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Computer graphics

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This article is about the technologies of computer graphics. For other uses see Computer graphics (disambiguation).

Computer graphics are graphics created with computers, and more general the representation and manipulation of pictorial data by a computer.

Overview

The term computer graphics includes almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Today almost every computer can do some graphics, and people have even come to expect to control their computer through icons and pictures rather than just by typing.[1] The term Computer graphics has more meaning:

Today much of our life is affected by computers, and by computer graphics. Whether you see them on television, in newspapers, in weather reports or while at the doctor's surgery, computer images are all around you. A well-chosen graph is able to transform a complex table of numbers into meaningful results. Such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, and theses, as well as providing the basis for presentation material in the form of slides and overhead transparencies. A range of tools and facilities are available to enable users to visualise their data, and computer graphics are used in many disciplines. [2]

History

William Fetter was a graphic designer for Boeing Aircraft Co. and in 1960, was credited with coining the phrase "Computer Graphics" to describe what he was doing at Boeing at the time. Fetter has said that the terms were actually given to him by Verne Hudson of the Wichita Division of Boeing. In a 1978 interview Fetter stated, that there had been a long-standing need in certain computer graphics applications for human figure simulations, that as descriptions of the human body are both accurate and at the same time adaptable to different user environment. His early work at Boeing was focused on the development of such ergonomic descriptions. One of the most memorable and iconic images of the early history of computer graphics was such a human figure, often referred to as the "Boeing Man", but referred to by Fetter as the "First Man".[3]

The field of computer graphics developed with the emergence of computer graphics technology. Projects in this field like the Whirlwind and SAGE projects helped to open the door to the computer graphics discipline by providing the CRT as a viable display and interaction interface, and introduced the light pen as an important input device. Continuing the development of the digital computer, the TX-2 computer in 1959 at MIT's Lincoln Laboratory was key in the evolution of interactive computer graphics. Their display, a lightpen, and a bank of switches were the interface on which the first interactive computer graphics system was based. The TX-2, integrated a number of man-machine interfaces that were just waiting for the right person to show up to use them in order to make a computer that was "on-line". With a simple cathode ray tube and light pen on the TX-2's console and thought one should be able to draw on the computer, the Sketchpad, and with it, interactive computer graphics were born. In the Lincoln Labs on their TX-2 computer Ivan Sutherland's PhD work made him to be the "grandfather" of interactive computer graphics and graphical user interfaces.[3]

The activities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology would help to shape the early computer and computer graphics industries. It wasn't long before major corporations started taking an interest in computer graphics. TRW, Lockheed-Georgia, General Electric and Sperry Rand are among the many companies that were getting started in computer graphics by the mid 1960's. IBM was quick to respond to this interest by releasing the IBM 2250 graphics terminal, the first commercially available graphics computer.[4]

The organizations, conferences, graphics standards, and publications in the field of computer graphics emerged since end 1960s. In 1969 the ACM initiated a A Special Interest Group in Graphics (SIGGRAPH) which interest ran from simulation and modeling, to text editing and composition, to computer generated art, cartography and mapping, computer aided design and, computer graphics software and hardware. In 1973 the first annual SIGGRAPH conference was held, which has become one of the compelling aspects of the organization. Over the years, Panels and Courses were added, an Art Show became a mainstay, and venues for emerging technologies were provided. Several related conferences have occasionally co-located with SIGGRAPH, and an Education track became part of the overall conference offerings.[3]

Image types

2D computer graphics

Raster graphic sprites (left) and masks (right)

2D computer graphics are the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-dimensional models, such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images, and by techniques specific to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science that comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves.

2D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditional printing and drawing technologies, such as typography, cartography, technical drawing, advertising, etc.. In those applications, the two-dimensional image is not just a representation of a real-world object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; two-dimensional models are therefore preferred, because they give more direct control of the image than 3D computer graphics, whose approach is more akin to photography than to typography.

Pixel art

Pixel art is a form of digital art, created through the use of raster graphics software, where images are edited on the pixel level. Graphics in most old (or relatively limited) computer and video games, graphing calculator games, and many mobile phone games are mostly pixel art.

Vector graphics

Example showing effect of vector graphics versus raster graphics.

Vector graphics formats are complementary to raster graphics, which is the representation of images as an array of pixels, as it is typically used for the representation of photographic images.[5] There are instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice, and instances when working with raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools.

3D computer graphics

3D computer graphics in contrast to 2D computer graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be for later display or for real-time viewing.

Despite these differences, 3D computer graphics rely on many of the same algorithms as 2D computer vector graphics in the wire frame model and 2D computer raster graphics in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily 3D may use 2D rendering techniques.

3D computer graphics are often referred to as 3D models. Apart from the rendered graphic, the model is contained within the graphical data file. However, there are differences. A 3D model is the mathematical representation of any three-dimensional object (either inanimate or living). A model is not technically a graphic until it is visually displayed. Due to 3D printing, 3D models are not confined to virtual space. A model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering, or used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations.

Computer animation

An example of Computer animation which is produced in the "Motion capture" technique

Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film. It is also referred to as CGI (Computer-generated imagery or computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films.

To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted slightly. This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures.

Concepts and Principles

Image

In common usage, an image or picture is an artifact, usually two-dimensional, that has a similar appearance to some subject—usually a physical object or a person. Images may be two-dimensional, such as a photograph, screen display, and as well as a three-dimensional, such as a statue. They may be captured by optical devices—such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water surfaces.

A digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional image using ones and zeros (binary). Depending on whether or not the image resolution is fixed, it may be of vector or raster type. Without qualifications, the term "digital image" usually refers to raster images.

Pixel

This example shows an image with a portion greatly enlarged, in which the individual pixels are rendered as little squares and can easily be seen.

In digital imaging, a pixel is the smallest piece of information in an image.[6]) Pixels are normally arranged in a regular 2-dimensional grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an original image, where more samples typically provide a more accurate representation of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel has typically three or four components such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black.

Graphics

Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Examples are photographs, drawings, Line Art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style.

Rendering

Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output.

3D projection
3D projection is a method of mapping three dimensional points to a two dimensional plane. As most current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two dimensional media, the use of this type of projection is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting.
Ray tracing
Ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing the path of light through pixels in an image plane. The technique is capable of producing a very high degree of photorealism; usually higher than that of typical scanline rendering methods, but at a greater computational cost.
Shading
Example of shading.
Shading refers to depicting depth in 3D models or illustrations by varying levels of darkness. It is a process used in drawing for depicting levels of darkness on paper by applying media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a lighter shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading including cross hatching where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears. Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears. The term has been recently generalized to mean that shaders are applied.
Texture mapping
Texture mapping is a method for adding detail, surface texture, or colour to a computer-generated graphic or 3D model. Its application to 3D graphics was pioneered by Dr Edwin Catmull in 1974. A texture map is applied (mapped) to the surface of a shape, or polygon. This process is akin to applying patterned paper to a plain white box. Multitexturing is the use of more than one texture at a time on a polygon.[7]

Volume rendering

Volume rendered CT scan of a forearm with different colour schemes for muscle, fat, bone, and blood.

Volume rendering is a technique used to display a 2D projection of a 3D discretely sampled data set. A typical 3D data set is a group of 2D slice images acquired by a CT or MRI scanner.

Usually these are acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and usually have a regular number of image pixels in a regular pattern. This is an example of a regular volumetric grid, with each volume element, or voxel represented by a single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate area surrounding the voxel.

3D modelling

3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical, wireframe representation of any three-dimensional object via specialized software. The product is called a "3D model". It can be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena. The model can also be physically created using 3D Printing devices. Models may be created automatically or manually. The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting.

Pioneers in graphic design

Charles Csuri
Charles Csuri is best known for pioneering the field of computer graphics, computer animation and digital fine art, creating the first computer art in 1964. Csuri has been recognized as the father of digital art and computer animation by Smithsonian, and as a leading pioneer of computer animation by the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) and The Association for Computing Machinery Special Interest Group Graphics (ACM-SIGGRAPH).
Donald P. Greenberg
Donald P. Greenberg is an internationally recognized pioneer in computer graphics, Greenberg has authored hundreds of articles and served as a teacher and mentor to many prominent computer graphic artists and animators. Five former students have won Academy Awards for Scientific or Technical Achievements, five have won the SIGGRAPH Achievement Award, and many now work for Pixar Animation Studios. Greenberg was the founding director of the National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center for Computer Graphics and Scientific Visualization when it was created in 1991. His former students include Robert L. Cook, Marc Levoy, and Wayne Lytle.
A. Michael Noll
Noll was one of the first researchers to use a digital computer to create artistic patterns and to formalize the use of random processes in the creation of visual arts. His initial digital computer art was programmed in the summer of 1962 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, NJ, making him one of the earliest digital computer artists. In 1965 Noll along with two other pioneers within the field of early computer art, Frieder Nake and Georg Nees in Germany, were the first to exhibit publicly their computer art. During April 1965, the Howard Wise Gallery in New York City exhibited Noll's computer art along with random-dot patterns by Bela Julesz.
Other pioneers

The study of computer graphics

Computer graphics

A modern render of the Utah teapot, an iconic model in 3D computer graphics created by Martin Newell in 1975.

The study of computer graphics is a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to three-dimensional computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional graphics and image processing.

As an academic discipline, computer graphics studies the manipulation of visual and geometric information using computational techniques. It focuses on the mathematical and computational foundations of image generation and processing rather than purely aesthetic issues. Computer graphics is often differentiated from the field of visualization, although the two fields have many similarities.

Connected studies

Connected studies include:

Applications

References

  1. ^ What is Computer Graphics?, Cornell University Program of Computer Graphics. Last updated 04/15/98.
  2. ^ ISS (2002). "What are computer graphics?". Last updated: 19 Feb 2002
  3. ^ a b c Wayne Carlson (2003) A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation. The Ohio State University
  4. ^ HISTORY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS 1960-69.
  5. ^ Ira Greenberg (2007). Processing: Creative Coding and Computational Art. Apress. ISBN 159059617X.
  6. ^ Rudolf F. Graf (1999). Modern Dictionary of Electronics. Oxford: Newnes. p. 569. ISBN 0-7506-4331-5.
  7. ^ Blythe, David. Advanced Graphics Programming Techniques Using OpenGL. Siggraph 1999. (see: Multitexture)

Further reading

  • James D. Foley, Andries Van Dam, Steven K. Feiner and John F. Hughes (1995). Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice. Addison-Wesley
  • Donald Hearn and M. Pauline Baker (1994). Computer Graphics. Prentice-Hall.
  • Francis S. Hill (2001). Computer Graphics. Prentice Hall.
  • John Lewell (1985). Computer Graphics: A Survey of Current Techniques and Applications. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
  • Jeffrey J. McConnell (2006). Computer Graphics: Theory Into Practice. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
  • R. D. Parslow, R. W. Prowse, Richard Elliot Green (1969). Computer Graphics: Techniques and Applications.
  • Peter Shirley and others. (2005). Fundamentals of computer graphics. A.K. Peters, Ltd.
  • M. Slater, A. Steed, Y. Chrysantho (2002). Computer graphics and virtual environments: from realism to real-time. Addison-Wesley
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