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Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador

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Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador
ContinentAmerica
RegionNorth America
Western Canada
CoordinatesCoordinates: Unknown argument format
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60°22′N 110°00′W / 60.367°N 110.000°W / 60.367; -110.000
AreaRanked ? among provinces
 • Total[convert: invalid number]
 • Land?%
 • Water?%
Coastline[convert: invalid number]
BordersTotal land borders
Highest pointLewis Hills
Lowest point?
Longest river?
Largest lake?

Newfoundland and Labrador is the easternmost province in Canada. It consists of the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador. Newfoundland is roughly triangular, with each side being approximately 400 kilometers (250 mi), and having an area of 108,860 square kilometers (41,700 sq mi) [1]. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36'N and 51°38'N. [2] [3]

Labrador is an irregular shape: the western part of its border with Quebec is drainage divide for the Labrador Peninsula i.e. land drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, the rest belongs to Quebec. Labrador’s extreme northern tip, at 60°22'N, shares a short border with Nunavut. Labrador’s area is 296,352 square kilometers (114,422 sq mi). Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4.06% of Canada’s area [4].

The provincial capital is St. John's, located at the extreme eastern edge of the island on the Avalon Peninsula. The other cities are Mount Pearl and Corner Brook. A list of all Newfoundland and Labrador communities can be found here

The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two geographical divisions, Labrador and the island of Newfoundland[5]. Labrador is the most eastern part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland. Gros Morne National Park has a reputation of being an outstanding example of tectonics at work[6], and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundland's west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains (more below). [5]

The north-south extent of the province (46°36'N to 60°22'N), prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province. [7]. Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate, southern Labrador is considered to be a subarctic climate while most of Newfoundland would be considered to have a humid continental climate, Dfb: Cool summer subtype.

Geology

A large part of the island of Newfoundland is an extension of the Appalachian system[5]. Major bays, peninsulas, river systems and mountain ranges are typically oriented southwest to northeast, parallel to the Applachians.

File:Bell island.jpg
Bell Island, Newfoundland, showing distinct layers of sedimentary rock

The eastern part of the island (the Avalon Peninsula and Burin Peninsula) is mostly folded sedimentary rocks with some intrusions of igneous rock and was once part of southwestern Europe or Northern Africa. [5] The oldest rocks are Precambrian. Small remnants of Cambrian and Ordovician rocks occur along the coast. Bell Island in Conception Bay is a good example of gently sloping Ordovician sedimentary rock.[8] The plateau in the Avalon Peninsula averages 250 m (800 ft.) above sea level.[2]

The rest of the island is composed of a great variety of Paleozoic rocks of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic origin. Along the west coast lie the Long Range Mountains,which are formed by an elongated block of the earth's crust (a horst) which rises to about 600 meters (2,000 ft.) above sea level.[2] This part of the island was once part of the eastern margin of continental North America.[5] The island's highest points, the Lewis Hills and Gros Morne are located within this mountain range. To the east a depression (a graben) about 30 km (20 miles) wide which is occupied by Deer Lake and Grand Lake. The main plateau of the central part of the island, which was once the sea bottom of the ancient Iapetus Ocean,[5] has been heavily eroded by water and ice. Steep, solitary rock knobs, called "tolts" in Newfoundland (elsewhere known as inselbergs or monadnocks), which jut 100 meters (300 ft.) or more above the generally flat terrain are the remnants of a former higher landscape level.[9]. Glaciers which helped shape these tolts left other evidence around Newfoundland. Large blocks of stone called glacial erratics have been left scattered across much of the landscape. The long narrow lakes of the west coast, notably those in Gros Morne National Park resulted from glacial erosion. The lack of good soil on most parts of the island is a result of the scouring effect of recent glaciers during the ice ages. Newfoundland's nickname, "The Rock", is at least in part due to the ice ages.

File:114 1406.JPG
Western Brook Pond is a fjord within Gros Morne National Park which resulted from glacial erosion.

One of the most noteworthy aspects of Newfoundland geology is a result of the constant movement of tectonic plates. Approximately 500 million years ago movement of these plates forced parts of the oceanic crust beneath the Iapetus Ocean up and over the eastern margin of the North American plate.[10][11] Sections of oceanic crust which overlie continental crust are known as ophiolites. Gros Morne National Park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site because it is one of the best places in the world to see the effects of plate tectonics [6] and one of the few places where rocks formed at the Mohorovicic Discontinuity between the crust and the upper mantle of the Earth can be seen.[10] [12]

Another notable geology site is at Mistaken Point where rocks containing probably the oldest metazoan fossils in North America and the most ancient deep-water marine fossils in the world are found preserved in layers of volcanic ash. [13]

Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield and is composed of ancient Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks.The interior is averages about 450 meters (1500 ft.) above sea level and is cut by large, east-flowing rivers, such as the Churchill River and its tributaries[8]. The northern coast is largely mountainous. The Torngat Mountains, Kaumajet Mountains and Kiglapait Mountains dominate this area with the highest peak being Mount Caubvick at 1652 meters (5,420 ft.). Torngat National Park Reserve was created in 2005 to preserve part of this area.[14]

History

Main article: History of Newfoundland and Labrador

Human inhabitation in Newfoundland and Labrador can be traced back over 9000 years to the people of the Maritime Archaic Tradition. [15] They were gradually displaced by people of the Dorset Culture (paleoeskimos[16]) and finally by the Innu and Inuit in Labrador and the Beothuks on the island. The oldest known European contact was made over a thousand years ago when the Vikings briefly settled in L'Anse aux Meadows. Five hundred years later Eurpoean explorers (John Cabot, Gaspar Corte-Real, Jacques Cartier and others), fishermen from England, Portugal, France and Spain and Basque whalers (the remains a whaling base have been found at Red Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador) began exploration and exploitation of the area.

The overseas expansion of British Empire began when Sir Humphrey Gilbert took possession of Newfoundland in the name of England in 1583. Apart from St.John's, which was already established, early settlements were started at Cupids, Ferryland and other places. [17]

During its history Newfoundland and Labrador have had many forms of government [18], including a time as the Dominion of Newfoundland, equivalent in status to Canada and Austraila. Newfoundland and Labrador became the tenth province of Canada on March 31, 1949.

Newfoundland has been a battleground in numerous early wars among Great Britain, France, Spain and even the United States.[19] The Royal Newfoundland Regiment fought with distinction in World War I. Numerous bases were built in Newfoundland and Labrador by Canada and the United States during World War II[20], particularly to safeguard the Atlantic convoys to Europe.

The first transatlantic telegraph cable between Valentia Island, in western Ireland and Heart's Content, in eastern Newfoundland was completed in 1866. The first transatlantic radio message was received by Guglielmo Marconi at Cabot Tower (Newfoundland) in St. John's. The first non-stop transatlantic flight was made from St. John's in 1919 by Alcock and Brown.[21]

Ecosphere

The Ecosphere is subdivided into distinct geographical regions called biomes. [22]Newfoundland and Labrador are divided into two biomes, tundra and taiga. Northern Labrador is part of the tundra, while southern Labrador is part of the taiga. Newfoundland is not typical of either biome, as it lacks much of the plant and animal life that are characteristic to these biomes. This is due to the ice age, when flying insects, birds, and other mammals crossed the sea ice that formed between the island and the mainland.[22] Only freshwater-fish able of surviving seawater swam to the island. No hibernating animals are present on the island, because they did not cross the ice during the winter, as they were hibernating. The native mammals are fewer in number; while Labrador has 42 native mammals, Newfoundland is home only to fourteen, with no snakes, raccoons, skunks or porcupines[23].

Many rare herbaceous plants and insects occur on the island. [22] The west coast of the island supports over 200 plant species. [24] Rare species such as Long’s braya (Braya longii) and Fernald’s braya (B. fernaldii), are endemic to Newfoundland. Brayas are small perennial herbs of the mustard family. They are only found on a narrow strip of land extending approximately 150 km on the extreme western portion of the Great Northern Peninsula, a limestones barrens habitat.[24] The braya population is low due to habitat loss from gravel quarrying. Researchers have only found three populations of Long's Braya, while thanks to discoveries in 1999, scientists have found 11 species of Ferrald brayas.[24] Researchers focus on how various types of disturbances affect the long-term viability of the existing populations. Since 1997, government has appointed recovery teams to preserve the endangered species. Currently the province of Newfoundland, with many partners, is studying the rare plant flora of the island of Newfoundland [24] and has announced a recovery plan for the braya species [25].

Many plants and animals have been introduced to Newfoundland, either by chance or deliberately.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). . Rats and mice were unintentionally introduced while mink escaped from fur farms [23]. Coyotes are a very recent addition to the fauna of Newfoundland, possibly crossing the ice from Cape Breton Island in the 1980s[23]. Newfoundland has no native amphibians, but frogs were introduced onto the island in the 1860s and toads almost a century later[26] [27].

The marine waters around the province are considered boreal, or sub-Arctic, in nature. [22]. A great deal of the coastline is rock-strewn, allowing an extensive variety of plant and animal life to thrive. [22] The leading plants of the shoreline are the large brown seaweeds, such as bladder, forked and knotted wracks, and winged and sugar kelps, though there are also a number of red and green seaweeds present. Common animals of the seashore region include barnacles, tortoiseshell limpet, periwinkles, blue mussels, sea anemones, sea slugs, sea urchins, starfish, and rock crabs.[22] The deeper waters are home to a variety of fish, such as cod, sculpins and cunners (Tautogolabrus adsperu), halibut, haddock, sharks, and marine mammals, such as dolphins, porpoises, and whales. Whales seen off Newfoundland incude pilot whales, minkes, Sei whales, fin whales and humpbacks. A number of harp and hooded seals are usually found in the spring, giving birth to their young on costal ice floes.[22]

The Polar bear is the dominant carnivore in the tundra

The tundra is a sub-Arctic zone with long, cold winters and short, warm summers. [7] [28] Precipitation, rain and snow, is low. The tundra is sometimes called a frozen desert. Soil a meter below ground and deeper is permanently frozen and called permafrost. Because of the underlying permafrost, water can not drain easily through soil, and tends to collect in shallow pools. Tall shrubs and erect trees are not found in the tundra, as their roots cannot grow in the permafrost. Low shrubs, lichens, mosses, and small herbaceous plants are found instead. The most common animals in the tundra are barren ground caribou, arctic wolves, arctic foxes, arctic hares, lemmings, and a mixture of voles. Occasional sightings of musk oxen have been made near Cape Chidley[29], Labrador's most northerly point. The polar bear is the dominant carnivore. Many birds migrate to this region in spring to lay their eggs and raise their young before escaping south to warmer areas for the winter.

Taiga generally lies to the south of the tundra. It is characterized by low winter temperatures, a longer grower season, and more precipitation. Soils are typically lacking important nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.[22] The taiga is dominated by coniferous trees, specifically balsam fir, black spruce, though the deciduous white birch, tremulous aspen and mountain ash are also present. [22] The most common animals are moose, black bears, Canada lynx, red foxes, pine martens, short-tailed weasels, and mink. Beavers, muskrats, and river otters thrive in the many rivers, streams, and wetlands.[22]. Large herds woodland caribou can be found in the barren interior regions of the island.

Climate

Newfoundland is considered to have a humid continental climate, Dfb: Cool summer subtype,which is greatly influenced by the sea since no part of the island is more than 100 km (62 miles) from the ocean. Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate, southern Labrador is considered to be a subarctic climate.

Monthly average temperatures, rainfall and snowfall for four communities are shown in the attached graphs. St. John's represents the east coast, Gander the interior of the island, Corner Brook the west coast of the island and Wabush the interior of Labrador. These graphs were created using data from Environment Canada. More detailed information and information for 73 communities in the province is available from this government website [30].

Surface water temperatures on the Atlantic side reaches a summer agerage of 12°C (54°F) inshore and 9°C (49°F) offshore to winter lows of -1°C (30°F) inshore and 2°C (36°F)offshore. Sea temperatures on the west coast are warmer than Atlantic side by 1 to 3 C° (2 to 5 F°). The sea keeps winter temperatures slightly higher and summer temperatures a little lower on the coast than at places inland. The maritime climate produces more variable weather, ample precipitation in a variety of forms, greater humidity, lower visibility, more clouds, less sunshine, and higher winds than a continental climate.[31]. Some of these effects can be seen in the graphs. Labrador's climate differs from that of the island not only because it is further north, but also because the interior does not see the moderating effects of the ocean.

Newfoundland and Labrador average monthly temperatures
Newfoundland and Labrador average monthly rainfall
Newfoundland and Labrador average monthly snowfall

Notes about the graphs

The data used in making the graphs is the average taken over thirty years. Error bars on the temperature graph indicate the range of daytime highs and night time lows. Snowfall is the total amount which fell during the month. It is not the amount accumullated on the ground. This distinction is particularly important for St. John's where a heavy snowfall can be followed by rain so that no snow remains on the ground.

Notable extemes of the St. John's Climate

Of all the major Canadian cities, St. John's is the foggiest (124 days, next to Halifax's 122), snowiest (359 cectimeters (141 in), next to Quebec City's 343 centimeters (135 in), wettest (1514 millimeters (59.6 in), next to Halifax's 1491 millimeters (58.7 in)), windiest (24.3 km/h (15 mph) average speed, next to Regina's 20.7 km/h (12.9 mph)), and cloudiest (1497 hours of sunshine, next to Charlottetown's 1818 hours.[31]. St. John's has one of the mildest winters in Canada (third mildest city next to Victoria and Vancouver), yet has the most freezing rain days of any major Canadian city. [31]


Storms

Weather systems affecting Newfoundland usually originate from the west, over mainland Canada, or from the southwest, from the east coast of the United States. Cyclonic storms consist of an area of low atmospheric pressure characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere. Such storms passing to the south of the island bring strong northeasterly winds sweeping in off the open North Atlantic Ocean. These storms are sometimes referred to as Nor'easters and are responsible for the worst of Newfoundland's weather. High winds sweeping over a large surface of ocean can build up very large waves. The frequency and severity of storms is greatest between November and March, although they may occur at any time of the year.[31]

One of the storms was the "Independence Hurricane" that struck eastern Newfoundland on September 9, 1775. About 4000 sailors, mostly from the British Isles, were reported to have been drowned.[31]

On February 15, 1982, the drilling rig Ocean Ranger capsized and sank on the Grand Banks, 300 kilometers (180 mi) east of St. John's. The entire 84-man crew perished in the violent winter seas, marking the worst Canadian marine disaster in decades.

Winds

Newfoundland has the strongest winds of any of the provinces, with most stations reporting an average annual wind speeds more than 20 kilometers per hour (12 mph). [31]

Freezing rain

Freezing rain is common in Newfoundland where it is known as "silver thaw".[31] Freezing drizzle or freezing rain occurs on average of 150 hours each winter with March being worst. One such storm struck St. John's on April 11, 1984 and lasted three days. Ice almost 15&nbspcentimeters (5.9&nbspin) thick disrupted electrical power to 200,000 people on the Avalon Peninsula for days. [31]

Sunshine

Newfoundland receives less than 1600 hours of sunshine per year, much lower than the Canadian average of 1925 hours.[31] Summer months average of 187 hours of sun while the December average is 60 hours.

Newfoundland is also known for its fog which occurs most often in the spring and early summer because of the contrast between sea and air temperatures. Argentia has 206 days of fog per year. Fog in Newfoundland is frequently accompanied by strong onshore winds; while usually winds disperse fog, here the fog is too widespread for this to occur.

Hydrography

Fresh Water

Shallow soil and bedrock deeply scored by glaciers are responsible for the numerous lakes and ponds, and short, swift flowing rivers scattered across Newfoundland and Labrador. A list of notable lakes can be found here, and a list of notable rivers here. The area of freshwater in Newfoundland and Labrador is 31,340 square kilometers (12,101 sq mi), covering 7.7% of the total surface of area of the province and accounting for 3.5% of the freshwater area of Canada

Ocean

The west coast of Newfoundland borders on the Gulf of St. Lawrence while all other coasts face the Atlantic Ocean. Labrador's coast borders the Labrador Sea, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. The Strait of Belle Isle connects the Gulf of St. Lawrence with the Labrador Sea and is the narrowest channel separating Newfoundland from mainland Canada. The Cabot Strait separates Newfoundland from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia.

The continental shelf off Newfoundland is known as the Grand Banks. The cold Labrador Current and the warm Gulf Stream meet on the Grand Banks, making the area not only one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, but also one of the foggiest areas[32]. The Grand Banks are an area of significant petroleum production with Hibernia, White Rose and Terra Nova oil fields all located there.

Icebergs and Pack Ice

In the North Atlantic, approximately 90% of icebergs come from about 100 iceberg-producing glaciers on the Greenland coast. Once detached from the glaciers, icebergs are transported southward through the Davis Strait by the Labrador Current [33]

Approximately 40,000 medium to large sized icebergs annually calve from Greenland glaciers, and depending on wind, and air and water temperature, between 400 and 800 of these go as far south as 48° north latitude (St. John's)[33]. Icebergs are most commonly seen in the waters off Newfoundland in the spring and early summer. Despite their size, the icebergs of Newfoundland move an average of seventeen kilometers (10 mi) a day [33]. The average iceberg weight in the Grand Banks area is nearly one to two hundred thousand tonnes (220,000 tons)[33]. These icebergs represent a significant threat to shipping and off-shore oil platforms [34], and the hazard is aggravated by dense fog in this area.

During the first half of each year the waters off Newfoundland may become covered with floes of sea ice or "pack ice"[35]. While icebergs are composed of fresh water, pack ice is frozen sea water. The severity of ice varies considerably, depending on the strength and direction of the wind and air temperature. Most of the pack ice off Newfoundland's northern and eastern shores originates off Labrador. While some of the pack ice off the west coast also comes from the sea off Labrador via the Strait of Belle Isle, most of it originates in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Beginning in January the pack ice begins to advance south, borne by the Labrador Current until (usually) in April the rate of melting overtakes the rate of advance and the ice retreats northward. The leading edge of the pack ice is known as "The Front" and is important to the annual seal hunt off Newfoundland's north coast[36].

Time zones

Newfoundland is located in a unique time zone in North America. [3] It is a half an hour later than Atlantic Time, one and a half hours later than Central Canada and 4 ½ hours later than the west coast of the country.[3] It is also the only place in Canada with split variations, of l hour between time zones. [3]

Industry and Economy

All currency is in Canadian dollars.

In 2005 the gross domestic product (GDP) of Newfoundandland and Labrador was approximately fourteen billion dollars [37]. Service industries accounted for over $8 billion with financial services, health care and public administration being the top three contributors. Other significant industries are mining, oil production and manufacturing. The total workforce in 2005 was 215,000 persons.[37]

Traditional industries include mining, fishery and forest-based industries (sawmills and paper mills).

Mining

Mines in Labrador, the iron ore mine at Wabush/Labrador City, and the new nickel mine in Voisey's Bay produced a total of $2.5 billion worth of ore in 2006. A new mine at Duck Pond (30 kilometers (18 mi) south of the now-closed mine at Buchans), started producing copper, zinc, silver and gold in 2007. Mining accounted for 3.5% of the provincial GDP in 2006. [37] The province produces 55% of Canada’s total iron ore. [38]. Quarries producing dimension stone such as slate and granite, account for less than $10 million worth of material per year [39]

Fishery

The fishing industry remains an important part of the provincial ecomomy, employing 26,000 and contributing over $440 million to the GDP. The combined harvest of fish such as cod, haddock, halibut, herring and mackerel was 150,000 tonnes (165,000 tons) valued at about $130 million in 2006. Shellfish, such as crab, shrimp and clams, accounted for 195,000 tonnes (215,000 tons) with a value of $316 million in the same year. The value of products from the seal hunt was $55 million.[37]

Forestry Products

Newsprint is produced by paper mills in Grand Falls, (capacity of 210,000 tonnes (230,000 tons) per year) and Corner Brook, (capacity of 420,000 tonnes (462,000 tons) per year). [40]. The value of newsprint exports varies greatly from year to year, depending on the global market price. Lumber is produced by numerous mills in Newfoundland.

Oil Production

Oil production from offshore oil platforms on Hibernia, White Rose and Terra Nova oil fields on the Grand Banks was 110 million barrels which contributed 15% of the provinces GDP in 2006. Total production from the Hibernia field from 1997 to 2006 was 733 million barrels with an estimated value of $36 billion. Remaining reserves are estimated at almost 2 billion barrels as of Dec. 31, 2006. Exploration for new reserves is ongoing.[37]

Manufacturing

Apart from seafood processing, paper manufacture and oil refining[41], manufacturing in the province consists of smaller industries producing food[42], brewing and other beverage production, and footware[43]

Agriculture

Agriculture in Newfoundland in limited to areas south of St. John's, near Deer Lake and in the Codroy Valley. Potatoes, rutabagas, known locally as "turnips", carrots and cabbage are grown for local consumption. Poultry, eggs and pork are also produced. Wild blueberries, partridge berries and bakeapples are harvested commercially and used in jams and wine making [44].

Tourism

Tourism is a significant part of the "new' economy in the province. In 2006 nearly 500,000 non-resident tourists visited Newfoundland and Labrador, spending an estimated $366 million.[37]

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is another new industry for the province, which in 2006 produced over 10,000 tonnes of Atlantic salmon, mussels and steelhead trout worth over $50 million.[37]

Population

Early European (primarily from England, Ireland and France) settlement in Newfoundland was confined to the coast. The rich cod fishery on the Grand Banks and along the shore of the island was the primary reason for these settlements. The rugged shoreline provided many small, but isolated, harbors (outports) from which to conduct the fishery. The Avalon Peninsula was, and is, the most populous part of the island, and as such had the best developed system of early roads and trails. Transportation between communities on other parts of the coast, especially the south coast between Fortune Bay and Port aux Basques, was exclusively by boat. Almost all communities are now accessable by roads which are part of the provincial road system. The now-defunct Newfoundland Railway, built in the latter part of the 19th century, and the development of the lead, zinc and copper mine at Buchans[45] and the paper mill in Grand Falls in the early 20th century marked the beginning of the settlement of the interior of the island. Despite these developments the majority of the population is still found along the coast[46].

Settlement of Labrador followed a similar pattern, with the interior being settled only in the latter part of the 20th century with the development of the iron oremines at Wabush, hydroelectric generation at Churchill Falls and the military base at Goose Bay.

Aboriginal peoples include the Innu, Inuit and Métis of Labrador and the Mi'kmaq in Newfoundland. One aboriginal group, the Beothuks became extinct in the early 19th century.

Other facts

Location Eastern Canada.
Time Newfoundland: GMT - 3.5 (GMT - 2.5 in summer). Labrador: GMT - 4 (GMT - 3 in summer).
Area 405,720 km² (156,648 sq mi).[3]
Area of Newfoundland 111,390 km² (69,215 sq mi) [3]
Area of Labrador 294,330 km² (182,888 sq mi) [3]
Water Area 34,030 km² (21,145 sq mi) [3]
Coastline 17,542 km (10,900 mi)[3]
Population 516,000 (as of 2005 estimate).
Population Density 1.27 per km² (3.1 per sq mi)
Capital St John’s. Population: 180,631 (2005).

See also

References

  1. ^ "Atlas of Canada, Islands". Retrieved 2007-07-19.
  2. ^ a b c "Geography:Newfoundland and Labrador". Retrieved 2006-11-23.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Location and Travel". Retrieved 2006-11-23.
  4. ^ "Atlas of Canada, Surface Areas". Retrieved 2007-07-19.
  5. ^ a b c d e f "Newfoundland and Labrador: geological history". Retrieved 2007-03-11.
  6. ^ a b "Justification for World Heritage status". Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  7. ^ a b "The climate of Newfoundland and Labrador is marked by seasonality and instability". Retrieved 2007-03-11.
  8. ^ a b "Newfoundland and Labrador Geology, from the Canadian Encyclopedia". Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  9. ^ "Government document about Tolts (rocky knobs) or inselbergs". Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  10. ^ a b "Gros Morne geology by Parks Canada". Retrieved 2007-07-26.
  11. ^ "Geological landscape". Retrieved 2007-03-11.
  12. ^ "Gros Morne". Retrieved 2007-04-14.
  13. ^ "Mistaken Point about fossils". Retrieved 2007-03-24.
  14. ^ "National Parks official website". Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  15. ^ "Museum notes from "The Rooms" museum re Maritime Archaic People". Retrieved 2007-07-27.
  16. ^ "Museum notes from "The Rooms" museum re Paleoeskimos, the Dorset Culture". Retrieved 2007-07-27.
  17. ^ "Early settlements in Newfoundland". Retrieved 2007-07-27.
  18. ^ "Types of govenments of Newfoundland and Labrador". Retrieved 2007-07-27.
  19. ^ "Military history of Newfoundland prior to 1914". Retrieved 2007-07-27.
  20. ^ "Newfoundland and Labrador in WW II". Retrieved 2007-07-27.
  21. ^ "St. John's History". Retrieved 2006-11-23.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Biomes: Tundra and Taiga". Retrieved 2007-03-11.
  23. ^ a b c "Government website listing all provincial mammals". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
  24. ^ a b c d "North America's best kept secret: Conserving Newfoundland's rare Limestone Barrens flora". Retrieved 2007-04-22.
  25. ^ "Newfoundland Government press release for Braya recovery plan". Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  26. ^ "Amphibians in Newfoundland". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
  27. ^ "Frogs and Toads in Newfoundland". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
  28. ^ "Seasonal Geography". Retrieved 2007-03-11.
  29. ^ "Mammals of Newfoundland and Labrador". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
  30. ^ "Environment Canada Climate data for Newfoundland and Labrador". Retrieved 2007-07-30.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i "About everything in Newfoundland and Labrador". Retrieved 2006-11-23.
  32. ^ http://atlantic-web1.ns.ec.gc.ca/climatecentre/default.asp?lang=En&n=83846147-1#smoke%7Caccessdate=2007-07-17
  33. ^ a b c d "Iceberg FAQ". Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  34. ^ "Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Icebergs" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-07-15.
  35. ^ "Environment Canada ice floes". Retrieved 2007-07-15.
  36. ^ "Department of Fisheries and Oceans, seal hunt". Retrieved 2007-07-16.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g "The Economy 2007, Economics and Statistics Branch, Department of Finance, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Office of the Queens Printer". Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  38. ^ "Iron ore production in Labrador". Retrieved 2007-03-11.
  39. ^ "Dimension stone". Retrieved 2007-07-18.
  40. ^ "Newfoundland Forestry ecomomics". Retrieved 2007-07-18.
  41. ^ http://www.nlrefining.com/
  42. ^ http://www.purity.nf.ca/
  43. ^ http://www.terrafootwear.co
  44. ^ http://www.rodrigueswinery.com/
  45. ^ "Buchans mine". Retrieved 2007-07-16.
  46. ^ http://www.durham.net/~kburt/NewfoundlandHistory.html


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