christian Europe]]. Large tracts of the Balkan Peninsula were subsumed by the Turkish juggernaut. Most of the Balkans were directly controlled or heavily influenced by subduing Turkish invasions aimed at the heart of [[Central Europe]]. The gateway to universal Muslim aggrandizement and conquest was the powerful Kingdom of Hungary that stood in its way. The southern military frontier of Hungary was the scene of constant buffeting that was on the verge of buckling under weight of Turkish incursions. One by one Hungarian fortresses and cities in the south were besieged, sacked or controlled by the powerful Ottomans. Only [[Belgrade]], which experienced a full spectrum attack in 1440, withstood the grand imperial Turkish legions.
[[File:Budapest Heroes square Hunyadi János.jpg|thumb|320px|right|Statue of Hunyadi, [[Hősök tere|Heroes' Square]], [[Budapest]], Hungary]]
Into this chaotic and desperate sequence of military reversals entered the much renowned John Hunyadi. This astute soldier who came from a minor [[Transylvanian]] noble background of debated origins, had a meotric rise within the [[Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian aristocracy]]. Hunyadi were to leave an earnest impression on European history for his uncompromising brilliant career as the pre-eminent [[tactician]] and [[strategist]] of the [[Late Middle Ages]]. First as merely a proven soldier, he quickly rose in rank to the captiancy of Belgrade, later the [[Voivode of Transylvania]], before becoming the most powerful magnate with the greatest means and holdings as Captain-General and later Regent-General of Hungary. There is much resonance between John Hunyadi's life and career and those of [[Oliver Cromwell]] and King [[Richard the Lionheart]] in the English-speaking world.
[[File:Budapest Heroes square Hunyadi János.jpg|thumb|320px|right|Statue of Hunyadi, [[Hősök tere|Heroes' Square]], [[Budapest]], Hungary]]
It was Hunyadi's military genius as Christian [[generalissimo]], with sheer will of his personality and prowess, that he was able to stem the tide and prosecute preventive and oft-muscular crusading warfare policies that weld together many Christian nationalities against vastly numerically superior Ottoman forces. Hunyadi's leadership achieved a state of integrity, stalemate and ''détente'' for the Hungarian Kingdom and the many European states that lay to her periphery. Hunyadi's principal renown in Central Europe as the indispensable national and Christian paladin and exemplar of defensive Christian warfare has to do with his odds-defying and remarkable overthrow of the huge grand Ottoman army that was [[Siege of Belgrade|investing Belgrade in 1456]] that effectively saved Christian Europe from being overrun as a [[macro-historical]] significant world event.
Hunyadi's aim to re-organize the military constituents of Hungary from strictly feudal-based levies into an efficient, professional and formidable standing army would bring reform to European military components in a 'post-Roman' European world. These reforms were further developed by his successor and son King Matthias Corvinus who took them to their ultimate culmination with creation of the Black Army of Hungary. Hunyadi is often considered the first bellwether of the European "post-Roman" professional "Standing Army".


==Development of a modern well-organized drafting==
==Development of a modern well-organized drafting==

Revision as of 23:44, 3 January 2011

Black Army
Standard of the Black legion
Active1458 to 1490 AD
Disbanded1490, causes:Financial (disbanded), elimination (due to mercenary uprising)
CountryHungary
AllegianceCzech (Bohemian, Moravian, Silesian), Polish, Serbian, German-speaking
BranchArmy, Navy
TypeCavalry, Infantry, Artillery, Siege Weapons
Sizeapprox. 28.000
HeraldryThis characteristic flag with a forked tail was reconstructed after a miniature in Philostratus Chronicle, one of the Corvinas, representing the 1485 entry of János Corvinus, son of king Matthew, into Vienna. The black colour of the flag used to be white (argent) in fact, but the argent paint oxidized. The reconstruction preserves the original colour.
Mascot(s)Raven
EngagementsHoly Roman Empire, Bohemia, Serbia, Bosnia, Moldavia, Wallachia, Italy
Commanders
KingMatthias Corvinus
Notable
commanders		Pál Kinizsi, Balázs Magyar, Imre Zápolya, John Giskra, John Haugwitz, František Hag

The Black Army (Hungarian: Fekete sereg, pronounced [ˈfɛkɛtɛ ˈʃɛrɛɡ] 'Black Legion or Regiment'—possibly named after their black armor panoply, see below) is in historiography the common name given to the excellent quality of diverse and polyglot military forces serving under the reign of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. The ancestor and core of this early standing mercenary army appeared in the era of his father (John Hunyadi) in the early 1440s.

It is recognized as one of the main standing continental European fighting force not under conscription and its founder King Matthias is often compared to Julius Caesar.[1] Hungary's Black Army traditionally encompasses the years from 1458 to 1490. The men of the Black Army fought as well-paid, full-time mercenaries and were purely devoted to the arts of warfare. Most European mercenary armies of the era were conscripted from the general population at times of crisis and soldiers worked as bakers, farmers, brick-makers, etc. for most of the year. It was an unusually large standing mercenary army for its time, and it conquered parts of Austria, Vienna (1485) and parts of Moravia.[2]

The core of the army originally consisted of 8-10 thousand mercenaries, later increasing to a permanent size of 30.000 men and doubling during invasions. The soldiers were mainly Bohemians, Germans, Serbs, Poles[3] and, from 1480, Hungarians. Every fifth soldier in the Black Army had an arquebus in the infantry, which was an unusual ratio at the time. The high price of medieval gunpowder prevented them to raise it any further.[4] The main troops of the army were the infantry, artillery and light and heavy cavalry. The function of the heavy cavalry was to protect the light armored infantry and artillery, while the other corps delivered random, surprise assaults on the enemy. One important victory of the Black Army of Hungary was at the Battle of Breadfield where the Hungarians defeated the Ottomans. The death of Matthias Corvinus meant the end of the Black Army since Vladislaus II was not able to cover the cost of the army.

Captain-General John Hunyadi and Origins

The high point of Hungary's territory expansion under Louis the Great's leadership in 1370s

Medieval Hungary had long standing strong and well known European military traditions prior to the 15th century. Under the aegis of Louis the Great, Hungary had assembled the zenith of her territorial expansion that covered a prodigious block of allied and vassal nations in Central Europe whose end points where the Baltic, Adriatic and Black Sea. All of the region around Naples and Italian holdings south of the city on the Italian Peninsula were under the administration of the Hungarian Crown. Hungary was one of the more prosperous empires in Europe that went largely unaffected by the Black Death, allowing it to focus its preeminent power in Europe during this era with a fine navy to match. This brought it into unavoidable and inevitable collision with the expansionist Muslim Ottoman Empire encroaching into the Balkans.

By the 1440s, the Turkish military onslaught in the south had seemed unstoppable to Christian Europe. Large tracts of the Balkan Peninsula were subsumed by the Turkish juggernaut. Most of the Balkans were directly controlled or heavily influenced by subduing Turkish invasions aimed at the heart of Central Europe. The gateway to universal Muslim aggrandizement and conquest was the powerful Kingdom of Hungary that stood in its way. The southern military frontier of Hungary was the scene of constant buffeting that was on the verge of buckling under weight of Turkish incursions. One by one Hungarian fortresses and cities in the south were besieged, sacked or controlled by the powerful Ottomans. Only Belgrade, which experienced a full spectrum attack in 1440, withstood the grand imperial Turkish legions.

Statue of Hunyadi, Heroes' Square, Budapest, Hungary

Into this chaotic and desperate sequence of military reversals entered the much renowned John Hunyadi. This astute soldier who came from a minor Transylvanian noble background of debated origins, had a meotric rise within the Hungarian aristocracy. Hunyadi were to leave an earnest impression on European history for his uncompromising brilliant career as the pre-eminent tactician and strategist of the Late Middle Ages. First as merely a proven soldier, he quickly rose in rank to the captiancy of Belgrade, later the Voivode of Transylvania, before becoming the most powerful magnate with the greatest means and holdings as Captain-General and later Regent-General of Hungary. There is much resonance between John Hunyadi's life and career and those of Oliver Cromwell and King Richard the Lionheart in the English-speaking world.

Statue of Hunyadi, Heroes' Square, Budapest, Hungary

It was Hunyadi's military genius as Christian generalissimo, with sheer will of his personality and prowess, that he was able to stem the tide and prosecute preventive and oft-muscular crusading warfare policies that weld together many Christian nationalities against vastly numerically superior Ottoman forces. Hunyadi's leadership achieved a state of integrity, stalemate and détente for the Hungarian Kingdom and the many European states that lay to her periphery. Hunyadi's principal renown in Central Europe as the indispensable national and Christian paladin and exemplar of defensive Christian warfare has to do with his odds-defying and remarkable overthrow of the huge grand Ottoman army that was investing Belgrade in 1456 that effectively saved Christian Europe from being overrun as a macro-historical significant world event.

Hunyadi's aim to re-organize the military constituents of Hungary from strictly feudal-based levies into an efficient, professional and formidable standing army would bring reform to European military components in a 'post-Roman' European world. These reforms were further developed by his successor and son King Matthias Corvinus who took them to their ultimate culmination with creation of the Black Army of Hungary. Hunyadi is often considered the first bellwether of the European "post-Roman" professional "Standing Army".

Development of a modern well-organized drafting

Military actions of Matthias Corvinus and the Black Army[5] [6]

In the first years of Matthias' rule, the structure of enlisting troops was built on the legacy of his ancestor Sigismund of Luxembourg. The majority of his army consisted of noble banners and the soldiers provided and regulated by the Militia Portalis English: manor militia,[7] which outlined that for every twenty serf-lots (portae) a noble was ordered to raise and lend one archer to the king. Later, that obligation was reconsidered and the limit was shifted to an archer per 33 manors and three mounted archers per 100 manors. Those who didn't have serfs but owned manors as a noble had to join a regional count in state of war. No significant number of mercenaires were present in the Hungarian army during Matthias' early years. (In the 1463 Janus Pannonius' report of the siege of Jajce Castle, there is no mention of them.)

In case of emergency, a last chance existed for the actual king in power to suddenly mobilize the population. Every noble, no matter his social class, had to participate in person with his weaponry and all of his personal guards made available. Whenever they were called upon they were not allowed to fight for over 15 days and their field of operations was restricted within the borders of Hungary. The so-called insurrectio (noble insurrection) was nothing more than an obsolete form of drafting but it was valid until the Battle of Raab in 1809, mainly because it relieved the participting nobles of paying their taxes. But generally, these enlisted armada played a minor role in the Black Army since Matthias decreased their participation gradually and called them in in large numbers early in his reign.[8]

In the laws of 1459 of Szeged, he restored the basis of 20 serfs induct an archer (this time it was based on the numbers of persons). The barons' militia portalis no longer counted in the local noble's banner but into the army of the county (led by a captain appointed by the king) and could have been sent abroad as well. He also lifted the insurrectio's time of service from 15 days to 3 months.[9]

From the first mercenaires to regularly paid soldiers

Country Type Ruler Size of army Deployment Year of military census
Kingdom of England ad-hoc levy Edward I 28,700 Falkirk campaign1 1298
Kingdom of France feudal levy Philip IV 44,700 Anglo‑Scottish wars2 1340
Republic of Venice temporary mercenary Doge Tommaso Mocenigo 36,000 peacetime garrison3 15th century
Duchy of Milan temporary mercenary Filippo Maria Visconti Duke of Milan 30,000 Battle of Maclodio4 1427
Kingdom of Hungary standing mercenary army King Matthias Corvinus 28,000 Siege of Vienna5 1486
Ottoman Empire mixed - utmost opportune levy Sultan Mehmet II 100,000 Siege of Belgrade6 1456
Duchy of Savoy Italian mercenaires, English mercenaries Count Amadeus 3,000 Gallipoli7 1366
Taxonomy
Table 1 :Largest Middle Age European armies

Comparison of 15th century armies in focus of their size[10]
1combined of 3,000 heavy cavalry and over 25,700 infantry
2consisting of 28,000 men-at-arms and 16,700 foot soldiers
3crew of the navy of 3,300 ships[11]
4estimated[12]
5(2/3 of which are cavalry)
6round number
7:300 Venitian brigandi[13], English condottiero led by Enguerrand de Coucy[14]

Though these efforts were sound, the way they were carried out wasn't in any way supervised. In 1458, Matthias borrowed as much as 500 heavy cavalry from George of Poděbrady to strengthen his situation at home against his rival landlords. This marks the turning-point away from obsolete noble banners to skilled soldiers of fortune (in this case they were remnants of Hussites whose battle tactics were later adapted by the Black Army).[8] He needed more seasoned veterans so he chose to settle a group of rogue Czech army deserters led by John Jiskra who were already plundering the northern countryside seeking daily loot. Jiskra was promised royal pardon in the Peace Treaty of Wiener Neustadt of 1463 and two castles (Şoimuş and Lipova and his soldiers received a payment of 25.000 ducats. The next year he was stationed in Bosnia to fight the Ottomans.[15] Also in 1462, the king sent word to his equerry that he should hire 8.000 cavalry to start a holy war against the Ottoman Empire only if the Venetians - according to their promise - covered the expenses (unfortunately for the Hungarians, this financial aid was postponed from time to time). The first major and mass conscription of mercenaries appeared during the Bohemian Wars (1468–78) whereas the core of his royal infantry a force of 6.000-8.000 armed men were incorporated into the Black Army (the origins of the moniker could also come from this era)[16]

The term Black Army and its captains

Several speculations arose about the cognomen that the army is identified with. The fact is that no recorded accounts mention the "black" attribute until the death of King Matthias. They are referred so in written memorandums only after he passed, when the rest of the notorious army was already pillaging the borderline villages when they received no pay. One theory suggests that they wore a black stripe on their shoulder as a sign of mourning their lord. Italian middle-age historian, Bonfini, used the word only to describe the "toughness" of veterans serving in their lines. Others suppose that one of their famed captains Frantisek Hag's black chestplate inspired the name. A third idea is that they adopted the adjective from another captain, "Black" John Haugwitz, whose nickname already earned him heroic recognition during the campaigns. It is worth mentioning that since no such name as the "Black Army" existed when Matthias' army was in service, all of his leaders, who were in charge of different army branches, count as Black Army generals. Apart from John Jiskra, several reputed head-of-army reached perpetual reputation, even the infamous Vlad Țepeș, whose name is nowadays widely recognized as Count Dracula. Another noteworthy general was Pál Kinizsi who helped Corvinus' successor, Uladislaus II, to dissolve what remained of the discontent - sacking - Black Army.[8]

Funding the army to its greatest extent

After Matthias' income increased periodically, simultaneously, the number of mercenaries increased as well. Historical records vary when it comes to numbers mainly because it changed form battle to battle and most soldiers were only employed for the duration of combat or a longer conflict. Reckoning the nobility's banners, the mercenaries, the soldiers of conquered Moravia and Silesia, and the troops of allied Moldovia and Wallachia, the king could have gathered an enormous army of 90.000 men. (Despite the huge peasant/shepherd levies, Wallachia and Moldavia remained vassal countries of Hungary or Poland and, later, the Ottoman Empire.) The nobility's participation in the battlefield were ignored by the time their support could have been redeemed in gold later on. The cities were also relieved of paying war-levies if they supplied the craftsmanship and weapon production to equip the military.

King Matthias greatly increased the serf's taxes; he switched the basis of taxing from the portae to the households and, occasionally, they collected the royal dues twice a year during wartime. Counting the vassals' tribute, the western contributions, the local nobility's war payment, the tithes, and the urban taxes, Matthias' annual income reached 650.000 florins, while his sworn enemy, the Ottoman Empire (vastly larger in size) had 1.800.000. In contrast to popular belief, historians have speculated for decades that the actual sum altogether could circle around 800.000 florins in a good year at the peak of Matthias' reign, but never surpassed the financial threshold of one million florins, a previously commonly accepted number.[17] In 1467, Matthias Corvinus reformed the coin system to see to the easier accumulation of taxes and manageable disbursements and introduced an improved dinar, which had a finer silver content (500‰) and weighted half a gram. He also re-established its ratio, where one florin of gold equaled 100 dinars of silver, which was so stable that it remained in place until the mid-16th century.[18]

The army was divided into three parts: the cavalry, paid 3 florins per horse; the pavisors received double the money; and the archers, light infantry and arquebusiers, with the latter consisting of mostly Bohemian, Germans and Poles (all paid differently). Medieval gunpowder was quite expensive so the king preferred adapting Hussite tactics to mounted warfare (based on defense, placing infantry behing wagon blockades or tall pavises, while the cavalry contantly harassed the enemy and guarded the "middle") and placed archery in favor of fusiliers with the latter being engaged at the very start of the battle. With firearm production being made available by local marksmen in Transylvania, especially in Braşov,[8][19] [20] these type of ranged infantry became cheaper to handle for the Hungarians.[9]

Improving the river fleet

The river fleet ([flottila or naszád] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help)) was composed of wooden galleys, rowboats (later upgraded to gunboats) and smaller ships, which were capable of sailing up the rivers Danube, Tisza and Sava. The victory at the Belgrade in 1456, where the fleet played a significant role in breaking through the Turkish river blockade to bring relief to the besieged city, showed its importance and signaled the beginning of a recognition of its significance. It also encouraged King Matthias to build a larger and better equipped navy. Since they were manned by South Slavs, mainly Serbs and Croats, the two major ports of operations were Belgrade and Šabac. In 1475, concomitantly with the introduction of field guns, he ordered the installation of artillery onto the river barges as well as bombards able to shot cannonballs ranging from 100-200 lb. In 1479, he had a mixed fleet of 360 vessels, a crew of 2600 sailors, and a capacity of 10.000 soldiers on board.[9][21] Matthias also secured an exit to the Adriatic Sea, the city-port of Zengg from which Balázs Matthias could embark for his maritime campaigns.[6] Matthias could also monitor the trade going through the Danube delta to the Black Sea from the City of Kilia, but during his reign, it was seized by the Moldavian army supported by the Ottoman fleet.[22]

Uprisings within the Black Army

The disadvantage of having periodically or occasionally paid recruits was that if their money hadn't arrived on time, they simply left the battlefield or - in a worse scenario - they revolted, as it happened in several instances. Since they were the same skilled men-at-arms led by the same charismatic leaders previously fighting under the Hungarian King, they were as hard to eliminate as the Black Army was to its enemies. However they could be outnumbered since it was always a flank or division which quit a campaign. An easier solution was when the captain accepted some lands and castles to be mortgaged in return of service (e.g. Hričovský hrad, Bytča to František Hag). An example of mass desertion occurred in 1481 when a group of 300 horsemen joined the opposing Holy Roman forces. One of the most memorable insurrections was conducted by Jan Svehla who accompanied Corvinus to Slavonia in 1465 to beat the Ottomans. But when they were approaching Zagreb, Svehla asked for royal permission to officially quit the offensive with his mercenaries due to financial difficulty. His request was denied and as a consequence, he and two of his vice-captains left, along with their regiments, the royal banner.

George of Poděbrady secretly supported their invasion into the Comitatus of Nitra and their occupation of the fort of Kosztolány. The average man in the army was a Czech or Moravian professional, previously in service for Podebrad and Frederick III. Apart from the militia, there were religious outcasts (considered heretics) looking for shelter, including Hussite Brethrens and rogue Moravian Žebraks[nb 1] who favoured pillaging instead of payment. Svehla established a well-defended fort and he appointed Jorig Lichtenburger and Vöttau as comeses for the county. The fort and its looting inhabitants had a surrounding sphere of influence ranging from the valleys of Váh and Nitra to the eastern provinces of Austria. Matthias realized the threat and ordered two of his "upper-land" captains to besiege Kosztolany, namely Stefan Zápolya and Ladislaus Podmaniczky. After returning from Slavonia the King joined the siege. It is worth mentioning that here, among few occasions, Matthias cooperated with Frederick. He sent a strong armoured mounted troop led by commander Ulrich von Grafeneck to help wipe out these brigades. When he reached Pressburg, he was reinforced by Knight Georg Pottendorfer with 600 crusader cavalry. This totaled 8-10 thousand people ready to besiege who began an assault after taking some minor fortifications on 1 January 1467. The experienced vanguard of the Black Army officers were present against their former ally. They included the Palatinate Mihály Országh, Jan Jiskra, Jan Haugwitz, Balázs Magyar, Pál Kinizsi, Nicholaus Ujlaki Ban of Mačva, and Peter Sobi Ban of Bosnia-Croatia-Dalmatia, with the latter-most dying in the assault. Before the siege began, Matthias offered Svehla the chance to return to his service in exchange for a unconditional surrender on all grounds. After a refusal, he immediately began the siege and the cannon-firing despite the harsh winter conditions. Svehla and his 2.500 men (and additional citizens) resisted the superior besiegers, but food storages reached extremely low levels by time and all the efforts to break out were unsuccessful so he decided to capitulate twice to Matthias with the aforementioned taking his revenge in rejecting it. After three weeks Svehla feigned a break-out attempt in the front while getting out from the rear through the water channel. Though his physically weak and exhausted entourage of 2.000 infantry tried to elude the besieging forces, they weren't fast enough to escape safely. Balázs Magyar and Pál Kinizsi rode down to the fort of Čachtice where they clashed. Almost all of the rioters fell, only 250 taken as prisoners. Svehla evaded capture again but was put in custody by peasants by the time he was too debilitated to fight.

Matthias doomed him to hanging along with the remaining couple of hundred prisoners. This was King Matthias Corvin's most violent retaliation ever recorded. The very next day on 31 January 1467, witnessing the executions, the garrison asked for mercy and it was granted; and as a good example of the King's magnanimity, after taking Kosztolány he hired František Hag, officer member of the resistance group captainship in the Black Army since he found him skilled enough. Although in another case in 1474, František Hag revolted due to lack of pay but the conflict ended without violence and he remained Matthias' subject until his death.[6][8][24]

Branches, tactics, equipments

Heavy Cavalry

At the height of the century, the heavy cavalry was already at its peak although it showed signs of declining tendencies. The striking power and the ability to charge without backup made them capable of forcing a decisive outcome in most battles. Although they were rarely deployed on their own, if they were, they would take square formations. Such turning-points occurred at the battle of Breadfield (1479). Usually they made up one-sixth of the army and with mercenary knights were in the majority. Their armament was well-prepared and of high quality except for the noble banners. This stands for proprietary arms not the ones provided by the King.

Weaponry

  • Lances: The lance was the principal assault weapon of the tilting heavy cavalry. They were about 4 meters long, ranging from the classical lance type of spears with a lengthened spearhead (often decorated with animal tails, flags or other ornaments), to the short conical spearheaded, one designed for piercing heavy armour. Their safe grip could be implemented using a buckler-like vamplate. Its stabibity was increased with a hook (lance-arret) on the side of the horseman's cuirass that it could be attached.
Parts of a longsword.
  • Swords: The most common swords of the era originated from Southern Europe. They were 1 meter long with an "S"-shaped crossguard with an edge designed to slice rather than to pierce because of its rounded pinpoint. Its thick pommel was useful for balancing and for whizzing in close combat. The other version which became popular in the second half of the century, where the whole body is very similar except for the quillon, was bent towards the pin for the purpose of breaking or clinching the enemy's blade. The 130–140 cm long bastardswords also came into use. As a companion weapon, daggers of saw-toothed and flame-form type were applied (both with ring-guard) and a misericordia.
  • Apart from these, they carried auxiliary weapons such as Gothic maces, flanged maces (irontriangles-covered headed maces perfected by the Hungarians), axes and crossbows (balistrero ad cavallo) and pavise type rectangular short shield (scutum, (petit pavois) for defense.[25]

Light cavalry

The traditional hussars were introduced by Matthias; henceforth the light cavalry is called huszár, a name derived from the word húsz (twenty in English), which refers to the drafting scheme where for every twenty serfs a noble owned, he had to equip a mounted soldier. After the Diet of Timişoara of 1397, the light cavalry was institutionalized as an arm division. They were the second ranked in order within an army and generally considered an elite force. They assembled from the militia portalis, a significant number of them insurrectios, the Moldavians and Transylvanians with the first having serfs with lesser accoutrement and the latter generally regarded as good horsearchers. They were divided into groups of 25 (turma) led by a captain (capitaneus gentium levis armature). Their field of operation was scouting, securing, prowling, cutting enemy supply lines, and disarraying them in battle. They also served as an additional maneuverable flank (for swooping advance attacks) to strong centers of heavy cavalry.

Weaponry

Helmet, mail shirt, sabre, targe, spear and in some cases throwing axes and topors.

  • Sabres (szablya): One type followed the tradition of Southern European longswords ("S"-shaped crossguard), while gradually transforming into an Eastern style blended (Turkish) sabre. The other type was the so-called huszarszablya (hussarsabre), a 40mm thick multi-layered sabre stuck with 3–6 rivets.
  • Bows: The traditional Magyar composite bow and, due to heavy Eastern influence, the more powerful Turkish-Tatar bow came into play.
  • Axes: Throwing axes could also have had some role in light cavalry weaponry. It was made from one piece of metal, with a short engraved haft. If the arc of the blade is almost flat or slightly curved, it is called the Hungarian type axe. A subsidiary to the aforementioned beaked pickaxe was also favored: it had a beak-looking, protruding edge resulting in a stronger piercing effect.[25]

Infantry

Infantry was less important but formed a stable basis in the integrity of an army. They were organized from mixed ethnicities and were composed of heavy infantry, shielded soldiers, light infantry and fusiliers. Their characteristics include the combination of plate and mail armour, and the use of the pavises (these painted willow-wood large shields were often ornamented and covered with leather and linen). The latter served for multiple purposes: to hold enemy attack, cover ranged infantry shooting from behind (fusiliers engage first, the archer fire constantly), and moveable hussite-style Tabor (with a restricted deployment of war wagons in number).

Weaponry

various long-range weapons including bows, crossbows, arquebuses; all sorts of melee weapons, halberds, pikes, awl-pikes; hussite/peasant weapons such as slings, frails; handweapons like morgensterns and war-hammers, and classical swords and sabres.

  • Melee weapons: Corseques, glaives, partisans, Friulian spears, and halberds were all adapted depending on the social class and nationality of the infatrymen. The 15th-century type of halberd was a transition which mixed the hatchet with the awl-pike, sometimes affixed with a "beak" that was used the pull a knight off his horse and to inrease its piercing impact. They were covered with metal langlets on the side to prevent being cut in two.
  • Archery: The most valuable archers were the crossbowmen. Their number in Matthias' service reached 4.000 in the 1470s. They used sabres as a secondary weapon (which was unusual for infantry in those ages). Their primary advantage was the ability to shoot heavy armour, while the disadvantages were that they required defense to protect them while moving slowly in a standing position.
  • Arquebusiers: Matthias disfavored them compared to archery. They charged in the early stages of battle. Their aiming ability, price and the danger of primitive handcannons (self-exploding) prevented them from being highly effective, especially against smaller groups of people or hand-to-hand combat. A distinctive Hungarian feature was that they didn't use a fork to stabilize their guns but put it on top of the pavese instead (or in some cases on the parapet of a wagon). Two types were simoultanously brought to practice, the schioppi (handgun) and the arquebus à croc (not to be confused with cannons). Three classes of handguns were distinguished: the "bearded" light guns; forked guns; the first primitive muskets (irontube compounded with wooden grip to be pushed against the shoulder). Their calibers varied from 16 to 24mm.[25]
  • Arsenal
  • Glaive
    Glaive
  • Corseque
    Corseque
  • Flanged maces
    Flanged maces
  • Peasant flail
    Peasant flail
  • Bastardsword
    Bastardsword
  • Blended crossguarded sword
    Blended crossguarded sword
  • Morning Stars
    Morning Stars
  • Crossbow and accessories
    Crossbow and accessories

Battles and respective captains of the Black Army

Adolf Liebscher: George of Podjebrady observes the encircling army of Matthias.
Věnceslav Černý: Henry Podebrady's victory over the Hungarians at Uherský Brod in 1469.
Mikoláš Aleš: Meeting of George of Podebrady with Matthias Corvinus.
File:Stanislav Hudeček - Královna Johanna vede české vojsko.jpg
Stanislav Hudeček: Queen Johanna leading a Czech army against Matthias.
Statue of King Matthias (center) with captains Blaise Magyar and Paul Kinizsi on his left.
Portrait of Balázs Magyar.
File:PavelChinezul.jpg
Romantic painting of Paul Kinizsi.
The Battle of Breadfield.
Battleplan at Baia depicting a typical wagon fort formation, characteristic of Hungarian defense (and siege) strategy. Matthias was wounded in the back by arrows.
Battleplan at Vaslui.
Castle of Salgó. Occupied by - then enemy - Jan Jiskra in 1450, it was retaken by Matthias in 1460. According to tradition, Matthias was cut on his face and the scar made angered him to the point where he launched an assault on the nearby Zagyvafő and destroyed the two castles to the ground.[26]

Campaign color codes

Against the Czechs
Against the Holy Roman Empire
Against the Ottomans
Against the Moldavians
Against the Papal State
Against Saxony
Against Venice
Against the Kingdom of Poland
Against the Hussites
Outcome Date Location Captain(s) commissioned
Victory 1488 ۩ Głogów, Duchy of Silesia File:Slaskie Flaga.PNG John Haugwitz[27]
Wilhelm Tettauer
Francis Haraszthy[25]
Victory 1484 Leitzersdorf, Archduchy of Austria Stephen Dávidházy
Dabis Černahora[6]
Victory 1484 ۩ Korneuburg, Archduchy of Austria Stephen Dávidházy†[27]
Dabis Černahora[6]
Victory 1474 ۩ Wrocław, Duchy of Silesia Matthias Corvinus[28]
Melchior Löbel
Jan II the Mad[29]
Victory 1468 Olomouc, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus[30]
Defeat 1469 Hradiště, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus[30]
Victory 1485 ۩ Vienna, Archduchy of Austria Matthias Corvinus[6]
Victory 1487 ۩ Wiener-Neustadt, Archduchy of Austria Matthias Corvinus
Emeric Zápolya[31]
Wilhelm Tettauer[32]
Victory 1480 ۩ Radkersburg, Duchy of Styria Emeric Zápolya[23]
Jacob Szekler [33]
Defeat 1482 ۩ Hainburg, Archduchy of Austria Stefan Zápolya
Wilhelm Tettauer[34]
Victory 1482 ۩ Hainburg, Archduchy of Austria Matthias Corvinus
Emeric Zápolya[23]
Victory 1482 ۩ Kőszeg, Kingdom of Hungary Balthazar Batthyány[35]
Victory 1479 Breadfield, Kingdom of Hungary Paul Kinizsi

Stephen V Báthory
File:Herb Brankovic.jpgVuk Grgurević
Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân

Defeat 1467 Baia, Principality of Moldavia Matthias Corvinus

Stephen V Báthory

Victory 1475 Vaslui, Principality of Moldavia Michael Fants[33]
(supporting army for
the main Moldvian core)
Victory 1463 ۩ Jajce, Bosnia Matthias Corvinus
John Kállay V.
George Parlagi
Paul Kállay I.[36]
Victory 1464 ۩ Jajce, Bosnia Emeric Zápolya[37]
Victory 1464 ۩ Srebrenik, Bosnia Matthias Corvinus
Emeric Zápolya[38]
Defeat 1464 ۩ Zvornik, Bosnia Matthias Corvinus
Emeric Zápolya

Count Sigismund Szentgyörgyi
Berthold Elderbach Monyorókeréki
Nicholas Székely Szentgyörgyi
Ladislaus Kanizsay [38]

Victory 1476 Šabac, Banate of Bosnia George Matucsinai
Stephen V Báthory
František Hag†[38]
Victory 1481 ≠ Otranto, Kingdom of Napoli Blaise Magyar[39]
Victory 1488 ≠ Naples, Kingdom of Napoli Relief troops for his father-in-law
the Neapolitan King[39]
Victory 1487 ≠ Sankt Pölten, Archduchy of Austria Matthias Corvinus[40]
Defeat 1459 Körmend, Kingdom of Hungary Simon Nagy Szentmártoni
Michael Rozgonyi† [41][nb 2]
Victory 1459 Upper Pannonia, Kingdom of Hungary Simon Nagy Szentmártoni [41][nb 2]
Victory 1484 ۩ Bruck, Archduchy of Austria Stephen Dávidházy [32]
Victory 1484 Temesvár, Kingdom of Hungary Paul Kinizsi[44]
Victory 1463 Temesvár, Kingdom of Hungary Ladislaus Pongrácz[45]
Victory 1476 Bela Crkva, Despotate of Serbia
Victory 1482 Zrenjanin, Despotate of Serbia Paul Kinizsi
Peter Dóczy
File:Herb Brankovic.jpg Vuk Grgurević[45]
Defeat 1469 Vilémov, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus (surrender)[nb 3]
Defeat 1469 Uherský Brod, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus[49]
Victory 1469 ۩ Špilberk Castle, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus[50]
Victory 1481 Bosnasaray, Ottoman Empire Matthias Corvinus[51]
Defeat 1479 Veglia, Principality of Krk Blaise Magyar[52]
Victory 1471 ۩ Nitra, Kingdom of Hungary Matthias Corvinus
Emeric Zápolya[nb 4]
Victory 1473 ۩ Michalovce, Kingdom of Hungary Matthias Corvinus
File:Herb Brankovic.jpg Demeter Jaksics
Michael Csupor†

[57]

Victory 1473 ۩ Humenné, Kingdom of Hungary Matthias Corvinus

[57]

Victory 1460 ۩ Salgó Castle, Kingdom of Hungary Matthias Corvinus[26]
Victory 1460 ۩ Zagyvafő Castle, Kingdom of Hungary Matthias Corvinus[26]
Victory 1459 ۩ Sajónémeti, Kingdom of Hungary Matthias Corvinus[26]
Victory 1459 ≠ ۩ Hlohovec, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi
bishop Ladislaus Héderváry[54]
Victory 1458 ≠ ۩ Vadna, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi
bishop Ladislaus Héderváry[26]
Victory 1459 ۩ Sárospatak, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi
bishop Ladislaus Héderváry
Blaise Magyar[26]
Victory 1460 ≠ ۩ Gyöngyöspata, Kingdom of Hungary Matthias Corvinus
Sebastian Rozgonyi
bishop Ladislaus Héderváry[26]
Victory 1458 ≠ ۩ Jasov, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi[58]
Victory 1458 ≠ ۩ Nižná Myšľa, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi
bishop Ladislaus Héderváry
Blaise Magyar[59]
Victory 1462 ۩ Kežmarok Castle, Kingdom of Hungary Stefan Zápolya[26]
Victory 1458 ≠ ۩ Sečovce, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi
Blaise Magyar[59]
Victory 1458 Rimavská Seč, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi[26]
Victory 1462 ۩ Kiliya, Voivodate of Wallachia Vlad Tepes[60]
(Hungarian garrison)
Defeat 1465 ≠ ۩ Kiliya, Voivodate of Wallachia (Hungarian garrison)[22]
1474 ≠ ۩ Várad, Kingdom of Hungary unknown, bishopric castle personnel[nb 5]
† : Denotes captain deceased in battle
۩ : Denotes a siege
≠ : Denotes a minor conflict involving less than 5000 Hungarian units

Notes

  1. ^ Žebrák (in Hungarian:Zsebrák) is a distinctive historical and military term deriving from the same Czech word meaning beggar. It refers to Czech booty-hunters ravaging the northern regions of Hungary in the 15th century (but would submit themselves to any service for proper pay)[23]
  2. ^ a b Matthias I was proclaimed king by the Estates, but he had to wage war against Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor who claimed the throne for himself.[42] Several magnates, such as the Újlaki family, the Garai family and the Szentgyörgy family, supported the emperor's claim and proclaimed him king against King Matthias; the emperor rewarded the brothers Sigismund and John of Szentgyörgy and Bazin with the hereditary noble title "count of the Holy Roman Empire" in 1459 and they thus were entitled to use red sealing wax.[42][43] Although the Counts Szentgyörgyi commenced using their title in their deeds, in the Kingdom of Hungary, public law did not distinguish them from other nobles. The tide turned when they were pleased by Matthias' promises, changed their affiliation and joined forces with him. The second battle thus was successful in defending the Hungarian crown and the integrity of the nobility. The precise location of the battle is unknown since the historical records only guess where it could have situated.
  3. ^ Matthias' attack followed a papal call for crusade against the heretic Czech king. He was promised that Frederick III would join, but it remained oral aid. The defeat at Vilémov happened to be a surrender by Matthias without actual battle due to him wrongly choosing the battleground. He was easily encircled by George of Poděbrady and was left with no option but to set an agreement. They met in a cottage in Ouhrov where they settled the conflict under the terms by which Matthias would help George's coronation be acknowledged by Pope Paul II. Furthermore, the succession of the Czech crown was set between the two kings with George ruling until his death and Matthias inheriting the throne afterwards. Matthias was set free in the counterpart though he abrogated the deal by coronating himself King of Bohemia shortly after.[45][48]
  4. ^ Several sources differ whether a siege, sparse fightings, or retreat caused by famine occurred during the Polish-Hungarian conflict. Caused and followed by an internal revolt of Hungarian nobles and religious leaders led by Janus Pannonius, János Vitéz, and Emeric Zápolya. Casimir IV of Poland was invited and supported by the rebelling nobles so he stepped in and sent his son Casimir as a pretender to the Hungarian throne. He was promised Hungarian reinforcement as the nobles were to join him when he crossed the border. He led his army of 12.000 men towards Kassa where he was about to take the city without resistance. Meanwhile, Matthias was able to settle his dispute with the rebelling factions and convinced them to take his side. The parties agreed and so did Zápolya along with Nicolaus Chiupor de Monoszló who stopped the approaching Polish invasion from attempting to besiege Kassa by taking the city before him and fortifying themselves in. The prince turned to Nitra instead and occupied it. Matthias arrived there to liberate the city with his army of 16.000 mercenaries and banderias (banners). From this point on, the events are unclear; what is sure is that Casimir retreated with an escort cavalry and the rest of the Polish main forces were released shortly after.[53] Contemporary historians' presentations differ on the causes of the outcome. Italian historian Antonio Bonfini commissioned by Matthias refers to it as being a siege, which resulted in heavy loss for the besieged due to famine for the first wave. He states that the second wave of Poles was slaughtered by peasants and citizents while marching home, while the prince fled days before, after meeting Matthias and had been spared by him.[54] Hungarian Johannes de Thurocz agrees while adding that a counterattack followed the events where Hungarians attacked the counties of Zemplén and Sáros still under Polish possession and drove them out and intruded into Poland as well for prowling (it is worth noting that these events show remarkable similarities to those that took place two years later).[55]While Polish historian Jan Długosz argues that the incursion happened upon invitation and that no state of war came into existance. He recalls the nobility's actions as betrayal and Casimir's steps as aid or some sort of help for the counts of Hungary. He also questions the circumstances of the retreat claiming it was a peaceful return after Casimir IV met with the Pope Sixtus IV's emissary in Kraków who intervened and urged the maintenance of peace.[56] Based upon the aformentioned, the causes of retreat might be (any or multiple):
    • Famine caused by siege
    • Casimir's disappointment with his former Hungarian allies and frustration that the project became more difficult to carry out
    • Agreement of military matters with Matthias on diplomatic grounds (status quo)
    • Mediation of the pope and his calling for peace
    • Casimir's fear of being captured and Matthias' fear of triggering a possible "official" war with Casimir IV (reason for letting them retreat)
    • Intrigue of the nobility to both sides
  5. ^ On february 7, 1474, Mihaloğlu Ali Bey's unexpected attack took the town by storm. Ahead of his 7.000 horsemen, he broke through its wooden fences and pillaged the town, burned the houses and took the population as prisoners. Their goal was to to rob the treasury of the episcopate, but were resisted by the refugees and clergy in the bishop's castle (at the time the bishop's rank was absent, and no records mention the identity of a possible captain). The town fell but the castle stood, forcing the Turks to give up the fight after one day of siege. While retreating, they devastated the surrounding areas.[61]

Name variations

International usage of historical names
Hungarian (surname, given name) English (given name, surname) Ethnolect (given name, surname)
Mátyás Király Mat(t)hias Rex, Mat(t)hias Corvin, Mat(t)hias Corvinus, Mat(t)hias Hunyadi, Mat(t)hias Korwin Czech: Matyáš Korvín, Croatian: Matijaš Korvin, German: Matthias Corvinus, Medieval Latin: Mattias Corvinus, Polish: Maciej Korwin, Romanian: Matia/Matei/Mateiaş Corvin, Serbian: Матија Корвин/Matija Korvin, Slovak: Matej Korvín, Slovene: Matija Korvin, Russian: Матьяш Корвин/Matyash Corvin
Magyar Balázs Balázs/Balazs Magyar, Blaž the Magyar Croatian:Blaž Magyar, Spanish:Blas Magyar, German:Blasius Magyar, Italian:Biagio Magiaro
Kinizsi Pál Paul/Pál Kinizsi Romanian:Pavel Chinezul, Spanish:Pablo Kinizsi
(S)Zápolya(i) Imre, S)Zapolya(i) Imre, Szipolyai Imre Emeric Zapolya, Emeric Zapolyai, Emeric Szapolya, Emeric Szapolyai, Emrich of Zapolya Polish: Emeryk Zápolya, Slovenian: Imrich Zápoľský, Spanish: Emérico Szapolyai (de Szepes),
Gis(z)kra János John Giskra, John Jiskra Czech: Jan Jiskra z Brandýsa, German: Johann Giskra von Brandeis, Italian:Giovanni Gressa
Löbl Menyhért Melchior Löbel, Melchior Loebel, Melchior Löbl, Melchior Loebl German: Melchior Löbel
Haugwitz János John Haugwitz Czech/German: Jan Haugwitz
Báthory István, Báthori István Stephen V Báthory, Stephen Báthory of Ecsed Romanian: Ștefan Báthory, German: Stephan Báthory von Ecsed, Italian: Stefano Batore
Csupor Miklós Nicolaus Chiupor, Nicolaus Csupor Romanian: Nicolae Čupor
Jaksics Demeter Demetrius Jaksic Serbian: Dmitar Jakšić
Újlaki Miklós Nicholaus of Ujlak, Nicholaus Iločki Croatian: Nikola Iločki
Hag Ferenc František Hag German: Franz von Hag, Czech: František z Hája
Table 2
Guide for searching in sources
(information is taken from the corresponding Wikipedia sister language projects and from all references listed below)

See also

References

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  2. ^ Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hunyadi Matthias I". [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]] (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
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  34. ^ Csendes, László (2004). "Hunyadi Mátyás nyugati politikája és hadjáratai". Játszmák az országért (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Napkút Kiadó. Retrieved 25 October, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_work= ignored (help)
  35. ^ Kelényi, György (2006). "Kora reneszánsz (1475–1541)". A reneszánsz és a barokk építészete Magyarországon (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: ELTE. Retrieved 2 October, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Iván Nagy (1857-1868). Magyarország családai czimerekkel és nemzékrendi táblákkal, volume 2 (in Hungarian) (7th ed.). Pest, Hungary: Ráth Mór, Helikon Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 9632077741. Archived from the original on 9th March, 2007. Retrieved 3 October, 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |archivedate= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ Jaques, Tony (2006). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century, Volume 2, F-O. Santa Barbara, CA United States: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 484. ISBN 0313335389. Retrieved 21 October, 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  38. ^ a b c Thallóczy Lajos (1915). Jajcza (bánság, vár és város) története 1450-1527 (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Hornyánszky Viktor cs. és kir. udv. könyvnyomdája., Históriaantik Könyvesház Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 9782253055754. Archived from the original on 24 July 2010. Retrieved 3 October, 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  39. ^ a b Sándor Szilágyi (1896). "7, Mátyás hadserege és diplomatiája". A magyar nemzet története, 5. kötet (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Athenaeum Irod. és Nyomdai Rt. ISBN 1144242185. Retrieved 4 October, 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press http://www.lexcycle.com/library/Project_Gutenberg/The_Project_Gutenberg_EncyclopediaVolume_1_of_28/part5. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  41. ^ a b Mórocz Zsolt (August 30, 2008). "Hollószárnyak a Rába fölött" (in Hungarian). Szombathely: Vas Népe Kiadói Kft. Retrieved 4 October, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ a b Benda, Kálmán (editor) (1981). Magyarország történeti kronológiája I /A kezdetektől 1526-ig/ (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 276. ISBN 963 05 2661 1. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Fügedi, Erik (1986). Ispánok, bárók, kiskirályok (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó. p. 381. ISBN 963 14 0582 6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  44. ^ Kenneth M. Setton (1978). The papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571, volume 1. Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society. p. 400. ISBN 0871691272. Retrieved 4 October, 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  45. ^ a b c d Szentkláray Jenő (2008). "Temesvár és vidéke". Az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia Irásban és Képben (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Kempelen Farkas Digitális Tankönyvtár. Retrieved 4 October, 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_chapter= ignored (|trans-chapter= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "stklaray" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  46. ^ Franz Babinger (October 19, 1992). "Mehmed in Wallachia and Moldavia". Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press. p. 349. ISBN 0691010781. Retrieved 21 October, 2010. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  47. ^ Heltai, Gáspár (2009) [1574]. Magyar krónika, 2. kötet (in Hungarian). Kolozsvár, Hungary: ICON Group International (reprint). pp. 145–146. ISBN 054687357X. Retrieved 21 October 2010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  48. ^ "George of Podebrady". Prague, Czech Republic: Government Information Center of the CR. April 26, 2010. Retrieved 6 October, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  49. ^ Bartl, Július (2002). "1463". Slovak history: chronology & lexicon. Mundelein, Illinois, USA: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 52. ISBN 0865164444. Retrieved 6 October 2010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ "Spilberk Castle". Brno, Czech Republic: Muzeum města Brna. April 26, 2010. Retrieved 6 October, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  51. ^ Kristó, Gyula (1988). Magyarország története 895-1301. 1984/I (in Hungarian). Vol. 74. Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó. pp. 118, 126. ISBN 9789633899700. Retrieved 8 October 2010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  52. ^ "Croatia". England: Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. February 12, 2009. Retrieved 8 October, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  53. ^ Csukovits Enikő (2008). Mátyás és a humanizmus. Nemzet és emlékezet (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó. pp. 92–105. ISBN 9789633899816. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ a b Antonio Bonfini (1995) [1568]. Rerum Hungaricum Decades (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Balassi Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 9635060408. Retrieved October 9, 2010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ Thuróczy János (2001) [1488]. A magyarok krónikája és Siralmas ének (Rogerius mester) (spoken word (mp3)) (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 9633891299. Retrieved October 9, 2010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  56. ^ Jan Długosz. Historiae Polonicae liber XIII.et ultimus (in Latin). pp. 470–473. ISBN B001C6WHOI (ASIN). {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  57. ^ a b Heltai, Gáspár (1981). "XXXV. Rész". Krónika az magyaroknak dolgairól (PDF) (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Magyar Helikon (reprint). pp. 360–362. ISBN 9632078403. Retrieved 9 October 2010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_chapter= ignored (|trans-chapter= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  58. ^ "A jászói vár" (in Hungarian). Jasov, Slovakia. Retrieved October 21, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  59. ^ a b Karl Nehring (1973). "Vita del re Mattio Corvino" (pdf) (in Italian). Mainz, Germany: von Hase & Koehler Verlag. Retrieved October 26, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  60. ^ Delia Grigorescu (January 11, 2010). "Vlad the Impaler, the second reign - Part 4". Retrieved October 18, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  61. ^ Bunyitay Vincze,. A váradi püspökség története (Epistolario di Pier Paolo Vergerio) (in Hungarian). Nagyvárad, Hungary: Episcopate of Várad. Retrieved 20 October 2010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
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