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The Rafale is now in service in the trials and training role with the [[French Air Force]] (CEAM/EC 5/330). [[1/7 fighter squadron Provence|''Escadron de Chasse'' 1/7]] at Saint-Dizier was expected to receive a nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, and was set to enter full operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) during mid-2007 (when EC 1/7 will have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and five single-seaters).<ref>[http://www.dassault-aviation.com/fileadmin/user_upload/redacteur/AUTRES_DOCS/Fox_three/Fox_Three_nr_8.pdf "Fox Three."] ''dassault-aviation.com.'' Retrieved: 15 October 2010.</ref> In February 2011, Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air combat against [[Sukhoi Su-30MKI|Su-30s]].<ref>Prashanth, G. N. [http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-12/bangalore/28543581_1_su-30-aircraft-dogfight "French Rafale is best at dogfight."] ''Times of India,'' 12 February 2011. Retrieved: 30 March 2011.</ref>
The Rafale is now in service in the trials and training role with the [[French Air Force]] (CEAM/EC 5/330). [[1/7 fighter squadron Provence|''Escadron de Chasse'' 1/7]] at Saint-Dizier was expected to receive a nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, and was set to enter full operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) during mid-2007 (when EC 1/7 will have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and five single-seaters).<ref>[http://www.dassault-aviation.com/fileadmin/user_upload/redacteur/AUTRES_DOCS/Fox_three/Fox_Three_nr_8.pdf "Fox Three."] ''dassault-aviation.com.'' Retrieved: 15 October 2010.</ref> In February 2011, Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air combat against [[Sukhoi Su-30MKI|Su-30s]].<ref>Prashanth, G. N. [http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-12/bangalore/28543581_1_su-30-aircraft-dogfight "French Rafale is best at dogfight."] ''Times of India,'' 12 February 2011. Retrieved: 30 March 2011.</ref>


[[File:Rafales aboard USS Harry Truman.jpg|thumb|Two Rafale M aboard {{USS|Harry S. Truman|CVN-75}} in 2008 demonstrating compatibility with US Navy [[Modern United States Navy carrier air operations|carrier operations]].]]
[[File:Rafales aboard USS Harry Truman.jpg|thumb|Two Rafale M aboard {{USS|Harry S. Truman|CVN-75}} in 2008]]


In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180.<ref name="Order180">Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/11/13/334811/france-approves-contract-for-60-more-rafales.html "France approves contract for 60 more Rafales."] ''[[Flight International]],'' 13 November 2009. Retrieved: 27 April 2010.</ref> The Rafale is planned to be the [[French Air Force]]'s primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later.<ref>[http://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/defense/rafale/optimized-airframe.html?L=1 "Optimized airframe."] ''Dassault Aviation.'' Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>
In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180.<ref name="Order180">Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/11/13/334811/france-approves-contract-for-60-more-rafales.html "France approves contract for 60 more Rafales."] ''[[Flight International]],'' 13 November 2009. Retrieved: 27 April 2010.</ref> The Rafale is planned to be the [[French Air Force]]'s primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later.<ref>[http://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/defense/rafale/optimized-airframe.html?L=1 "Optimized airframe."] ''Dassault Aviation.'' Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>


The Rafale M is fully compatible with [[US Navy]] aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks.<ref>Suits, Specialist Seaman John. [http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=38585 "French Sailors Experience Flight Operations Aboard Roosevelt."] ''US Navy Press Release,'' 22 July 2008.</ref> On 4 June 2010, during an exercise on the [[USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)]], a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its jet engine changed on board an American aircraft carrier.<ref>Cerezo, Lt. Katharine. [http://www.defpro.com/news/details/15820/ "French Squadron Performs Jet Engine Swap-Out on Board Truman."] ''defpro.com,'' 8 June 2010. Retrieved: 5 January 2012.</ref>
The Rafale M is fully compatible with [[US Navy]] aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks.<ref>Suits, Specialist Seaman John. [http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=38585 "French Sailors Experience Flight Operations Aboard Roosevelt."] ''US Navy Press Release,'' 22 July 2008.</ref> On 4 June 2010, during an exercise on the [[USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)]], a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its jet engine changed on board an American aircraft carrier.<ref>Cerezo, Lt. Katharine. [http://www.defpro.com/news/details/15820/ "French Squadron Performs Jet Engine Swap-Out on Board Truman."] ''defpro.com,'' 8 June 2010. Retrieved: 5 January 2012.</ref>

In 2009, French officials were reportedly considering equipping the Rafale to launch [[miniaturized satellite]]s.<ref>Wall, Robert. [http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=aerospacedaily&id=news/RAFALE110108.xml&headline=Dassault%20Pitches%20Rafale%20As%20Small%20Sat%20Launcher "Dassault Pitches Rafale As Small Sat Launcher."] ''Aviationweek.com'', 3 November 2008.</ref>


====Afghanistan====
====Afghanistan====

Revision as of 04:44, 10 February 2012

Rafale
File:Rafale-ec-1-7.jpg
A Rafale B (foreground), and a Rafale C (background) of the French Air Force
Role Multirole fighter aircraft
National origin France
Manufacturer Dassault Aviation
First flight 4 July 1986
Introduction 4 December 2000
Status In production, in service
Primary users French Air Force
French Navy

The Dassault Rafale (French pronunciation: [ʁafal], squall)[1] is a French twin-engine delta-wing multi-role jet fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation. It is called an "omnirole" fighter by its manufacturer.[2]

In the late 1970s, the French Air Force and Navy were seeking replacements for its aircraft. To save development costs, France agreed with four other nations to produce an air dominance fighter, but subsequent disagreements led to a split. To satisfy stringent criteria formulated by the Ministry of Defense, Dassault built a technology demonstrator to prove the viability of its new product. Further development led to the current Rafale variants, which embody innovative avionics and aerodynamics, optimised for air supremacy operations.

Introduced in 2000, the Rafale is being produced both for land-based use with the French Air Force and for carrier-based operations with the French Navy. It has also been marketed to several countries, including selection by the Indian Air Force.[3]

Development

Origins

Logo with black stylised word "Rafale" against white background
The logo of the Dassault Rafale programme

In the mid-1970s, both the French Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and Navy (Marine nationale) had requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service.[4] Because their requirements were similar, and to reduce cost, both departments issued a common request for proposal.[5] In 1979 Dassault joined the Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm/British Aerospace "European Collaborative Fighter" project which was named the "European Combat Aircraft".[6] This project collapsed in 1981 but in 1983 the "Future European Fighter Aircraft" (FEFA) programme was begun. Italy, Spain, West Germany, France and the United Kingdom agreed to jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had their own aircraft developments.[7]

A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the four countries. France wanted Dassault to lead the project; moreover, France demanded a swing-role fighter that was lighter than a design desired by the other four nations.[4] For these reasons, France and the other nations split in 1985, after which France committed to its own design.[8][9] These nations would develop what would later be named the Eurofighter Typhoon.[10][11]

Technology demonstrator

In France, the government proceeded with its own programme. The French Ministry of Defense required an aircraft capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground, all-day and adverse weather operations. It would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of dedicated platforms, including the Jaguar, F-8P Crusader, Mirage F1C/R/T, Mirage 2000/N, Etendard IVPM and Super Etendard.[4] In June 1982, Dassault announced it was developing a successor to the Mirage 2000.[7] On 13 April 1983, France awarded Dassault a contract for two Avion de Combat eXpérimental (ACX) demonstrators, later revised down to one.

The Dassault Rafale A technology demonstrator in 2006

The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large-delta winged fighter, with all-moving foreplanes, embodying fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system.[4] The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint-Cloud, making its maiden flight on 4 July 1986 from Istres.[4] It was initially powered by General Electric F404-GE-400 afterburning turbofans found on the F-18 Hornet, instead of the Snecma M88, to reduce the risk that often comes with a first flight, and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initial trials programme.[1][4] It was not until May 1990 when the M88 replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator; thereafter, it reached Mach 1.4 and demonstrated supercruise. After 865 flights, Rafale A was retired in January 1994.[4]

With the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, signalling the end of the Cold War, the French government considerably reduced the budget allocated to defence. The French Air Force was reorganised, the Mirage 5F was completely phased out and a total of 55 Mirage F1Cs were upgraded to a tactical fighter configuration, redesignated as Mirage F1CT. The Rafale's development was stalled by a lack of available funds, prolonging the development considerably.[4]

Testing

To meet various roles expected to be performed by the new platform, the Air Force required two variants: the single-seat "Rafale C", with C standing for chasseur (fighter), and the "Rafale B", with B standing for biplace (two-seater). The prototype of the C model (designated C01) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991, signalling the start of a test programme which primarily aims to expand the flight envelope, test the M88-2 engines and, later, man/machine interface and weapons.[12] Due to budget constraints, the second single-single-seat prototype was never built.[13]

Pale gray jet aircraft flying towards left of camera. Smoke trial the aircraft's wing tips
Rafale B at the Paris Air Show 2007

The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficially identical to the technology demonstrator, it was smaller and more stealthy through the coating the canopy with gold, re-designing the fuselage-fin joint, and the addition of radar-absorbent materials (RAM). This aircraft also saw extensive application of composite and other materials, which both reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) and weight. Moreover, Dassault opted to reject variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake, which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight.[14]

The B01, the only prototype of the two-seat B variant, made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993.[12] It is 350 kilograms (772 lb) heavier than the single-seater, but carries 400 litres (106 US gal) less fuel. The aircraft was used for weapon-systems testing. Later it saw validation roles regarding weapon separation and, specifically, the carriage of heavy loads. The aircraft normally flies with 2,000-litre (528 US gal) external tanks, two Apache/Scalp cruise missiles, in addition to four air-to-air missiles[15]

A French Navy Rafale M performing a touch-and-go landing on the deck of the carrier USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74).

The Navy, meanwhile, sought a carrier-based aircraft to supersede its fleet of ageing Etendard IPVMs, F-8P Crusaders and Super Etendard Modernises. Faced with no funds with which to develop a suitable fighter, the Navy was forced into modernising the Crusaders. Eventually, the requirement was met with the Rafale M, with M standing for Marine.

The prototype (M01) first flew on 12 December 1991, followed by the second on 8 November 1993.[12][16] It featured greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the phenomenal stress on landing, an arrestor hook, and "jump strut" nosewheel, which only extends as the aircraft takeoff during a catapult launch.[12] It also features a built-in ladder, carrier-based microwave landing system, and the new fin-tip Telemir system which enables its inertial navigation system to communicate with the aircraft carrier.[15]

Altogether, the modifications and additions makes it 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) heavier than the other variants.[17] Nevertheless, Rafale M still retains high commonality with the Air Force's variants, although this means inability of its multi-spar wings to be folded (a vital asset with carrier-borne operations). However, this coincided with the then latest nuclear-powered carrier to enter service, the Charles de Gaulle, which was larger than the FS Foch and Clemenceau.[15]

As France had no land-based catapult test facility, catapult trials were initially carried out between during July–August  1992 and early the following year, at NAS Lakehurst in New Jersey. The aircraft then carried out trials aboard the carrier FS Foch in April 1993. At the controls of Dassault's chief test pilot, Yves Kerhervé, M02 made its maiden flight in November that year, while the first prototype completed the third round of testing at Lakehurst in November and December 1993.[17]

Into production

Initially, the Rafale B was to be just a trainer, but the Gulf War and Kosovo War showed that a second crew member is invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions; thus, in 1991 the Air Force switched its preferences towards the two-seater, announcing that 60% of the Rafale fleet would be made up of the variant.[18] The AdA originally envisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales, but this was revised downwards to 234 aircraft, made up of 95 "A" and 139 "B" models";[16][19] this was further reduced to 212 aircraft.[18] The Navy, meanwhile, had 60 Rafales on order, down from 86 due to budget cuts.[16][18] Of the 60, 25 would be M single-seaters and 35 two-seat Ns.[19]

Landscape photograph of two jet parked side-by-side on carrier deck, with faint white line running down the middle.
Two Rafales on the deck of the Charles de Gaulle by sunrise.

Production of the first aircraft series formally started in December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty. Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defense and Dassault agreed on a 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007.[18] It was not until 1999 that a production Rafale M flew.[citation needed] A combined 180 Rafales have been ordered as of 2011.[20]

The marine version was a high priority to replace the older F-8E(FN) Crusader; a total of 12 were still in service on 15 December 1999, when the type was retired.[21] Service deliveries began in 2001 and the type entered service on 4 December 2000, though the first squadron, Flotille 12, did not actually reform until 18 May 2001. The unit embarked on the Charles de Gaulle in 2002, following an extended operational evaluation that included flying limited escort and tanker missions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom over Afghanistan, becoming fully operational on 25 June 2004.[citation needed] The Armée de l'Air received its first three Rafale Bs (to F2 standards) in late December 2004. They went to the Centre d'Expériences Aériennes Militaires (CEAM) at Mont-de-Marsan for operational evaluation and associated pilot conversion training.[16]

The total programme cost, as of 2010, is around €40.690 billion, which translates to a unit programme cost of approximately €142.3 million. The unit flyaway price as of 2010 is €101.1 million for the F3+ version.[22]

Design

Overview

High angle take off showing the delta wing and canards in profile.

The Rafale features a delta wing combined with active integrated (close-coupled) canard to maximize maneuverability, while withstanding 9 g or −3.6 g)[23] and maintaining stability in flight.[24] The canard also reduces landing speed to 115 knots (213 km/h; 132 mph). According to internal sources (Les essais en vol du Rafale) low speed limit is 100 knots (190 km/h; 120 mph), but 80 knots (150 km/h; 92 mph) is sometimes demonstrated during airshows by pilots willing to showcase "low speed qualities of the aircraft". "A minimum of 15 kt have been reached during simulated combat vs a Mirage 2000 by an aggressive pilot."[24] The aircraft can operate from 400-metre (1,300 ft) runways.[23]

Although not a full-aspect stealth aircraft, the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross-section. To reduce the radar profile, extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns on the trailing edges of the wings and canards have been incorporated on the Rafale.[25]

Cockpit

The cockpit uses a Martin-Baker Mark 16F "zero-zero” ejection seat, i.e., capable of being used at zero speed and zero altitude. The seat is inclined 29° to improve G-force tolerance. The canopy hinges open to the right. An on-board oxygen generating system developed by Air Liquide is provided to eliminate the need for multiple oxygen canisters.[26]

The cockpit includes a wide-angle holographic head-up display (HUD), two head-down flat-panel colour multi-function displays (MFDs) and a center collimated display. Display interaction is by means of touch input for which the pilot wears silk-lined leather gloves. In addition, in full development, the pilot will have a head-mounted display (HMD).[27]

The pilot flies the aircraft with a side-stick controller mounted on his right and a throttle on his left. These incorporate multiple hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) controls. The Rafale cockpit is also planned to include Direct Voice Input (DVI), allowing for pilot action by voice commands.[28]

Avionics and sensors

Annotated diagram of SPECTRA's elements
OSF is visible upfront, beside the refueling boom.

Built as an air supremacy fighter, the Rafale features an advanced avionics suite; which includes several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF), developed by Thales, is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths.[29]

The Rafale core avionics systems employ an Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA), called MDPU (Modular Data Processing Unit). This architecture hosts all the main aircraft functions such as the Flight management system, Data Fusion, Fire Control, and the Man-Machine Interface.[30][N 1] The total value of the radar, electronic communications and self-protection equipment is about 30% of the cost of the entire aircraft.[31]

The Rafale features an integrated electronic survival system named "SPECTRA", which protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats.[32] SPECTRA allowed operations over Libya without a reliance upon dedicated Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) platforms.[33]

The Rafale's ground attack capability was initially limited by the lack of an advanced targeting pod;[34] this was rectified by the addition of Thales Optronique's Reco New Generation/Areos reconnaissance and Damocles targeting pods electro-optical/laser designation pod.[31] Areos is an all-weather, night-and-day-capable reconnaissance system, designed with the ability to transmit images to ground stations in real-time.[35]

Radar

The Rafale is typically outfitted with the Thales RBE2 passive electronically scanned multi-mode radar. Thales claims to have achieved unprecedented levels of situational awareness through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long-range interception, as well as real-time generation of three-dimensional maps for terrain-following and the real-time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting.[citation needed]

The new Thales RBE2 AA Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar is planned to replace the existing passively scanned array of the RBE2. Thales will begin deliveries of the new radar in August 2010 for use on the fourth tranche of Rafale aircraft. A total of 60 tranche four aircraft have been ordered to date. A Rafale demonstrator flew began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hours since As of December 2011. "A European production line for T/R modules has been set up and six development AESAs had been delivered and three pre-series AESAs were in production, with first deliveries to Dassault Aviation planned for 2011.[35]

Qualification of the new radar is expected by the DGA in early 2013, as part of a rolling programme of continuous improvements for the Rafale.The first production Rafale to be delivered with the AESA will be an Air Force single-seat Rafale C which will make its maiden flight in 2012. It is anticipated that the first five Armée de l'Air aircraft with the AESA will be operational by the end of 2013. By early 2014, the first Air Force front-line squadron will receive Rafales equipped with the AESA radar; the French Navy is slated to receive AESA-equipped Rafales from 2013.[36]

Standards

Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ("France 1") standard. This meant that the Flotille 12 aircraft was suitable for air-to-air combat, replacing the Vought F-8 Crusader as the Aviation Navale's carrier-based fighter, but not equipped or armed for air-to-ground operations.[citation needed]

Deliveries to Flotille 11 and to Flotille 12 were to the "F2" standard, adding support for air-to-ground and reconnaissance roles. In May 2006, the first Rafale M to the F2 standard were delivered to the French Navy.[37] The Rafale M is the only fixed-wing combat aircraft flown by the Aviation Navale, and plans are to upgrade all airframes to the "F3" standard, with terrain-following 3D radar and nuclear capability, from early in the decade following 2010.[38] The first Rafale C delivered to the Armée de l'Air, in June 2005, was to the F2 standard.[citation needed]

Rafale turbofan nozzles and afterburners.

A total of 59 Rafale F3s were delivered from June 2008 to January 2012 (47 for the French Air Force (36 Rafale C + 11 Rafale B), plus 12 Rafale M carrier-borne fighters for the French Navy. The latest, "fully Omnirole F3 standard is capable of undertaking an extremely wide range of roles: air defence/air superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air-to-air missiles, precision attacks with Scalp cruise missiles and AASM Hammer modular air-to-surface armaments, anti-ships strikes with the acclaimed AM39 Exocet sea-skimmer, reconnaissance with the Thales new generation reconnaissance pod, and nuclear deterrence with ASMP-A missiles.[39]

Engines

Main article: Snecma M88

The Snecma M88 engine in the Rafale develops 50 kN (11,250 lbf) of dry thrust and 75 kN (16,900 lbf) with afterburners. They allow it to supercruise with four missiles and a 1,250-liter belly drop tank. The naval version (Rafale M) can supercruise up to Mach 1.4 while carrying six air-to-air missiles (MBDA MICA).[40][41]

Operational history

France

Overview

The Rafale is now in service in the trials and training role with the French Air Force (CEAM/EC 5/330). Escadron de Chasse 1/7 at Saint-Dizier was expected to receive a nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, and was set to enter full operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) during mid-2007 (when EC 1/7 will have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and five single-seaters).[42] In February 2011, Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air combat against Su-30s.[43]

Two Rafale M aboard USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) in 2008

In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180.[44] The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later.[45]

The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks.[46] On 4 June 2010, during an exercise on the USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75), a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its jet engine changed on board an American aircraft carrier.[47]

In 2009, French officials were reportedly considering equipping the Rafale to launch miniaturized satellites.[48]

Afghanistan

The first Rafale deployed in a combat zone were those of the French Navy during "Mission Héraclès", the French participation in "Operation Enduring Freedom". They flew from the Charles de Gaulle over Afghanistan as early as 2002, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action. In June 2002, while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea, Rafales conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan border.[49]

In 2007, after a "crash program" enhancement six Rafales were given the ability to drop laser-guided bombs, in view of engaging them in Afghanistan. Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe in Tajikistan, while the three others were Rafale Marines of the Navy on board the Charles De Gaulle.[50] The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007, and the first GBU-12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan, marking the operational début of the Rafale.[51]

Libya

File:Rafale durant la guerre de Libye.jpg
A Rafale on Operation Harmattan against Libya, 2011

On 19 March 2011, French Rafales began conducting reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya in Opération Harmattan, in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973; initial targets were artillery pieces laying siege around the rebel city of Benghazi.[52] The Rafale could operate in Libya without the support of Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) aircraft, using the onboard Spectra self-defense system instead.[33]

The Rafale would typically conduct six-hour sorties over Libyan airspace, carrying an armament of four MICA air-to-air missiles, three AASM "Hammer" bombs, a Thales Damoclès targeting pod and two drop tanks;[33] these patrols required multiple aerial refuelling operations per sortie from coalition tanker aircraft.[53] The AASM precision-guidance weapon system, utilising bombs weighing between 125 kilograms (275.6 lb) and 1,000 kilograms (2,204.6 lb), allowed the Rafale to conduct high-altitude bombing missions.[53] Reportedly, Rafale crews preferred to use GPS-guided munitions due to greater reliability and range. Storm Shadow SCALP weapons were deployed on only one or two sorties, such as against a Libyan airbase at Al-Jufra.[54]

In 2011, aviation journalist Craig Hoyle speculated that the Rafale's performance in Libya is likely to be pivotal to the aircraft's export future, reporting that the Rafale had managed to maintain a high operational rate throughout the Libyan deployment. Hoyle also noted that the Libyan combat experience had caused several urgent operational requirements to present themselves, such as the need for a lighter ground-attack munition and for modifications to the AASM weapon to be more effective when used in the close air support role.[53]

Potential customers

In January 2006, the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya wanted to order 13–18 Rafales "in a deal worth as much as $3.24 billion".[55] In December 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi openly declared the Libyan interest in the Rafale.[56] Greece has also expressed an interest in the French fighter, possibly in exchange for its fleet of Mirages.[57] Libya did not order any Rafales; ironically, less than three years later, during the 2011 Libyan civil war, French Rafales were dispatched over Libya as a part of the military intervention.[58] During 2006, while there was potentially trouble with Anglo-American negotiations over the F-35 JSF, there was talk of purchasing the Rafale M for the British Royal Navy.[59][60] The British amended their JSF requirement to the conventional CATOBAR carrier variant and their aircraft carriers will be fitted with catapults capable of launching aircraft such as Rafales.[61]

Dassault Rafale Taxies to the runway for take off at Aero India 2011, Yelahanka Air force base in Bangalore, India

The Rafale was one of the six fighter aircraft competing for India's tender for 126 multi-role fighters. In April 2011, the Indian Air Force (IAF) shortlisted Dassault Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for the US$ 10.4 billion contract.[62] On 31 January 2012, the IAF announced the Rafale as the preferred bidder in the competition.[3][63]

In February 2007, it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its Northrop F-5 Tiger IIs.[64] The one month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base consisting of approx. 30 evaluation flights. The Rafale along with the Saab JAS 39 Gripen and the Eurofighter were to be evaluated.[65] In September, La Tribune reported that a sale to Morocco had fallen through, the government selecting the F-16 instead.[66] In October 2007, La Tribune's earlier report appeared to have been confirmed that the Rafale would not be bought.[67]

In June 2008, the Brazilian Air Force issued a Request For Information on the following aircraft: Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, Dassault Rafale, Su-35, Gripen NG, and Eurofighter Typhoon.[68] In October 2008, it was reported that Brazilian Air Force had selected three finalists for F-X2; Dassault Rafale, Gripen NG and Boeing F/A-18E/F.[69] On 7 September 2009, during a visit by French President Nicolas Sarkozy, Brazil announced that contract negotiations to buy 36 Rafales were ongoing.[70] On 5 January 2010, media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders on ground of unit and operating costs.[71][72] In February,2011, the press announced that the new president of Brazil, Dilma Rousseff, had decided in favor of the American F-18.[73] On 28 February 2011, the Minister of Finance, Guido Mantega, said the issue would not be resolved in the current year due to budget constraints.[74]

Formation of five Rafales making a flypast in 2006

In February 2009, French President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales, but with no firm order then. The same month, France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars.[75] In 2010, however, reports of Oman's preference for the Eurofighter emerged.[76]

The United Arab Emirates Air Force was interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerful engines and radar, and advanced air to air missiles.[77] They have now started to explore a purchase of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet[78] or Eurofighter Typhoon.[79] This is reported to be because France's Defense Minister Hervé Morin asked the UAE to pay 2 billion euros of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale.[80] Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan has called the French offer "uncompetitive and unworkable".[81] The French newspaper La Tribune reported on 2 February 2012, that the UAE is still interested in buying up to 60 Rafales in a deal worth US$10 billion. Interoperatibility among the Gulf air forces has led to renewed interest in the Rafale from Qatar and Oman.[82][83]

Variants

Rafale B/C and M
Rafale A
Technology demonstrator, first flying in 1986.
Rafale D
Dassault used this designation (D for "discret") in the early 1990s to emphasise the new semi-stealthy design features.
Rafale B
Two-seater version for the Armée de l'Air.
Rafale C
Single-seat version for the Armée de l'Air.
Rafale M
Carrier-borne version for the Aéronavale, which entered service in 2002. The Rafale M weighs about 500 kg (1,100 lb) more than the Rafale C. For carrier operations, the M model has a strengthened airframe, longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose-up attitude, larger tailhook between the engines, and a built-in boarding ladder.
Rafale N
Originally called the Rafale BM, was a planned two-seater version for the Aéronavale. Budget constraints and training costs have been cited as grounds for its cancellation.

Operators

 France
180 ordered with 93 delivered as of December 2010[20][84]
 India
Indian Air Force has selected the Rafale as preferred bidder for its 126 Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MMRCA) requirement (6 squadrons). Under the contract, 18 Rafale aircraft will be supplied to Indian air Force from 2015 onwards in Fly-away condition, whereas remaining 108 will be manufactured in India under transfer of Technology. It is also speculated that at a later stage, India might increase its order by 63 more aircraft (3 squadron).[85][86]

Accidents

  • On 6 December 2007, a French Air Force twin-seat Rafale crashed during a training flight. The pilot, who suffered black out, was killed in the accident.[87]
  • On 24 September 2009, after unarmed test flights, two French Navy Rafales returning to the Charles de Gaulle, collided in mid-air about 30 kilometers (19 mi) from the town of Perpignan in southwest France. One test pilot, identified as François Duflot, was killed in the accident, while the other was successfully rescued.[88]
  • On 28 November 2010, a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Arabian Sea. This aircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by a SAR helicopter from the carrier. Later reports said the engine stopped after being starved of fuel due to confusion by the pilot in switching fuel tanks.[89]

Specifications

Dassault Rafale cross-section
Weapon complement of the Rafale
Meteor, BVR Air-to-Air Missile
AASM-Hammer family of weapons
MICA: Short to Medium-Range Air-to-Air Tactical Missile

Data from Dassault Aviation,[90] Superfighters,[91] French Navy,[92]International Directory of Military Aircraft[93]

General characteristics

  • Crew: 1–2Fuel capacity: 4,700 kg (10,400 lb) internal

Performance

  • Thrust/weight: 1.10 (100% fuel, 2 EM A2A missile, 2 IR A2A missile)

Armament

Avionics

See also

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

References

Notes
  1. ^ Quote: "The core of the enhanced capabilities of the RAFALE lies in a new Modular Data Processing Unit (MDPU). It is composed of up to 18 flight line-replaceable modules, each with a processing power 50 times higher than that of the 2084 XRI type computer fitted on the early versions of Mirage 2000-5."
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  4. ^ a b c d e f g h Williams 2002, p. 92.
  5. ^ "Omnirole by design." Dassault Aviation, 2006.
  6. ^ Buttler 2000, p. 134.
  7. ^ a b Eden et al. 2004, p. 168.
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  11. ^ Williams 2002, pp. 50, 92.
  12. ^ a b c d Eden et al. 2004, p. 169.
  13. ^ Williams 2002, pp. 92–93.
  14. ^ Williams 2002, p. 93.
  15. ^ a b c Williams 2002, p. 94.
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  17. ^ a b Williams 2002, p. 95.
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Bibliography
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