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"WTO" redirects here. For other uses, see WTO (disambiguation).
World Trade Organization Template:En icon
Organisation mondiale du commerce Template:Fr icon
Organización Mundial del Comercio Template:Es icon
Formation1 January 1995
HeadquartersGeneva, Switzerland
Membership
153 member states
Official language
English, French, Spanish [1]
Pascal Lamy
Budget
180 million Swiss francs (approx. 163 million USD) in 2008.[2]
Staff
625[3]
Websitewww.wto.int
World Trade Organization is located in Earth
World Trade Organization
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Location of the WTO headquarters in Geneva

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization designed to supervise and liberalize international trade. The WTO came into being on 1 January 1995, and is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was created in 1947, and continued to operate for almost five decades as a de facto international organization.

The World Trade Organization deals with the rules of trade between nations at a near-global level; it is responsible for negotiating and implementing new trade agreements, and is in charge of policing member countries' adherence to all the WTO agreements, signed by the majority of the world's trading nations and ratified in their parliaments.[4][5] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round. The organization is currently working with its members on a new trade negotiation called the Doha Development Agenda (Doha round), launched in 2001.[4][3]

The WTO has 153 members, which represents more than 95% of total world trade.[6] The WTO is governed by a Ministerial Conference, which meets every two years; a General Council, which implements the conference's policy decisions and is responsible for day-to-day administration; and a director-general, who is appointed by the Ministerial Conference. The WTO's headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland.

History

See also: Chronology of the World Trade Organization

ITO and GATT 1947

Further information: International Trade Organization
Harry Dexter White (l) and John Maynard Keynes at the Bretton Woods Conference – Both economists had been strong advocates of a liberal international trade environment, and recommended the establishment of three institutions: the IMF (fiscal and monetary issues), the World Bank (financial and structural issues), and the ITO (international economic cooperation).[7]

The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation - notably the Bretton Woods institutions known as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. A comparable international institution for trade, named the International Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, and commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the United States and a few other signatories and never went into effect.[8][9][10]

In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GAT would over the years "transform itself" into a de facto international organization.[11]

GATT rounds of negotiations

See also: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

The GATT was the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1948 until the WTO was established in 1995.[12] Despite attempts in the mid 1950s and 1960s to create some form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT continued to operate for almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional basis.[13]

From Geneva to Tokyo

Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under the GATT. The first GATE trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called "codes". Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.[12]

Uruguay Round

File:Bush Lula133635.jpg
During the Doha Round, the US government blamed Brazil and India for being inflexible, and the EU for impeding agricultural imports.[14] The President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, responded to the criticisms by arguing that progress would only be achieved if the richest countries (especially the US and countries in the EU) make deeper cuts in their agricultural subsidies, and further open their markets for agricultural goods.[15]
Further information: Uruguay Round

Well before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy.[16][17] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), the eighth GATT round — known as the Uruguay Round — was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.[16] It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original GATT articles were up for review.[17] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed during the April 1994 ministerial meeting at Marrakesh, Morroco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[18]

The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[16] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into a structure with six main parts:

Ministerial conferences

First ministerial conference

Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 1996

The inaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the "Singapore issues".

Second ministerial conference

Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 1998

Was held in Geneva in Switzerland.

Third ministerial conference

Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999

The third conference in Seattle, Washington ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide attention.

Fourth ministerial conference

File:China's signing ceremony to join the WTO.jpg
The People's Republic of China became the 143rd member to join the WTO. It took 15 years and 5 months of negotiations before China was approved to join.
Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 2001

Was held in Doha In Persian Gulf nation of Qatar. The Doha Development Round was launched at the conference. The conference also approved the joining of China, which became the 143rd member to join.

Fifth ministerial conference

Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 2003

The ministerial conference was held in Cancún, Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India, China[20] and Brazil), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called "Singapore issues" and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke down without progress.

Sixth ministerial conference

Further information: WTO Ministerial Conference of 2005

The sixth WTO Ministerial Conference was held in Hong Kong from 13 December – 18 December 2005. It was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Agenda negotiations were to move forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006. Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following the Everything But Arms initiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of 2006.

Doha Round

Further information: Doha Round
The Doha Development Round started in 2001 and continues today.

The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) or Doha Round, at the Fourth Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. The Doha round was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world's poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.[21] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.[22]

The negotiations have been highly contentious and agreement has not been reached, despite the intense negotiations at several Ministerial Conferences and at other sessions. Disagreements still continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies.[23]

GATT and WTO trade rounds[24][25][26]
Name Start Duration Countries Subjects covered Achievements
Switzerland Geneva April 1947 7 months 23 Tariffs Signing of GATT, 45,000 tariff concessions affecting $10 billion of trade
France Annecy April 1949 5 months 34 Tariffs Countries exchanged some 5,000 tariff concessions
United Kingdom Torquay September 1950 8 months 34 Tariffs Countries exchanged some 8,700 tariff concessions, cutting the 1948 tariff levels by 25%
Switzerland Geneva II January 1956 5 months 22 Tariffs, admission of Japan $2.5 billion in tariff reductions
Switzerland Dillon September 1960 11 months 45 Tariffs Tariff concessions worth $4.9 billion of world trade
Switzerland Kennedy May 1964 37 months 48 Tariffs, anti-dumping Tariff concessions worth $40 billion of world trade
Japan Tokyo September 1973 74 months 102 Tariffs, non-tariff measures, "framework" agreements Tariff reductions worth more than $300 billion achieved
Uruguay Uruguay September 1986 87 months 123 Tariffs, non-tariff measures, rules, services, intellectual property, dispute settlement, textiles, agriculture, creation of WTO, etc. The round led to the creation of WTO, and extended the range of trade negotiations, leading to major reductions in tariffs (about 40%) and agricultural subsidies, an agreement to allow full access for textiles and clothing from developing countries, and an extension of intellectual property rights.
Qatar Doha November 2001 ? 159 Tariffs, non-tariff measures, agriculture, labor standards, environment, competition, investment, transparency, patents etc. The round has not yet concluded. The last agreement to date, the Bali Package, was signed on 7 December 2013.

Functions

Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:

  • It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements.[27][28]
  • It provides a forum for negotiations and for settling disputes.[29][30]

Additionally, it is the WTO's duty to review the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.[30][28] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.[31] The WTO is also a center of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.[32] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.[29]

Principles of the trading system

The WTO establishes a framework for trade policies; it does not define or specify outcomes. That is, it is concerned with setting the rules of the trade policy games.[33] Five principles are of particular importance in understanding both the pre-1994 GATT and the WTO:

  1. Non-Discrimination. It has two major components: the most favoured nation (MFN) rule, and the national treatment policy. Both are embedded in the main WTO rules on goods, services, and intellectual property, but their precise scope and nature differ across these areas. The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions on all trade with other WTO members, i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most favorable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all other WTO members.[33] "Grant someone a special favour and you have to do the same for all other WTO members."[34] National treatment means that imported and locally-produced goods should be treated equally (at least after the foreign goods have entered the market) and was introduced to tackle non-tariff barriers to trade (e.g. technical standards, security standards et al. discriminating against imported goods).[33]
  2. Reciprocity. It reflects both a desire to limit the scope of free-riding that may arise because of the MFN rule, and a desire to obtain better access to foreign markets. A related point is that for a nation to negotiate, it is necessary that the gain from doing so be greater than the gain available from unilateral liberalization; reciprocal concessions intend to ensure that such gains will materialise.[35]
  3. Binding and enforceable commitments. The tariff commitments made by WTO members in a multilateral trade negotiation and on accession are enumerated in a schedule (list) of concessions. These schedules establish "ceiling bindings": a country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean compensating them for loss of trade. If satisfaction is not obtained, the complaining country may invoke the WTO dispute settlement procedures.[35][34]
  4. Transparency. The WTO members are required to publish their trade regulations, to maintain institutions allowing for the review of administrative decisions affecting trade, to respond to requests for information by other members, and to notify changes in trade policies to the WTO. These internal transparency requirements are supplemented and facilitated by periodic country-specific reports (trade policy reviews) through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM).[36] The WTO system tries also to improve predictability and stability, discouraging the use of quotas and other measures used to set limits on quantities of imports.[34]
  5. Safety valves. In specific circumstances, governments are able to restrict trade. There are three types of provisions in this direction: articles allowing for the use of trade measures to attain noneconomic objectives; articles aimed at ensuring "fair competition"; and provisions permitting intervention in trade for economic reasons….[36]

There are 11 committees under the jurisdiction of the Goods Council each with a specific task. All members of the WTO participate in the committees. The Textiles Monitoring Body is separate from the other committees but still under the jurisdiction of Goods Council. The body has its own chairman and only ten members. The body also has several groups relating to textiles. [37]

Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO’s work with other international organizations in the field.[38]

Council for Trade in Services

The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required.[39]

The Service Council has three subsidiary bodies: financial services, domestic regulations, GATS rules and specific commitments. [37]

Other committees

The General council has several different committees, working groups, and working parties. [40]

Committees on

  • Trade and Environment
  • Trade and Development (Subcommittee on Least-Developed Countries)
  • Regional Trade Agreements
  • Balance of Payments Restrictions
  • Budget, Finance and Administration

Working parties on

  • Accession

Working groups on

  • Trade, debt and finance
  • Trade and technology transfer

Trade Negotiations Committee

The Trade Negotiations Committee (TNC) is the committee that deals with the current trade talks round. The chair is WTO’s director-general. The committee is currently tasked with the Doha Development Round.[41]

Voting system

The WTO operates on a one country, one vote system, but actual votes have never been taken. Decisionmaking is generally by consensus, and relative market size is the primary source of bargaining power. The advantage of consensus decision-making is that it encourages efforts to find the most widely acceptable decision. Main disadvantages include large time requirements and many rounds of negotiation to develop a consensus decision, and the tendency for final agreements to use ambiguous language on contentious points that makes future interpretation of treaties difficult.[citation needed]

In reality, WTO negotiations proceed not by consensus of all members, but by a process of informal negotiations between small groups of countries. Such negotiations are often called "Green Room" negotiations (after the colour of the WTO Director-General's Office in Geneva), or "Mini-Ministerials", when they occur in other countries. These processes have been regularly criticised by many of the WTO's developing country members which are often totally excluded from the negotiations.[citation needed]

Richard Steinberg (2002) argues that although the WTO's consensus governance model provides law-based initial bargaining, trading rounds close through power-based bargaining favouring Europe and the United States, and may not lead to Pareto improvement.[42]

Dispute settlement

Main article: Dispute settlement in the WTO

In 1994, the WTO members agreed on the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) annexed to the "Final Act" signed in Marrakesh in 1994.[43] Dispute settlement is regarded by the WTO as the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and as a "unique contribution to the stability of the global economy".[44] WTO members have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.[45]

The operation of the WTO dispute settlement process involves the DSB panels, the Appellate Body, the WTO Secretariat, arbitrators, independent experts and several specialized institutions.[46]

Accession and membership

Further information: WTO accession and membership

The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and current trade regime.[47] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last more if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere.[48] As is typical of WTO procedures, an offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.[49]

Accession process

Status of WTO negotiations:
  members (including dual-representation with the European Union)
  Draft Working Party Report or Factual Summary adopted
  Goods and/or Services offers submitted
  Memorandum on Foreign Trade Regime submitted
  observer, negotiations to start later or no Memorandum on FTR submitted
  frozen procedures or no negotiations in the last 3 years
  no official interaction with the WTO

A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[50] The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.[49] After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[47] The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.[50]

When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the General Council or Ministerial Conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments. Once the General Council or Ministerial Conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member.[51]

Members and observers

The WTO has 153 members (almost all of the 123 nations participating in the Uruguay Round signed on at its foundation, and the rest had to get membership).[52] The 27 states of the European Union are represented also as the European Communities. WTO members do not have to be full sovereign nation-members. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus Hong Kong (as "Hong Kong, China" since 1997) became a GATT contracting party, and the Republic of China (ROC) (commonly known as Taiwan, whose sovereignty has been disputed by the People's Republic of China) acceded to the WTO in 2002 under the name of "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu" (Chinese Taipei).[53] A number of non-members have been observers (28) at the WTO and are currently negotiating their membership. While an observer, Russia is not a member. With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. Some international intergovernmental organizations are also granted observer status to WTO bodies.[54] 14 states and 2 territories so far have no official interaction with the WTO.

Agreements

The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession. A list of WTO agreements can be found here[55] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows.

Agreement on Agriculture (AoA)

The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market access and export subsidies.

General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)

The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, in the same way the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provides such a system for merchandise trade. The Agreement entered into force in January 1995

Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement(TRIPs)

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights sets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994.

Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary (SPS) Agreement

The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures - also known as the SPS Agreement was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995.

Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members' policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases).

Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT)

The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994.

The object of the TBT Agreement is to "to ensure that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade".[56]

Criticism

Main article: Criticism of the World Trade Organization
Protestors clashing with Hong Kong police in Wan Chai (area of Waterfront) during the WTO Ministerial Conference of 2005.

The stated aim of the WTO is to promote free trade and stimulate economic growth. Some people argue that free trade leads to a divergence instead of convergence of income levels within rich and poor countries (the rich get richer and the poor get poorer).[57] Martin Khor, Director of the Third World Network, argues that the WTO does not manage the global economy impartially, but in its operation has a systematic bias toward rich countries and multinational corporations, harming smaller countries which have less negotiation power. He argues that developing countries have not benefited from the WTO Agreements of the Uruguay Round, because (among other reasons): market access in industry has not improved; these countries have had no gains yet from the phasing out of textiles quotas; non-tariff barriers such as anti-dumping measures have increased; and domestic support and export subsidies for agricultural products in the rich countries remain high.[58] Jagdish Bhagwati asserts however that there is greater tariff protection on manufacturers in the poor countries, which are also overtaking the rich nations in the number of anti-dumping filings.[59]

Other critics claim that the issues of labor relations and environment are steadfastly ignored. Steve Charnovitz, former Director of the Global Environment and Trade Study (GETS), believes that the WTO "should begin to address the link between trade and labor and environmental concerns."[60] Further, labor unions condemn the labor rights record of developing countries, arguing that to the extent the WTO succeeds at promoting globalization, then in equal measure do the environment and labor rights suffer.[61] On the other side, Khor responds that "if environment and labor were to enter the WTO system [...] it would be conceptually difficult to argue why other social and cultural issues should also not enter."[62] Bhagwati is also critical towards "rich-country lobbies seeking on imposing their unrelated agendas on trade agreements."[63] Therefore, both Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya. Professor at Columbia University, have criticized the introduction of TRIPs into the WTO framework, fearing that such non-trade agendas might overwhelm the organization's function.[64]

Other critics have characterized the decision making in the WTO as complicated, ineffective, unrepresentative and non-inclusive, and they have proposed the establishment of a small, informal steering committee (a "consultative board") that can be delegated responsibility for developing consensus on trade issues among the member countries.[65] The Third World Network has called the WTO "the most non-transparent of international organisations", because "the vast majority of developing countries have very little real say in the WTO system"; the Network stresses that "civil society groups and institutions must be given genuine opportunities to express their views and to influence the outcome of policies and decisions."[66] Certain non-governmental organizations, such as the World Federalist Movement, argue that democratic participation in the WTO could be enhanced through the creation of a parliamentary assembly, although other analysts have characterized this proposal as ineffective.[67]

See also

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References and notes

  1. ^ General Information on Recruitment in the World Trade Organization, World Trade Organization
  2. ^ "WTO Secretariat budget for 2008". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
  3. ^ a b What is the WTO?, World Trade Organization
  4. ^ a b Understanding the WTO - what is the World Trade Organization?, World Trade Organization
  5. ^ "World Trade Organization". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  6. ^ Fergusson, Ian F. (9 May 2007). "The World Trade Organization: Background and Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 2. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
  7. ^ A.E. Eckes Jr., US Trade History, 73
    * A. Smithies, Reflections on the Work of Keynes, 578-601
    * N. Warren, Internet and Globalization, 193
  8. ^ P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 80
  9. ^ Palmeter-Mavroidis, Dispute Settlement, 2
  10. ^ Fergusson, Ian F. (9 May 2007). "The World Trade Organization: Background and Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 4. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
  11. ^ It was contemplated that the GATT would be applied for several years until the ITO came into force. However, since the ITO was never brought into being, the GATT gradually became the focus for international governmental cooperation on trade matters (P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 81; J.H. Jackson, Managing the Trading System, 134).
  12. ^ a b The GATT Years: from Havana to Marrakesh, World Trade Organization
  13. ^ M.E. Footer, Analysis of the World Trade Organization, 17
  14. ^ B.S. Klapper, With a "Short Window"
  15. ^ Lula, Time to Get Serious about Agricultural Subsidies
  16. ^ a b c P. Gallagher, The First Ten Years of the WTO, 4
  17. ^ a b The Uruguay Round, World Trade Organization
  18. ^ http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto_e.htm
  19. ^ Overview: a Navigational Guide, World Trade Organization. For the complete list of "The Uruguay Round Agreements", see WTO legal texts, World Trade Organization, and Uruguay Round Agreements, Understandings, Decisions and Declarations, WorldTradeLaw.net
  20. ^ Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism
  21. ^ The Economist, In the twilight of Doha, 65
  22. ^ The Doha Development Agenda, European Commission
  23. ^ Fergusson, Ian F. (2008-01-18). "World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
  24. ^ The GATT years: from Havana to Marrakesh, World Trade Organization
  25. ^ Timeline: World Trade Organization – A chronology of key events, BBC News
  26. ^ Brakman-Garretsen-Marrewijk-Witteloostuijn, Nations and Firms in the Global Economy, Chapter 10: Trade and Capital Restriction
  27. ^ Functions of the WTO, IISD
  28. ^ a b Main Functions, World Trade Organization
  29. ^ a b A Bredimas, International Economic Law, II, 17
  30. ^ a b C. Deere, Decision-making in the WTO: Medieval or Up-to-Date?
  31. ^ WTO Assistance for Developing Countries, World Trade Organization
  32. ^ Economic research and analysis, World Trade Organization
  33. ^ a b c B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 42
  34. ^ a b c Principles of the Trading System, World Trade Organization
  35. ^ a b B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 43
  36. ^ a b B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 44
  37. ^ a b "Fourth level: down to the nitty-gritty". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
  38. ^ Intellectual property - overview of TRIPS Agreement
  39. ^ "The Services Council, its Committees and other subsidiary bodies". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
  40. ^ "WTO organization chart". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
  41. ^ "The Trade Negotiations Committee". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
  42. ^ Steinberg, Richard H. "In the Shadow of Law or Power? Consensus-based Bargaining and Outcomes in the GATT/WTO." International Organization. Spring 2002. pp. 339-374.
  43. ^ Stewart-Dawyer, The WTO Dispute Settlement System, 7
  44. ^ S. Panitchpakdi, The WTO at ten, 8.
  45. ^ Settling Disputes:a Unique Contribution, World Trade Organization
  46. ^ WTO Bodies involved in the dispute settlement process, World Trade Organization
  47. ^ a b Accessions Summary, Center for International Development
  48. ^ The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of the People's Republic of China (P. Farah, Five Years of China's WTO Membership, 263-304). Russia, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, is still in negotiations for membership. Recently, it secured a bilateral trade agreement with the EU and US (Accessions: Russian Federation, World Trade Organization; Factsheet on U.S. – Russia WTO Bilateral Market Access Agreement, Office of the United Stated Trade Representative; Russia - WTO: EU-Russia Deal Brings Russia a Step Closer to WTO Membership, European Commission). Moldova and Georgia are the remaining two nations that Russia must make agreements with to enter the WTO (A. Aslund, Russia's WTO Accession; V. Novostei, USA OKs Russia’s Entry into WTO, Pravda. Ru).
  49. ^ a b C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 64 Cite error: The named reference "M64" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  50. ^ a b Membership, Alliances and Bureaucracy, World Trade Organization
  51. ^ How to Become a Member of the WTO, World Trade Organization
  52. ^ For an updated list of WTO members, see here Members and Observers, World Trade Organization
  53. ^ J.H. Jackson, Sovereignty, 109
  54. ^ International Intergovernmental Organizations Granted Observer Status to WTO Bodies, World Trade Organization
  55. ^ http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm
  56. ^ A Summary of the Final Act of the Uruguay Round
  57. ^ Cline, William R. (2004). "Conclusion". Trade Policy and Global Poverty. Peterson Institute. p. 264. ISBN 0-881-32365-9.
  58. ^ M. Khor, Rethinking Liberalization and Reforming the WTO
  59. ^ J. Bhagwati, Reshaping the WTO, 26
  60. ^ S. Charnovitz, Addressing Environmental and Labor Issues in the WTO
  61. ^ K.C. Kennedy, The World Trade Organization, 46
  62. ^ M. Khor, How the WTO is getting a Raw Deal at the WTO, 154
  63. ^ J. Bhagwati, Reshaping the WTO, 28
  64. ^ J. Bhagwati, From Seattle to Hong Kong
    * A. Panagariya, TRIPs and the WTO
  65. ^ R. Blackhurst, Reforming WTO Decision Making, 12
    * Schott-Watal, Decision-Making in the WTO
  66. ^ Transparency, Participation and Legitimacy of the WTO, Third World Network
  67. ^ R.M Jennar, A "Consultative Parliamentary Assembly" to the WTO
    * Reform of the World Trade Organization and International Financial Organizations, World Federalist Movement

Further reading

Printed sources

  • Bhagwati, Jagdish (2005). "From Seattle to Hong Kong". Foreign Affairs. 84 (7): Article 15. Retrieved 2007-03-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
  • Bhagwati, Jagdish (2005). "Reshaping the WTO" (PDF). Far Eastern Economic Review. 162 (22): 25–30. Retrieved 2007-03-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Blackhurst, Richard (2000). "Reforming WTO Decision Making: Lessons from Singapore and Seattle" (PDF). Center for Research on Economic Development and Policy Reform (Working Paper No 63): 1–20. Retrieved 2007-03-23. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Bossche, Peter van den (2005). "The Origins of the WTO". The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Materials. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82290-4.
  • Bredimas, Antonis (1996). "Introduction". International Economic Law (in Greek). Athens: Ant. N.Sakkoulas Publishers. ISBN 9-602-32392-2.
  • Cline, William R. (2004). "Conclusion". Trade Policy and Global Poverty. Peterson Institute. ISBN 0-881-32365-9.
  • Eckes, Jr., Alfred E. (1999). "US Trade History". In William Anthony Lovett, Richard L. Brinkman, Alfred E. Eckes, Alfred E. Eckes, Jr. (ed.). U.S. Trade Policy: History, Theory and the WTO. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-765-60323-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Legal Issues of Economic Integration. 33 (3). Retrieved 2007-03-16. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Footer, Mary E. (2006). "Organization and Institutional Aspects". An Institutional and Normative Analysis of the World Trade Organization. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9-004-14308-4.
  • Gallagher, Peter (2005). "The GATT Becomes the WTO, 1995". The First Ten Years of the WTO: 1995-2005. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86215-9.
  • Hoekman, Bernard (2002). "The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles". In Bernard M. Hoekman, Aaditya Mattoo, Philip English (ed.). Development, Trade, and the WTO: A Handbook. World Bank Publications. ISBN 0-821-34997-X. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • "In the Twilight of Doha". The Economist (29 July - 4 August 2006). 380 (8488): 65–66. Retrieved 2007-04-12. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  • Jackson, John H. (1994). "Managing the Trading System: The World Trade Organization and the Post-Uruguay Round GATT Agenda". In Peter B. Kenen (ed.). Managing the World Economy: Fifty Years after Bretton Woods. Institute for International Economics. ISBN 0-88132-212-1.
  • Jackson, John H. (2006). "The World Trade Organization: Structure of the Treaty and the Institution". Sovereignty, the WTO and Changing Fundamentals of International Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86007-5.
  • Kenen, Peter B. (1999 – first published 1994). "The Evolution of Trade Policy". The International Economy (Volume I) (in Greek – translated from English by Andreas Sokodimos) (Third ed.). Athens: Papazisis (in English: Cambridge University Press). ISBN 9-60021-365-8. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  • Kennedy, Kevin C. (2006). "The World Trade Organization: Ultimate Arbiter of International Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards?". In Lawrence (Busch, Jim Bingen (ed.). Agricultural Standards: The Shape of the Global Food And Fiber System. Springer. ISBN 1-402-03983-2.
  • Khor, Martin (2002). "How the South is Getting a Raw Deal at the WTO". In Robin Broad (ed.). Global Backlash: Citizen Initiatives for a Just World Economy. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-742-51034-4.
  • Klapper, Bradley S. (14 November 2006). "With a 'Short Window,' one more Try for Deal on World Trade Talks". The International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
  • Lowenfeld, Andreas F. (1991 – 2007). "Preface - First Thoughts on Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organization". In Pierre Pescatore, William J. Davey, Andreas F. Lowenfeld (ed.). Handbook of WTO/GATT Dispute Settlement. Translations Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-929179-48-X. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Lowenfeld, Andreas F. (2002). "Dispute Settlement in the WTO". International Economic Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-825667-1.
  • Lula da Silva, Luiz Inácio (1 June 2006). "Time to Get Serious about Agricultural Subsidies". The International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
  • Martin, Will (1995). The Uruguay Round: Widening and Deepening the World Trading System. World Bank Publications. ISBN 0-821-33488-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Michalopoulos, Constantine (2002). "WTO Accession". In Bernard M. Hoekman, Aaditya Mattoo, Philip English (ed.). Development, Trade, and the WTO: A Handbook. World Bank Publications. ISBN 0-821-34997-X. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Palmeter, N. David (2004). "Overview". Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organization: Practice and Procedure. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53003-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Panitchpakdi, Supachai (2006). "The WTO at ten: Building on ten Years of Achievements". In Giorgio Sacerdoti, Alan Yanovich, Jan Bohanes (ed.). The WTO at Ten: The Contribution of the Dispute Settlement System. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86314-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Panizzon, Marion (2006). "Good Faith Non-interpretation by the WTO Appellate Body". Good Faith in the Jurisprudence of the WTO. Hart Publishing. ISBN 1-841-13620-4.
  • Smithies, Arthur (1954). "Reflections on the Work and Influence of John Maynard Keynes". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 65 (4): 578–601. doi:10.2307/1882580. Retrieved 2007-03-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Stewart, Terence P. (1991 – 2007). "The WTO Dispute Settlement System: an Overview". In Pierre Pescatore, William J. Davey, Andreas F. Lowenfeld (ed.). Handbook of WTO/GATT Dispute Settlement. Translations Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-929179-48-X. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Van der Borght, Kim (1999). "The Advisory Center on the WTO Law: Advancing Fairness and Equality". Journal of International Economic Law. 2 (4): 723–728. doi:10.1093/jiel/2.4.723. Retrieved 2007-03-21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Warren, Neil (2005). "Internet and Globalization". In Partha Gangopadhyay, Manas Chatterji (ed.). Economics of Globalisation. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-754-64137-6.
  • "World Trade Organization". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.

Online sources

Books and reports on the WTO

Articles on the WTO

Trade Sembe

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to World Trade Organization.

Official WTO Pages

Government Pages on the WTO

Media Pages on the WTO

Non-Governmental Organization Pages on the WTO (Alphabetical List)


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