Electric battery

For other uses, see battery (disambiguation).

Four double-A (AA) rechargeable batteries

In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores chemical energy and makes it available in an electrical form. Batteries consist of electrochemical devices such as one or more galvanic cells, fuel cells or flow cells. The earliest known artifacts that may have been batteries are the Baghdad Batteries, from some time between 250 BCE and 640 CE. The modern development of batteries started with the Voltaic pile developed by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1800. The worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales annually (2005 estimate).

History

There is some evidence—in the form of the Baghdad Batteries from some time between 250 BCE and 640 CE (while Baghdad was under Parthian and Sassanid dynasties of ancient Persia) of galvanic cells having been used in ancient times. Such ancient knowledge in the history of electricity bears no known continuous relationship to the development of modern batteries. The hypothesis that these devices had an electrical function, while plausible, remains unproven, as with devices discovered in Egyptian digs that are alleged to be batteries as well.

In 1748, Benjamin Franklin coined the term battery to describe the simple capacitor he experimented with, which was an array of charged glass plates. He adapted the word from its earlier sense meaning a beating, which is what an electric shock from the apparatus felt like. In those days, the entertaining effect of an electric shock was one of the few uses of the technology. Other experimenters made batteries from a number of Leyden jars connected in parallel. The definition was later widened to include an array of electrochemical cells or capacitors. The Voltaic pile was a chemical battery developed by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1800. Volta researched the effects which different metals produced when exposed to salt water. In 1801, Volta demonstrated the Voltaic cell to Napoleon Bonaparte (who later ennobled him for his discoveries). The discoverer of biological electricity, Luigi Galvani, researched the same effect with two pieces of the same metal exposed to salt water.

The scientific community at this time called this battery a pile, accumulator, because it held charge, or artificial electrical organ. All electrochemical cells produce a current of electrons that flow only in one direction, known as direct current.

The dry pile was a high voltage low current semi-permanent battery developed in the early 1800s and constructed from silver foil, zinc foil, and paper. Foil disks of about 2cm dia. were stacked up several thousand thick and then either compressed in a glass tube with endcaps and a screw assembly, or simply stacked between three glass rods with wooden endplates. This is simply type of Voltaic pile, with an output potential in the kilovolt range. In effect it was a electrostatic battery. It was referred to as a dry pile as no electrolyte other than atmospheric humidity was present.

In 1800, William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle used a battery to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen. Sir Humphry Davy researched this chemical effect at the same time. Davy researched the decomposition of substances (called electrolysis). In 1813, he constructed a 2,000-plate paired battery in the basement of Britain's Royal Society, covering 889 ft² (83 m²). Through this experiment, Davy deduced that electrolysis was the action in the voltaic pile that produced electricity. In 1820, the British researcher John Frederic Daniell improved the voltaic cell. The Daniell cell consisted of copper and zinc plates and copper and zinc sulfates. It was used to operate telegraphs and doorbells. Some early battery researchers called the Daniell cell a gravity cell because gravity kept the two sulfates separated. The name crowfoot cell was also commonly used because of the shape of the zinc electrode used in the batteries. Between 1832 and 1834, Michael Faraday conducted experiments with a ferrite ring, a galvanometer, and a connected battery. When the battery was connected or disconnected, the galvanometer deflected. Faraday also developed the principle of ionic mobility in chemical reactions of batteries. In 1839, William Robert Grove developed the first fuel cell, which produced electrical energy by combining hydrogen and oxygen. Grove developed another form the electric cell using zinc and platinum electrodes. These electrodes were exposed to two acids separated by a diaphragm.

In the 1860s, Georges Leclanché of France developed a carbon-zinc battery. It was a wet cell, with electrodes plunged into a body of electrolyte fluid. It was rugged, manufactured easily, and had a decent shelf life. An improved version called a dry cell was later made by sealing the cell and changing the fluid electrolyte to a wet paste. The Leclanché cell is a type of primary (non-rechargeable) battery. In the 1860s, Raymond Gaston Planté invented the lead-acid battery. He immersed two thin solid lead plates separated by rubber sheets in a dilute sulfuric acid solution to make a secondary (rechargeable) battery. The original invention had a short shelf life, though. Around 1881, Émile Alphonse Faure, with his colleagues, developed batteries using a mixture of lead oxides for the positive plate electrolyte. These had faster reactions and higher efficiency. In 1878, the air cell battery was developed. In 1897, Nikola Tesla researched a lightweight carbide cell and an oxygen-hydrogen storage cell. In 1898 Nathan Stubblefield received a patent (US600457) for a cell made of cloth-insulated copper wire and iron wire wound in a coil, which was to be buried in damp earth: this electrolytic coil is referred to as an "earth battery".

In 1900, Thomas Edison developed the nickel storage battery. In 1905, Edison developed the nickel-iron battery.In World War II, Samuel Ruben and Philip Rogers Mallory developed the mercury cell. In the 1950s, Russell S. Ohl developed a wafer of silicon that produced free electrons. In 1954, Gerald L. Pearson, Daryl M. Chapin, and Calvin S. Fuller produced an array of several such wafers, making the first solar battery or solar cell. In the 1950s, Ruben improved the alkaline manganese battery. In 1956, Francis Thomas Bacon developed the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. In 1959, Lewis Urry developed the small alkaline battery at the Eveready Battery Company laboratory in Parma, Ohio. In the 1960s, German researchers invented a gel-type electrolyte lead-acid battery. Duracell was formed in 1964.

Battery concepts

A battery is a device in which chemical energy is directly converted to electrical energy.

A battery consists of one or more voltaic cells. In the figure above, on the left, the battery consists of two or more voltaic cells in series. (The conventional symbol does not represent the number of voltaic cells.) The positive terminals or electrodes are the longer horizontal lines. Real voltaic cells have ion-carrying electrolyte, made of solid or liquid, separating their terminals. Thus their terminals are not in direct electrical contact. The figure above shows no line connecting the negative terminal of the top cell to the positive terminal of the bottom cell, but in a real cell they would be in direct electrical contact.

The electrolyte contains ions that can react with chemicals in the electrode. Chemical energy is converted into electrical energy by chemical reactions that transfer charge between the electrode and the electrolyte at their interface. Such reactions are called faradaic, and are responsible for current flow through the cell. Ordinary, non-charge-transferring (non-faradaic) reactions also occur at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces. Non-faradaic reactions are one reason that voltaic cells (particularly the lead-acid cell of ordinary car batteries) "run down" when sitting unused.

Around 1800, Alessandro Volta studied the effect of different electrodes on the net electromotive force (emf) of many different types of voltaic cells. (Emf is equivalent to what was called the internal voltage source in the previous section.) He showed that the net emf (E) is the difference of the emfs Ε1 and Ε2 associated with the two electrolyte-electrode interfaces. Hence identical electrodes yield Ε=0 (zero emf). Volta did not appreciate that the emf was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated chemical effects (e.g., corrosion) were a mere nuisance -- rather than, as Michael Faraday showed around 1830, an unavoidable by-product of their operation.

Electromotive force (emf) is measured in units of volts. Voltaic cells, and batteries of voltaic cells, are normally rated in terms of volts. The voltage across the terminals of a battery is known as the terminal voltage. The terminal voltage of a battery that is neither charging nor discharging equals its emf. The terminal voltage of a battery that is discharging is less than the emf, and that of a battery that is charging is greater than the emf.

Most voltaic cells are rated at only about 1.5 volts, because of the nature of the chemical reactions inside. Because of the high electrochemical potentials of lithium compounds, Li cells can provide as many as 3 or more volts. However, lithium compounds can also be hazardous.

The conventional model for a voltaic cell, as drawn above, has the internal resistance drawn outside the cell. This is a correct Thevenin equivalent for circuit applications, but it oversimplifies the chemistry and physics. In a more accurate (and more complex) model, a voltaic cell can be thought of as two electrical pumps, one at each terminal (the faradaic reactions at the corresponding electrode-electrolyte interfaces), separated by an internal resistance largely due to the electrolyte. Even this is an oversimplification, since it cannot explain why the behavior of a voltaic cell depends strongly on its rate of discharge. For example, it is well known that a cell that is discharged rapidly (but incompletely) will recover spontaneously after a waiting time, but a cell that is discharged slowly (but completely) will not recover spontaneously.

The simplest characterization of a battery would give its emf (voltage), its internal resistance, and its capacity. In principle, the energy stored by a battery equals the product of its emf and its capacity.

Battery capacity

The capacity of a battery to store charge is often expressed in ampere hours (1 A·h = 3600 coulombs). If a battery can provide one ampere (1 A) of current (flow) for one hour, it has a capacity of 1 A·h. If it can provide 1 A for 100 hours, its capacity is 100 A·h. The more electrolyte and electrode material in the cell, the greater the capacity of the cell. Thus a tiny AAA cell has much less capacity than a much larger D cell, even if both rely on the same chemical reactions (e.g. alkaline cells), which produce the same terminal voltage. Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current, the duration of the current, the allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors.

Battery manufacturers use a standard method to determine how to rate their batteries. The battery is discharged at a constant rate of current over a fixed period of time, such as 10 hours or 20 hours, down to a set terminal voltage per cell. So a 100 ampere-hour battery is rated to provide 5 A for 20 hours at room temperature. The efficiency of a battery is different at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates. This is Peukert's Law. See also Battery (electricity)#Common Battery Capacities

Battery lifetime

Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or "primary") batteries can lose two to twenty-five percent of their original charge every year. This rate depends significantly on temperature, since typically chemical reactions proceed more rapidly as the temperature is raised. This is known as the "self discharge" rate and is due to non-faradaic (non-current-producing) chemical reactions, which occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it. Batteries should be stored at cool or low temperatures to reduce the rate of the side reactions. Extreme high or low temperatures also reduce battery performance.

Some information on caring and disposing of alkaline batteries can be found here and here.

Rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, up to three percent a day (depending on temperature). Due to their poor shelf life, they shouldn't be left in a drawer and then relied upon to power a flashlight or a small radio in an emergency. For this reason, it’s a good idea to keep a few alkaline batteries on hand. Ni-Cd Batteries are almost always "dead" when you get them, and must be charged before first use.

Most Ni-MH batteries can be recharged 500-1000 times whereas Ni-Cd batteries can only be recharged about 400 times.

Automotive lead-acid rechargeable batteries lead a much harder life. Because of vibration, shock, heat, cold, and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use.

Special "reserve" batteries intended for long storage in emergency equipment or munitions keep the electrolyte of the battery separate from the plates until the battery is activated, allowing the cells to be filled with the electrolyte. Shelf times for such batteries can be years or decades. However, their construction is more expensive than more common forms.

Battery explosion

A battery explosion is caused by the misuse or malfunction of a battery, such as attempting to recharge a primary battery, or short circuiting of a battery. With car batteries, explosions are most likely to occur when a short circuit generates very large currents. In addition, car batteries liberate hydrogen when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). Normally the amount of overcharging is very small and so is the amount of explosive gas developed, and the gas dissipates quickly. However, when "jumping" a car battery, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which could be ignited by a spark nearby (for example, when removing the jumper cables).

When a non-rechargeable battery is recharged at a high rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the walls of the battery, leading to pressure build-up and a possible explosion. In extreme cases, the battery acid may spray violently from the casing of the battery and cause injury.

Additionally, disposing of a battery in fire may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case of the battery.

Overcharging, which is charging a battery beyond its electrical capacity, can also lead to a battery explosion, leakage, or irreversible damage to the battery. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.

Common battery types

Rechargeable and disposable batteries

Various batteries(clockwise from bottom left): two 9-volt, two "AA", one "D", a cordless phone battery, a camcorder battery, a 2-meter handheld ham radio battery, and a button battery, one "C" and two "AAA", plus a U.S. quarter, for scale

From a user's viewpoint, at least, batteries can be generally divided into two main types—rechargeable and non-rechargeable (disposable). Each is in wide usage.

Disposable batteries, also called primary cells, are intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices with either low current drain, only used intermittently, or used well away from an alternative power source. Primary cells were also commonly used for alarm and communication circuits where other electric power was only intermittently available. Primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible. Battery manufacturers don't recommend attempting to recharge primary cells.

By contrast, rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be re-charged after they have been drained. This is done by applying externally supplied electrical current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur in use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery still in modern usage is the "wet cell" lead-acid battery. This battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well-ventilated to deal with the hydrogen gas which is vented by these batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where a large capacity (over approxamately 10Ah) is required or where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.

A common form of lead-acid battery is the modern wet-cell car battery. This can deliver about 10,000 watts of power for a short period, and has a peak current output that varies from 450 to 1100 amperes. An improved type of lead-acid battery called a gel battery (or "gel cell") has become popular in automotive industry as a replacement for the lead-acid wet cell. The gel battery contains a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage, electrolyte evaporation, and out-gassing, as well as greatly improving its resistance to damage from vibration and heat. Another type of battery, the Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) suspends the electrolyte in a special fibreglass matting to achieve similar results. More portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are sealed units and are therefore useful in appliances like mobile phones and laptops. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel-cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-Ion) cells.

Disposable

Non-rechargeable - sometimes called "primary cells".

• Zinc-carbon battery - low cost - used in light drain applications
• Zinc-chloride battery - similar to zinc carbon but slightly longer life
• Alkaline battery - alkaline/manganese "long life" batteries widely used in both light drain and heavy drain applications
• Silver-oxide battery - commonly used in hearing aids
• Lithium battery - commonly used in digital cameras. Sometimes used in watches and computer clocks. Very long life (up to ten years in wristwatches) and capable of delivering high currents but expensive
• Mercury battery - commonly used in digital watches
• Zinc-air battery - commonly used in hearing aids
• Thermal battery - high temperature reserve. Almost exclusively military applications.

Rechargeable

Also known as secondary batteries or accumulators.

• Lead-acid battery - commonly used in vehicles, alarm systems and uninterruptible power supplies. Used to be used as a "A" or "wet" battery in valve/vacuum tube radio sets. The major advantage of this chemistry is its low cost - a large battery (e.g. 70Ah) is relatively cheap when compared to other chemistries. However, this battery chemistry has lower energy density than other battery chemistries available today (see below)
  • Absorbed glass mat
  • Gel battery
• Lithium ion battery - a relatively modern battery chemistry that offers a very high charge density (i.e. a light battery will store a lot of energy) and which does not suffer from any "memory" effect whatsoever. Used in laptops (notebook PCs), modern camera phones, some rechargeable MP3 players and most other portable rechargeable digital equipment.
• Lithium ion polymer battery - similar characteristics to lithium-ion, but with slightly less charge density. This battery chemistry can be used for any battery to suit the manufacturer's needs, such as ultra-thin (1 mm thick) cells for the latest PDAs
• NaS battery
• Nickel metal hydride battery
• Nickel-cadmium battery - used in many domestic applications but being superseded by Li-Ion and Ni-MH types. This chemistry gives the longest cycle life (over 1500 cycles), but has low energy density compared to some of the other chemistries. Ni-Cd cells using older technology suffer from memory effect, but this has been reduced drastically in modern batteries.
• Sodium-metal chloride battery
• Nickel-zinc battery
• Molten salt battery

Homemade cells

Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes into a lemon, potato, glass of soft drink, etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. As of 2005, "two-potato clocks" are widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, etc.) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock. Homemade cells of this kind are of no real practical use, because they produce far less current—and cost far more per unit of energy generated—than commercial cells, due to the need for frequent replacement of the fruit or vegetable.

Traction batteries

Traction batteries (secondary batteries or accumulators) are designed to provide power to move a vehicle, such as an electric car or tow motor. A major design consideration is power to weight ratio since the vehicle must carry the battery. While conventional lead acid batteries with liquid electrolyte have been used, the electrolyte in traction batteries is often gelled to prevent spilling. The electrolyte may also be embedded in a glass wool which is wound so that the cells have a round cross-sectional area (AGM-type).

Battery types used in electric vehicles [1]:

• Conventional lead-acid batteries with liquid electrolyte.
• AGM-type (Absorbed Glass Mat)
• Zebra NiNaCl (or NaNiCl) battery operating at 270 °C requiring cooling in case of temperature excursions
• NiZn battery (higher cell voltage 1.6 V and thus 25% increased specific energy, very short lifespan)

Lithium-ion batteries are now pushing out NiMh-technology in the sector while for low investment costs the lead-acid technology remains in the leading role[2].

See also: Battery pack

Flow batteries

Flow batteries are a special class of battery where additional quantities of electrolyte are stored outside the main power cell of the battery, and circulated through it by pumps or by movement. Flow batteries can have extremely large capacities and are used in marine applications and are gaining popularity in grid energy storage applications.

Zinc-bromine and vanadium redox batteries are typical examples of commercially-available flow batteries.

Common battery sizes

9-volt battery

Disposable cells and some rechargeable cells come in a number of standard sizes, so the same battery type can be used in a wide variety of appliances. Some of the major types used in portable appliances include the A-series (A, AA, AAA, AAAA), B, C, D, F, G, J, and N, 3R12, 4R25 and variants, PP3 and PP9, and the lantern 996 and PC926. These and less common types are included in the list of battery sizes.

Good cross-references of different manufacturer's battery and cell designations can be found here [3] and here [4].

Common Battery Capacities

Information on the ampere-hour capacities of rechargable batteries is normally readily available, but can be much more difficult to obtain for primary batteries.Some primary battery capacities can be found at for Energizer and for Duracell

Environmental considerations

Since their development over 250 years ago, batteries have remained among the most expensive energy sources, and their manufacture consumes many valuable resources and often involves hazardous chemicals. For this reason many areas now have battery recycling services available to recover some of the more toxic (and sometimes valuable) materials from used batteries.

Cell vs. battery

Strictly, an electrical "battery" is an interconnected array of one or more similar voltaic cells ("cells"). That distinction, however, is considered pedantic in most contexts (other than the expression dry cell), and in current English usage it is more common to call a single cell used on its own a battery than a cell.

Electrical component

Circuit symbol for a battery; simplified electrical model; and more complex but still incomplete model (the series capacitor has an extremely large value and, as it charges, simulates the discharge of the battery).

The cells in a battery can be connected in parallel, series, or in both. A parallel combination of cells has the same voltage as a single cell, but can supply a higher current (the sum of the currents from all the cells). A series combination has the same current rating as a single cell but its voltage is the sum of the voltages of all the cells. Most practical electrochemical batteries, such as 9 volt flashlight (torch) batteries and 12 V automobile (car) batteries, have a series structure. Parallel arrangements suffer from the problem that, if one cell discharges faster than its neighbour, current will flow from the full cell to the empty cell, wasting power and possibly causing overheating. Even worse, if one cell becomes short-circuited due to an internal fault, its neighbour will be forced to discharge its maximum current into the faulty cell, leading to overheating and possibly explosion. Cells in parallel are therefore usually fitted with an electronic circuit to protect them against these problems. In both series and parallel types, the energy stored in the battery is equal to the sum of the energies stored in all the cells.

A battery can be simply modelled as a perfect voltage source (i.e. one with zero internal resistance) in series with a resistor. The voltage source depends mainly on the chemistry of the battery, not on whether it is empty or full. When a battery runs down, its internal resistance increases. When the battery is connected to a load (e.g. a light bulb), which has its own resistance, the resulting voltage across the load depends on the ratio of the battery's internal resistance to the resistance of the load. When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low, so the voltage across the load is almost equal to that of the battery's internal voltage source. As the battery runs down and its internal resistance increases, the voltage drop across its internal resistance increases, so the voltage at its terminals decreases, and the battery's ability to deliver power to the load decreases.

See also

• Memory effect
• List of energy topics

People/inventors

• John Frederic Daniell
• Thomas Edison
• Michael Faraday
• Luigi Galvani
• Moritz von Jacobi
• Georges Leclanché
• Slavoljub Penkala
• Nikola Tesla
• Alessandro Volta

Related electrical topics

• Contact tension
• Potential difference
• Electric vehicle
• Electrical efficiency
• Electricity
• Electrochemical cell
• Electrochemical potential
• Electrochemistry
• Electromotive force
• Electroplating
• Energy storage
• Flow battery
• Lead-acid battery
• Local battery
• Power supply
• Direct current
• Solar power
• Renewable energy
• Peukert's Law

Related electronics concepts

• Series and parallel circuits
• Secondary cell
• Electrode
• Electrolytic capacitor
• Fuel cell
• Galvanic cell
• Ignition system
• Lemon battery
• Jump start
• Lantern
• Flywheel energy storage
• Rechargeable battery
• Maximum power theorem
• Nernst equation
• Superconducting magnetic energy storage
• Grid energy storage

Electroactive chemicals used in construction

• Aluminium
• Ammonium chloride
• Antimony
• Bromine
• Cadmium
• Cobalt
• Hydride
• Lead
• Lithium
• Nickel
• Nickel metal hydride
• Magnesium
• Manganese
• Manganese dioxide
• Mercury
• Nitroglycerin
• Rubidium
• Sulfur
• Sulfuric acid
• Silver
• Thionyl chloride
• Titanium
• Vanadium
• Zinc

Related inventions

• Baghdad Battery
• Voltaic pile
• Timeline of invention
• List of inventors
• Smart Battery Data battery warns device when it is going flat.
• Lithium polymer

Other

• Gas-electric hybrid engine
• Hybrid car
• Regenerative braking
• Waste
• CMOS battery
• Battery room
• Battery electric vehicle
• Rechargeable battery

External links

• RadioShack Guide to Batteries
• Quick Battery Guide For Robot Creators
• Electrochemistry Encyclopedia NONRECHARGEABLE BATTERIES
• Battery Glossary & Terminology
• Battery Technologies - Directory page covering theory, research and development, and market devices that improve the trend toward clean, renewable energy. (FreeEnergyNews)
• The Microturbine, battery technology as "the Next Big Thing" by Fred Hapgood
• Batteries in a Portable World - A Handbook on rechargeable batteries for non-engineers - Has a comprehensive FAQ section on rechargeable batteries
• Battery Timeline - History of batteries, energy and related technologies
• Mobile phone fuel cells coming in 2007 Infoworld July 13, 2005
• "Battery Resources" of PESWiki, the community-built website dealing with alternative and renewable energy solutions
• A Peukert Calculator spreadsheet
• Practical battery knowledge
• Nimh Batteries and UPS batteries
• Energyorbit battery news
• "Cell chemistries (MPower)". Retrieved 03 May. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
• Battery information website from a battery supplier - Has a comprehensive guide to different battery types and an online web shop