Black Army of Hungary
Black Army | |
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![]() Standard of the Black legion | |
Active | 1458 to 1490 AD |
Disbanded | 1490, causes:Financial (disbanded), elimination (due to mercenary uprising) |
Country | Hungary |
Allegiance | Czech (Bohemian, Moravian, Silesian), Polish, Serbian, German-speaking |
Branch | Army, Navy |
Type | Cavalry, Infantry, Artillery, Siege Weapons |
Size | approx. 28.000 |
Heraldry | This characteristic flag with a forked tail was reconstructed after a miniature in Philostratus Chronicle, one of the Corvinas, representing the 1485 entry of János Corvinus, son of King Matthias into Vienna. The black colour of the flag used to be white (argent) in fact, but the argent paint oxidized. The reconstruction preserves the original colour. |
Mascot(s) | Raven |
Engagements | Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Serbia, Bosnia, Moldavia, Wallachia, Italy |
Commanders | |
King | Matthias Corvinus |
Notable commanders | Pál Kinizsi, Balázs Magyar, Imre Zápolya, John Giskra, John Haugwitz, František Hag |
The Black Army (Hungarian: Fekete sereg, pronounced [ˈfɛkɛtɛ ˈʃɛrɛɡ] 'Black Legion or Regiment'—possibly named after their black armor panoply, see below) is in historiography the common name given to the excellent quality of diverse and polyglot military forces serving under the reign of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458-1490). Its cosmopolitan makeup and elite nature were instrumental in defining an early approximation towards a post-medieval Renaissance absolutism, enabling the Hungarian Kingdom to flourish to a territorial, military, civic, economic and humanist cultural Golden Age prior to the annexing Ottoman advance of 1526. Hungary's continental military both on land and sea, in many ways, was the bellwether professional fighting force in a "Post-Roman" Europe not under conscription, its founder King Matthias is often compared to Julius Caesar.[1]
Hungary's Black Army traditionally encompasses the years from 1458 to the critical year of 1490 when the King died. Thus reinforced and imbued with grand European projects, King Matthias Corvinus' bellicose Realpolitik geo-political and domestic reformist agendas were highly successful that added luster an otherwise remarkable reign as Hungary's greatest and most beloved monarch. Under his able charismatic political and military prowess, vast imperial provinces and tracts of Central Europe were subsumed into the Hungarian Kingdom: Moravia, Silesia, Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia to the north-west. King Matthias also carried his victorious arms deeply into Habsburg Austrian crown domains, subduing Styria, Carinthia and Carniola to the immediate west. The capital of the Holy Roman Empire Vienna itself was invested in 1485 and capitulated after an extended siege. The fame and renown of the Black Army extended through Europe as a precursor to Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army, its power crescendoed to 1490 when the ephemeral Hungarian empire achieved the greatest zenith in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Black Army or its components were recorded to have been involved in 52 overall engagements, winning 43 battles and see only 9 defeats. Three features prominently among them, the celebrated Battle of Breadfield where an immense invading army of Ottomans was destroyed in Transylvania 1479 in the bloodiest conflict on record, the battle of Breslau 1474, where Matthias meticulously engineered the defeat of a 80,000 strong Polish-Czech coalition merely with 10,000 soldiers under his command, and the successful seige and taking of the imperial capital Vienna in 1485.
The men of the Black Army fought as well-paid, full-time mercenaries and were purely devoted to the arts and policies of warfare. Most European mercenary armies of the era were conscripted from the general population at times of crisis and soldiers worked as bakers, farmers, brick-makers, etc. for most of the year. It was an unusually large standing mercenary army for its time, and it conquered parts of Austria, Vienna (1485) and parts of Moravia.[2]
The prelude core of this early standing mercenary army appeared in the era of his father Regent-Governor John Hunyadi in the early 1440s. The core of the army originally consisted of 8-10 thousand mercenaries, later increasing to a permanent size of 30.000 men and doubling during invasions. The soldiers were mainly Bohemians, Germans, Serbs, Poles[3] and, from 1480, Hungarians. Every fifth soldier in the Black Army had an arquebus in the infantry, which was an unusual ratio at the time. The high price of medieval gunpowder prevented them to raise it any further.[4] The main troops of the army were the infantry, artillery and light and heavy cavalry. The function of the heavy cavalry was to protect the light armored infantry and artillery, while the other corps delivered random, surprise assaults on the enemy. The death of Matthias Corvinus meant the end of the Black Army since Vladislaus II was not able to cover the cost of the army.
Development of a modern well-organized drafting
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png/225px-The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png)
In the first years of Matthias' rule, the structure of enlisting troops was built on the legacy of his ancestor Sigismund of Luxembourg. The majority of his army consisted of noble banners and the soldiers provided and regulated by the Militia Portalis English: manor militia,[7] which outlined that for every twenty serf-lots (portae) a noble was ordered to raise and lend one archer to the king. Later, that obligation was reconsidered and the limit was shifted to an archer per 33 manors and three mounted archers per 100 manors. Those who didn't have serfs but owned manors as a noble had to join a regional count in state of war. No significant number of mercenaires were present in the Hungarian army during Matthias' early years. (In the 1463 Janus Pannonius' report of the siege of Jajce Castle, there is no mention of them.)
In case of emergency, a last chance existed for the actual king in power to suddenly mobilize the population. Every noble, no matter his social class, had to participate in person with his weaponry and all of his personal guards made available. Whenever they were called upon they were not allowed to fight for over 15 days and their field of operations was restricted within the borders of Hungary. The so-called insurrectio (noble insurrection) was nothing more than an obsolete form of drafting but it was valid until the Battle of Raab in 1809, mainly because it relieved the participting nobles of paying their taxes. But generally, these enlisted armada played a minor role in the Black Army since Matthias decreased their participation gradually and called them in in large numbers early in his reign.[8]
In the laws of 1459 of Szeged, he restored the basis of 20 serfs induct an archer (this time it was based on the numbers of persons). The barons' militia portalis no longer counted in the local noble's banner but into the army of the county (led by a captain appointed by the king) and could have been sent abroad as well. He also lifted the insurrectio's time of service from 15 days to 3 months.[9]
From the first mercenaires to regularly paid soldiers
Country | Type | Ruler | Size of army | Deployment | Year of military census |
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ad-hoc levy | Edward I | 28,700 | Falkirk campaign1 | 1298 |
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feudal levy | Philip IV | 44,700 | Anglo‑Scottish wars2 | 1340 |
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temporary mercenary | Doge Tommaso Mocenigo | 36,000 | peacetime garrison3 | 15th century |
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temporary mercenary | Filippo Maria Visconti Duke of Milan | 30,000 | Battle of Maclodio4 | 1427 |
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standing mercenary army | King Matthias Corvinus | 28,000 | Siege of Vienna5 | 1486 |
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mixed - utmost opportune levy | Sultan Mehmet II | 100,000 | Siege of Belgrade6 | 1456 |
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Italian mercenaires, English mercenaries | Count Amadeus | 3,000 | Gallipoli7 | 1366 |
Taxonomy | |||||
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Table 1 :Largest Middle Age European armies
Comparison of 15th century armies in focus of their size[10] |
Though these efforts were sound, the way they were carried out wasn't in any way supervised. In 1458, Matthias borrowed as much as 500 heavy cavalry from George of Poděbrady to strengthen his situation at home against his rival landlords. This marks the turning-point away from obsolete noble banners to skilled soldiers of fortune (in this case they were remnants of Hussites whose battle tactics were later adapted by the Black Army).[8] He needed more seasoned veterans so he chose to settle a group of rogue Czech army deserters led by John Jiskra who were already plundering the northern countryside seeking daily loot. Jiskra was promised royal pardon in the Peace Treaty of Wiener Neustadt of 1463 and two castles (Şoimuş and Lipova and his soldiers received a payment of 25.000 ducats. The next year he was stationed in Bosnia to fight the Ottomans.[15] Also in 1462, the king sent word to his equerry that he should hire 8 000 cavalry to start a holy war against the Ottoman Empire only if the Venetians - according to their promise - covered the expenses (unfortunately for the Hungarians, this financial aid was postponed from time to time). The first major and mass conscription of mercenaries appeared during the Bohemian Wars (1468–78) whereas the core of his royal infantry a force of 6 000-8 000 armed men were incorporated into the Black Army (the origins of the moniker could also come from this era)[16]
The term Black Army and its captains
Several speculations arose about the cognomen that the army is identified with. The fact is that no recorded accounts mention the "black" attribute until the death of King Matthias. They are referred so in written memorandums only after he passed, when the rest of the notorious army was already pillaging the borderline villages when they received no pay. One theory suggests that they wore a black stripe on their shoulder as a sign of mourning their lord. Italian middle-age historian, Bonfini, used the word only to describe the "toughness" of veterans serving in their lines. Others suppose that one of their famed captains Frantisek Hag's black chestplate inspired the name. A third idea is that they adopted the adjective from another captain, "Black" John Haugwitz, whose nickname already earned him heroic recognition during the campaigns. It is worth mentioning that since no such name as the "Black Army" existed when Matthias' army was in service, all of his leaders, who were in charge of different army branches, count as Black Army generals. Apart from John Jiskra, several reputed head-of-army reached perpetual reputation, even the infamous Vlad Țepeș, whose name is nowadays widely recognized as Count Dracula. Another noteworthy general was Pál Kinizsi who helped Corvinus' successor, Uladislaus II, to dissolve what remained of the discontent - sacking - Black Army.[8]
Funding the army to its greatest extent
After Matthias' income increased periodically, simultaneously, the number of mercenaries increased as well. Historical records vary when it comes to numbers mainly because it changed form battle to battle and most soldiers were only employed for the duration of combat or a longer conflict. Reckoning the nobility's banners, the mercenaries, the soldiers of conquered Moravia and Silesia, and the troops of allied Moldovia and Wallachia, the king could have gathered an enormous army of 90.000 men. (Despite the huge peasant/shepherd levies, Wallachia and Moldavia remained vassal countries of Hungary or Poland and, later, the Ottoman Empire.) The nobility's participation in the battlefield were ignored by the time their support could have been redeemed in gold later on. The cities were also relieved of paying war-levies if they supplied the craftsmanship and weapon production to equip the military.
King Matthias greatly increased the serf's taxes; he switched the basis of taxing from the portae to the households and, occasionally, they collected the royal dues twice a year during wartime. Counting the vassals' tribute, the western contributions, the local nobility's war payment, the tithes, and the urban taxes, Matthias' annual income reached 650.000 florins, while his sworn enemy, the Ottoman Empire (vastly larger in size) had 1.800.000. In contrast to popular belief, historians have speculated for decades that the actual sum altogether could circle around 800.000 florins in a good year at the peak of Matthias' reign, but never surpassed the financial threshold of one million florins, a previously commonly accepted number.[17] In 1467, Matthias Corvinus reformed the coin system to see to the easier accumulation of taxes and manageable disbursements and introduced an improved dinar, which had a finer silver content (500‰) and weighted half a gram. He also re-established its ratio, where one florin of gold equaled 100 dinars of silver, which was so stable that it remained in place until the mid-16th century.[18]
The army was divided into three parts: the cavalry, paid 3 florins per horse; the pavisors received double the money; and the archers, light infantry and arquebusiers, with the latter consisting of mostly Bohemian, Germans and Poles (all paid differently). Medieval gunpowder was quite expensive so the king preferred adapting Hussite tactics to mounted warfare (based on defense, placing infantry behing wagon blockades or tall pavises, while the cavalry contantly harassed the enemy and guarded the "middle") and placed archery in favor of fusiliers with the latter being engaged at the very start of the battle. With firearm production being made available by local marksmen in Transylvania, especially in Braşov,[8][19] [20] these type of ranged infantry became cheaper to handle for the Hungarians.[9]
Improving the river fleet
The river fleet ([flottila or naszád] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help)) was composed of wooden galleys, rowboats (later upgraded to gunboats) and smaller ships, which were capable of sailing up the rivers Danube, Tisza and Sava. The victory at the Belgrade in 1456, where the fleet played a significant role in breaking through the Turkish river blockade to bring relief to the besieged city, showed its importance and signaled the beginning of a recognition of its significance. It also encouraged King Matthias to build a larger and better equipped navy. Since they were manned by South Slavs, mainly Serbs and Croats, the two major ports of operations were Belgrade and Šabac. In 1475, concomitantly with the introduction of field guns, he ordered the installation of artillery onto the river barges as well as bombards able to shot cannonballs ranging from 100-200 lb. In 1479, he had a mixed fleet of 360 vessels, a crew of 2600 sailors, and a capacity of 10.000 soldiers on board.[9][21] Matthias also secured an exit to the Adriatic Sea, the city-port of Zengg from which Balázs Matthias could embark for his maritime campaigns.[6] Matthias could also monitor the trade going through the Danube delta to the Black Sea from the City of Kilia, but during his reign, it was seized by the Moldavian army supported by the Ottoman fleet.[22]
Uprisings within the Black Army
The disadvantage of having periodically or occasionally paid recruits was that if their money hadn't arrived on time, they simply left the battlefield or - in a worse scenario - they revolted, as it happened in several instances. Since they were the same skilled men-at-arms led by the same charismatic leaders previously fighting under the Hungarian King, they were as hard to eliminate as the Black Army was to its enemies. However they could be outnumbered since it was always a flank or division which quit a campaign. An easier solution was when the captain accepted some lands and castles to be mortgaged in return of service (e.g. Hričovský hrad, Bytča to František Hag). An example of mass desertion occurred in 1481 when a group of 300 horsemen joined the opposing Holy Roman forces. One of the most memorable insurrections was conducted by Jan Svehla who accompanied Corvinus to Slavonia in 1465 to beat the Ottomans. But when they were approaching Zagreb, Svehla asked for royal permission to officially quit the offensive with his mercenaries due to financial difficulty. His request was denied and as a consequence, he and two of his vice-captains left, along with their regiments, the royal banner.
George of Poděbrady secretly supported their invasion into the Comitatus of Nitra and their occupation of the fort of Kosztolány. The average man in the army was a Czech or Moravian professional, previously in service for Podebrad and Frederick III. Apart from the militia, there were religious outcasts (considered heretics) looking for shelter, including Hussite Brethrens and rogue Moravian Žebraks[nb 1] who favoured pillaging instead of payment. Svehla established a well-defended fort and he appointed Jorig Lichtenburger and Vöttau as comeses for the county. The fort and its looting inhabitants had a surrounding sphere of influence ranging from the valleys of Váh and Nitra to the eastern provinces of Austria. Matthias realized the threat and ordered two of his "upper-land" captains to besiege Kosztolany, namely Stefan Zápolya and Ladislaus Podmaniczky. After returning from Slavonia the King joined the siege. It is worth mentioning that here, among few occasions, Matthias cooperated with Frederick. He sent a strong armoured mounted troop led by commander Ulrich von Grafeneck to help wipe out these brigades. When he reached Pressburg, he was reinforced by Knight Georg Pottendorfer with 600 crusader cavalry. This totaled 8-10 thousand people ready to besiege who began an assault after taking some minor fortifications on 1 January 1467. The experienced vanguard of the Black Army officers were present against their former ally. They included the Palatinate Mihály Országh, Jan Jiskra, Jan Haugwitz, Balázs Magyar, Pál Kinizsi, Nicholaus Ujlaki Ban of Mačva, and Peter Sobi Ban of Bosnia-Croatia-Dalmatia, with the latter-most dying in the assault. Before the siege began, Matthias offered Svehla the chance to return to his service in exchange for a unconditional surrender on all grounds. After a refusal, he immediately began the siege and the cannon-firing despite the harsh winter conditions. Svehla and his 2.500 men (and additional citizens) resisted the superior besiegers, but food storages reached extremely low levels by time and all the efforts to break out were unsuccessful so he decided to capitulate twice to Matthias with the aforementioned taking his revenge in rejecting it. After three weeks Svehla feigned a break-out attempt in the front while getting out from the rear through the water channel. Though his physically weak and exhausted entourage of 2 000 infantry tried to elude the besieging forces, they weren't fast enough to escape safely. Balázs Magyar and Pál Kinizsi rode down to the fort of Čachtice where they clashed. Almost all of the rioters fell, only 250 taken as prisoners. Svehla evaded capture again but was put in custody by peasants by the time he was too debilitated to fight.
Matthias doomed him to hanging along with the remaining couple of hundred prisoners. This was King Matthias Corvin's most violent retaliation ever recorded. The very next day on 31 January 1467, witnessing the executions, the garrison asked for mercy and it was granted; and as a good example of the King's magnanimity, after taking Kosztolány he hired František Hag, officer member of the resistance group captainship in the Black Army since he found him skilled enough. Although in another case in 1474, František Hag revolted due to lack of pay but the conflict ended without violence and he remained Matthias' subject until his death.[6][8][24]
Branches, tactics, equipments
Heavy Cavalry
At the height of the century, the heavy cavalry was already at its peak although it showed signs of declining tendencies. The striking power and the ability to charge without backup made them capable of forcing a decisive outcome in most battles. Although they were rarely deployed on their own, if they were, they would take square formations. Such turning-points occurred at the battle of Breadfield (1479). Usually they made up one-sixth of the army and with mercenary knights were in the majority. Their armament was well-prepared and of high quality except for the noble banners. This stands for proprietary arms not the ones provided by the King.
Weaponry
- Lances: The lance was the principal assault weapon of the tilting heavy cavalry. They were about 4 meters long, ranging from the classical lance type of spears with a lengthened spearhead (often decorated with animal tails, flags or other ornaments), to the short conical spearheaded, one designed for piercing heavy armour. Their safe grip could be implemented using a buckler-like vamplate. Its stabibity was increased with a hook (lance-arret) on the side of the horseman's cuirass that it could be attached.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sword_parts-en.svg/200px-Sword_parts-en.svg.png)
- Swords: The most common swords of the era originated from Southern Europe. They were 1 meter long with an "S"-shaped crossguard with an edge designed to slice rather than to pierce because of its rounded pinpoint. Its thick pommel was useful for balancing and for whizzing in close combat. The other version which became popular in the second half of the century, where the whole body is very similar except for the quillon, was bent towards the pin for the purpose of breaking or clinching the enemy's blade. The 130–140 cm long bastardswords also came into use. As a companion weapon, daggers of saw-toothed and flame-form type were applied (both with ring-guard) and a misericordia.
- Apart from these, they carried auxiliary weapons such as Gothic maces, flanged maces (irontriangles-covered headed maces perfected by the Hungarians), axes and crossbows (balistrero ad cavallo) and pavise type rectangular short shield (scutum, (petit pavois) for defense.[25]
Light cavalry
The traditional hussars were introduced by Matthias; henceforth the light cavalry is called huszár, a name derived from the word húsz (twenty in English), which refers to the drafting scheme where for every twenty serfs a noble owned, he had to equip a mounted soldier. After the Diet of Timişoara of 1397, the light cavalry was institutionalized as an arm division. They were the second ranked in order within an army and generally considered an elite force. They assembled from the militia portalis, a significant number of them insurrectios, the Moldavians and Transylvanians with the first having serfs with lesser accoutrement and the latter generally regarded as good horsearchers. They were divided into groups of 25 (turma) led by a captain (capitaneus gentium levis armature). Their field of operation was scouting, securing, prowling, cutting enemy supply lines, and disarraying them in battle. They also served as an additional maneuverable flank (for swooping advance attacks) to strong centers of heavy cavalry.
Weaponry
Helmet, mail shirt, sabre, targe, spear and in some cases throwing axes and topors.
- Sabres (szablya): One type followed the tradition of Southern European longswords ("S"-shaped crossguard), while gradually transforming into an Eastern style blended (Turkish) sabre. The other type was the so-called huszarszablya (hussarsabre), a 40mm thick multi-layered sabre stuck with 3–6 rivets.
- Bows: The traditional Magyar composite bow and, due to heavy Eastern influence, the more powerful Turkish-Tatar bow came into play.
- Axes: Throwing axes could also have had some role in light cavalry weaponry. It was made from one piece of metal, with a short engraved haft. If the arc of the blade is almost flat or slightly curved, it is called the Hungarian type axe. A subsidiary to the aforementioned beaked pickaxe was also favored: it had a beak-looking, protruding edge resulting in a stronger piercing effect.[25]
Infantry
Infantry was less important but formed a stable basis in the integrity of an army. They were organized from mixed ethnicities and were composed of heavy infantry, shielded soldiers, light infantry and fusiliers. Their characteristics include the combination of plate and mail armour, and the use of the pavises (these painted willow-wood large shields were often ornamented and covered with leather and linen). The latter served for multiple purposes: to hold enemy attack, cover ranged infantry shooting from behind (fusiliers engage first, the archer fire constantly), and moveable hussite-style Tabor (with a restricted deployment of war wagons in number).
Weaponry
various long-range weapons including bows, crossbows, arquebuses; all sorts of melee weapons, halberds, pikes, awl-pikes; hussite/peasant weapons such as slings, frails; handweapons like morgensterns and war-hammers, and classical swords and sabres.
- Melee weapons: Corseques, glaives, partisans, Friulian spears, and halberds were all adapted depending on the social class and nationality of the infatrymen. The 15th-century type of halberd was a transition which mixed the hatchet with the awl-pike, sometimes affixed with a "beak" that was used the pull a knight off his horse and to inrease its piercing impact. They were covered with metal langlets on the side to prevent being cut in two.
- Archery: The most valuable archers were the crossbowmen. Their number in Matthias' service reached 4 000 in the 1470s. They used sabres as a secondary weapon (which was unusual for infantry in those ages). Their primary advantage was the ability to shoot heavy armour, while the disadvantages were that they required defense to protect them while moving slowly in a standing position.
- Arquebusiers: Matthias disfavored them compared to archery. They charged in the early stages of battle. Their aiming ability, price and the danger of primitive handcannons (self-exploding) prevented them from being highly effective, especially against smaller groups of people or hand-to-hand combat. A distinctive Hungarian feature was that they didn't use a fork to stabilize their guns but put it on top of the pavese instead (or in some cases on the parapet of a wagon). Two types were simoultanously brought to practice, the schioppi (handgun) and the arquebus à croc (not to be confused with cannons). Three classes of handguns were distinguished: the "bearded" light guns; forked guns; the first primitive muskets (irontube compounded with wooden grip to be pushed against the shoulder). Their calibers varied from 16 to 24mm.[25]
- Arsenal
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Glaive
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Corseque
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Flanged maces
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Peasant flail
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Bastardsword
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Blended crossguarded sword
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Morning Stars
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Crossbow and accessories
Battles and respective captains of the Black Army
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Adolf_Liebscher_-_Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_z_Pod%C4%9Bbrad_nad_obkl%C3%AD%C4%8Den%C3%BDmi_vojsky.jpg/150px-Adolf_Liebscher_-_Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_z_Pod%C4%9Bbrad_nad_obkl%C3%AD%C4%8Den%C3%BDmi_vojsky.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Jindrich-podebradsky-proti-uherskemu-vojsku.jpg/150px-Jindrich-podebradsky-proti-uherskemu-vojsku.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_of_Pod%C4%9Bbrady_and_Matthias_Corvinus_by_Mikol%C3%A1%C5%A1_Ale%C5%A1.jpg/150px-Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_of_Pod%C4%9Bbrady_and_Matthias_Corvinus_by_Mikol%C3%A1%C5%A1_Ale%C5%A1.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Matyas_szobor.jpg/150px-Matyas_szobor.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Magyar_Bal%C3%A1zs.jpg/150px-Magyar_Bal%C3%A1zs.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Keny%C3%A9rmez%C5%91i_csata.jpg/150px-Keny%C3%A9rmez%C5%91i_csata.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Battlbaia.png/150px-Battlbaia.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Vaslui_Battle_map.png/150px-Vaslui_Battle_map.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Salgovar_03.jpg/150px-Salgovar_03.jpg)
Campaign color codes
Against the Czechs |
Against the Holy Roman Empire |
Against the Ottomans |
Against the Moldavians |
Against the Papal State |
Against Saxony |
Against Venice |
Against the Kingdom of Poland |
Against the Hussites |
Outcome | Date | Location | Captain(s) commissioned | ||
Victory | 1488 | ۩ Głogów, Duchy of Silesia | File:Slaskie Flaga.PNG John Haugwitz[27]![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1484 | Leitzersdorf, Archduchy of Austria | ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1484 | ۩ Korneuburg, Archduchy of Austria | ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1474 | ۩ Wrocław, Duchy of Silesia | ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1468 | Olomouc, Margravate of Moravia | ![]() | ||
Defeat | 1469 | Hradiště, Margravate of Moravia | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1485 | ۩ Vienna, Archduchy of Austria | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1487 | ۩ Wiener-Neustadt, Archduchy of Austria | ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1480 | ۩ Radkersburg, Duchy of Styria | ![]() ![]() | ||
Defeat | 1482 | ۩ Hainburg, Archduchy of Austria | ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1482 | ۩ Hainburg, Archduchy of Austria | ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1482 | ۩ Kőszeg, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1479 | Breadfield, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]()
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Defeat | 1467 | Baia, Principality of Moldavia | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1475 | Vaslui, Principality of Moldavia | ![]() ![]() the main Moldvian core) | ||
Victory | 1463 | ۩ Jajce, Bosnia | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1464 | ۩ Jajce, Bosnia | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1464 | ۩ Srebrenik, Bosnia | ![]() ![]() | ||
Defeat | 1464 | ۩ Zvornik, Bosnia | ![]() ![]()
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Victory | 1476 | Šabac, Banate of Bosnia | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1481 ≠ | Otranto, Kingdom of Napoli | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1488 ≠ | Naples, Kingdom of Napoli | Relief troops for his father-in-law the Neapolitan King[39] | ||
Victory | 1487 ≠ | Sankt Pölten, Archduchy of Austria | ![]() | ||
Defeat | 1459 | Körmend, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1459 | Upper Pannonia, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1484 | ۩ Bruck, Archduchy of Austria | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1484 | Temesvár, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1463 | Temesvár, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1476 | Bela Crkva, Despotate of Serbia |
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Victory | 1482 | Zrenjanin, Despotate of Serbia | ![]() ![]() File:Herb Brankovic.jpg Vuk Grgurević[45] | ||
Defeat | 1469 | Vilémov, Margravate of Moravia | ![]() | ||
Defeat | 1469 | Uherský Brod, Margravate of Moravia | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1469 | ۩ Špilberk Castle, Margravate of Moravia | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1481 | Bosnasaray, Ottoman Empire | ![]() | ||
Defeat | 1479 | Veglia, Principality of Krk | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1471 | ۩ Nitra, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1473 | ۩ Michalovce, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() File:Herb Brankovic.jpg Demeter Jaksics ![]() | ||
Victory | 1473 | ۩ Humenné, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1460 | ۩ Salgó Castle, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1460 | ۩ Zagyvafő Castle, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1459 | ۩ Sajónémeti, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1459 ≠ | ۩ Hlohovec, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1458 ≠ | ۩ Vadna, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1459 | ۩ Sárospatak, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1460 ≠ | ۩ Gyöngyöspata, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1458 ≠ | ۩ Jasov, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1458 ≠ | ۩ Nižná Myšľa, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1462 | ۩ Kežmarok Castle, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1458 ≠ | ۩ Sečovce, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() ![]() | ||
Victory | 1458 | Rimavská Seč, Kingdom of Hungary | ![]() | ||
Victory | 1462 | ۩ Kiliya, Voivodate of Wallachia | ![]() (Hungarian garrison) | ||
Defeat | 1465 ≠ | ۩ Kiliya, Voivodate of Wallachia | (Hungarian garrison)[22] | ||
|
1474 ≠ | ۩ Várad, Kingdom of Hungary | unknown, bishopric castle personnel[nb 5] |
- † : Denotes captain deceased in battle
- ۩ : Denotes a siege
- ≠ : Denotes a minor conflict involving less than 5000 Hungarian units
Notes
- ^ Žebrák (in Hungarian:Zsebrák) is a distinctive historical and military term deriving from the same Czech word meaning beggar. It refers to Czech booty-hunters ravaging the northern regions of Hungary in the 15th century (but would submit themselves to any service for proper pay)[23]
- ^ a b Matthias I was proclaimed king by the Estates, but he had to wage war against Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor who claimed the throne for himself.[42] Several magnates, such as the Újlaki family, the Garai family and the Szentgyörgy family, supported the emperor's claim and proclaimed him king against King Matthias; the emperor rewarded the brothers Sigismund and John of Szentgyörgy and Bazin with the hereditary noble title "count of the Holy Roman Empire" in 1459 and they thus were entitled to use red sealing wax.[42][43] Although the Counts Szentgyörgyi commenced using their title in their deeds, in the Kingdom of Hungary, public law did not distinguish them from other nobles. The tide turned when they were pleased by Matthias' promises, changed their affiliation and joined forces with him. The second battle thus was successful in defending the Hungarian crown and the integrity of the nobility. The precise location of the battle is unknown since the historical records only guess where it could have situated.
- ^ Matthias' attack followed a papal call for crusade against the heretic Czech king. He was promised that Frederick III would join, but it remained oral aid. The defeat at Vilémov happened to be a surrender by Matthias without actual battle due to him wrongly choosing the battleground. He was easily encircled by George of Poděbrady and was left with no option but to set an agreement. They met in a cottage in Ouhrov where they settled the conflict under the terms by which Matthias would help George's coronation be acknowledged by Pope Paul II. Furthermore, the succession of the Czech crown was set between the two kings with George ruling until his death and Matthias inheriting the throne afterwards. Matthias was set free in the counterpart though he abrogated the deal by coronating himself King of Bohemia shortly after.[45][48]
- ^ Several sources differ whether a siege, sparse fightings, or retreat caused by famine occurred during the Polish-Hungarian conflict. Caused and followed by an internal revolt of Hungarian nobles and religious leaders led by Janus Pannonius, János Vitéz, and Emeric Zápolya. Casimir IV of Poland was invited and supported by the rebelling nobles so he stepped in and sent his son Casimir as a pretender to the Hungarian throne. He was promised Hungarian reinforcement as the nobles were to join him when he crossed the border. He led his army of 12.000 men towards Kassa where he was about to take the city without resistance. Meanwhile, Matthias was able to settle his dispute with the rebelling factions and convinced them to take his side. The parties agreed and so did Zápolya along with Nicolaus Chiupor de Monoszló who stopped the approaching Polish invasion from attempting to besiege Kassa by taking the city before him and fortifying themselves in. The prince turned to Nitra instead and occupied it. Matthias arrived there to liberate the city with his army of 16.000 mercenaries and banderias (banners). From this point on, the events are unclear; what is sure is that Casimir retreated with an escort cavalry and the rest of the Polish main forces were released shortly after.[53] Contemporary historians' presentations differ on the causes of the outcome. Italian historian Antonio Bonfini commissioned by Matthias refers to it as being a siege, which resulted in heavy loss for the besieged due to famine for the first wave. He states that the second wave of Poles was slaughtered by peasants and citizents while marching home, while the prince fled days before, after meeting Matthias and had been spared by him.[54] Hungarian Johannes de Thurocz agrees while adding that a counterattack followed the events where Hungarians attacked the counties of Zemplén and Sáros still under Polish possession and drove them out and intruded into Poland as well for prowling (it is worth noting that these events show remarkable similarities to those that took place two years later).[55] While Polish historian Jan Długosz argues that the incursion happened upon invitation and that no state of war came into existance. He recalls the nobility's actions as betrayal and Casimir's steps as aid or some sort of help for the counts of Hungary. He also questions the circumstances of the retreat claiming it was a peaceful return after Casimir IV met with the Pope Sixtus IV's emissary in Kraków who intervened and urged the maintenance of peace.[56] Based upon the aformentioned, the causes of retreat might be (any or multiple):
- Famine caused by siege
- Casimir's disappointment with his former Hungarian allies and frustration that the project became more difficult to carry out
- Agreement of military matters with Matthias on diplomatic grounds (status quo)
- Mediation of the pope and his calling for peace
- Casimir's fear of being captured and Matthias' fear of triggering a possible "official" war with Casimir IV (reason for letting them retreat)
- Intrigue of the nobility to both sides
- ^ On february 7, 1474, Mihaloğlu Ali Bey's unexpected attack took the town by storm. Ahead of his 7 000 horsemen, he broke through its wooden fences and pillaged the town, burned the houses and took the population as prisoners. Their goal was to rob the treasury of the episcopate, but were resisted by the refugees and clergy in the bishop's castle (at the time the bishop's rank was absent, and no records mention the identity of a possible captain). The town fell but the castle stood, forcing the Turks to give up the fight after one day of siege. While retreating, they devastated the surrounding areas.[61]
Name variations
International usage of historical names | |||
---|---|---|---|
Hungarian (surname, given name) | English (given name, surname) | Ethnolect (given name, surname) | |
Mátyás Király | Mat(t)hias Rex, Mat(t)hias Corvin, Mat(t)hias Corvinus, Mat(t)hias Hunyadi, Mat(t)hias Korwin | Czech: Matyáš Korvín, Croatian: Matijaš Korvin, German: Matthias Corvinus, Medieval Latin: Mattias Corvinus, Polish: Maciej Korwin, Romanian: Matia/Matei/Mateiaş Corvin, Serbian: Матија Корвин/Matija Korvin, Slovak: Matej Korvín, Slovene: Matija Korvin, Russian: Матьяш Корвин/Matyash Corvin | |
Magyar Balázs | Balázs/Balazs Magyar, Blaž the Magyar | Croatian:Blaž Magyar, Spanish:Blas Magyar, German:Blasius Magyar, Italian:Biagio Magiaro | |
Kinizsi Pál | Paul/Pál Kinizsi | Romanian:Pavel Chinezul, Spanish:Pablo Kinizsi | |
(S)Zápolya(i) Imre, S)Zapolya(i) Imre, Szipolyai Imre | Emeric Zapolya, Emeric Zapolyai, Emeric Szapolya, Emeric Szapolyai, Emrich of Zapolya | Polish: Emeryk Zápolya, Slovenian: Imrich Zápoľský, Spanish: Emérico Szapolyai (de Szepes), | |
Gis(z)kra János | John Giskra, John Jiskra | Czech: Jan Jiskra z Brandýsa, German: Johann Giskra von Brandeis, Italian:Giovanni Gressa | |
Löbl Menyhért | Melchior Löbel, Melchior Loebel, Melchior Löbl, Melchior Loebl | German: Melchior Löbel | |
Haugwitz János | John Haugwitz | Czech/German: Jan Haugwitz | |
Báthory István, Báthori István | Stephen V Báthory, Stephen Báthory of Ecsed | Romanian: Ștefan Báthory, German: Stephan Báthory von Ecsed, Italian: Stefano Batore | |
Csupor Miklós | Nicolaus Chiupor, Nicolaus Csupor | Romanian: Nicolae Čupor | |
Jaksics Demeter | Demetrius Jaksic | Serbian: Dmitar Jakšić | |
Újlaki Miklós | Nicholaus of Ujlak, Nicholaus Iločki | Croatian: Nikola Iločki | |
Hag Ferenc | František Hag | German: Franz von Hag, Czech: František z Hája | |
Table 2 Guide for searching in sources (information is taken from the corresponding Wikipedia sister language projects and from all references listed below) |
See also
References
- ^ Tanner, Marcus (March 18, 2009). Croats at the Court of the Raven King. Croatian embassy in London, England: Balkan Insight. Archived from the original on October 4, 2010. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
{{cite conference}}
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, and|archivedate=
(help) - ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hunyadi Matthias I". [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]] (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
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ignored (|others=
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- ^ Történelmi világatlasz (Map). 1 : 10.000.000. Kartográfiai Vállalat. 1991. p. 112. § V. ISBN 963-351-696-X-CM.
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ignored (|trans-title=
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value: checksum (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Zrinyi" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ Haywood, Matthew (2002). "The Militia Portalis". Hungarian Armies 1300 to 1492. Southampton, United Kingdom: British Historical Games Society. Retrieved 4 October, 2010.
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(help) - ^ a b c d e E. Kovács Péter (2008). Mátyás, a reneszánsz király (pdf) (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Officina Kiadó. pp. 67–94. ISBN 9639705432. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
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ignored (|trans-title=
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value: invalid character (help) Cite error: The named reference "Heath" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ Andrew Ayton (1998). "The Military Revolution from a Medieval Perspective". The Medieval Military Revolution: State, Society and Military Change in Medieval and Early Modern Society. London, England: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1860643531. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
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ignored (|author=
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- ^ Redaelli, Alberto (1979). Le grandi battaglie della storia bresciana. Brescia, Italy. p. 32.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Nicolle, David (1999). Italian Militiaman 1260-1392. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. p. 28. ISBN 1855328267. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
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ignored (|others=
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ignored (|trans-title=
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: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
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ignored (|author=
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: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ Iliescu, Octavian (2002). "C. Transylvania (including Banat, Crişana and Maramureş)". The history of coins in Romania (cca. 1500 B.C. – 2000 AD). NBR Library Series. Bucharest, Romania: Editura Enciclopedică. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
- ^ Beham, Markus Peter (July 23, 2009). "Braşov (Kronstadt) in the Defence against the Turks (1438–1479)" (pdf). Vienna, Austria: Kakanien revisited. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
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- ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hunyadi Matthias I". [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]] (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: URL–wikilink conflict (help) This article incorporates text from a publication now in the - ^ a b Halil İnalcık (January 27, 1995). An economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 290. ISBN 0521343151. Retrieved 12 October 2010.
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: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthor=
ignored (|author=
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: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Gero" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ Bartl, Július (2002). "Black Army". Slovak history: chronology & lexicon. Mundelein, Illinois, USA: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 196. ISBN 0865164444. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
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: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d Zarnócki Attila (1992). Mátyás király katonai. Budapest, Hungary: Libra Kiadó. ISBN 9637663037.
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ignored (|trans-title=
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and|date=
(help) Cite error: The named reference "várak" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b Tóth Zoltán (1925). Mátyás király idegen zsoldosserege. Budapest, Hungary: Stádium Sajtóvállalat Rt. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
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- ^ Hermann Markgraf (1881). "Johann II., Herzog in Schlesien". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 14 (in German). Retrieved 13 October 2010.
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ignored (|trans-title=
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- ^ Komlovszki Tibor (1965). Irodalomtörténeti Közlemények (pdf). 69 (in Hungarian). Vol. 3. Budapest, Hungary: Országos Széchényi Könyvtár. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
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: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
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{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Ferencz Kállay (1829). Historiai értekezés a' nemes székely nemzet' eredetéről: hadi és polgári intézeteiről a régi időkben (in Hungarian). Nagyenyed, Hungary: Fiedler Gottfried. p. 247. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
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: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Csendes, László (2004). "Hunyadi Mátyás nyugati politikája és hadjáratai". Játszmák az országért (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Napkút Kiadó. Retrieved 25 October 2010.
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: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_work=
ignored (help) - ^ Kelényi, György (2006). "Kora reneszánsz (1475–1541)". A reneszánsz és a barokk építészete Magyarországon (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: ELTE. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Iván Nagy (1857-1868). Magyarország családai czimerekkel és nemzékrendi táblákkal, volume 2 (in Hungarian) (7th ed.). Pest, Hungary: Ráth Mór, Helikon Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 9632077741. Archived from the original on 9th March, 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
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(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Jaques, Tony (2006). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century, Volume 2, F-O. Santa Barbara, CA United States: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 484. ISBN 0313335389. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
- ^ a b c Thallóczy Lajos (1915). Jajcza (bánság, vár és város) története 1450-1527 (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Hornyánszky Viktor cs. és kir. udv. könyvnyomdája., Históriaantik Könyvesház Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 9782253055754. Archived from the original on 24 July 2010. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
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: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Sándor Szilágyi (1896). "7, Mátyás hadserege és diplomatiája". A magyar nemzet története, 5. kötet (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Athenaeum Irod. és Nyomdai Rt. ISBN 1144242185. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
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: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
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{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) This article incorporates text from a publication now in the - ^ a b Mórocz Zsolt (August 30, 2008). "Hollószárnyak a Rába fölött" (in Hungarian). Szombathely: Vas Népe Kiadói Kft. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Benda, Kálmán (editor) (1981). Magyarország történeti kronológiája I /A kezdetektől 1526-ig/ (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 276. ISBN 963 05 2661 1.
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has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
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{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Kenneth M. Setton (1978). The papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571, volume 1. Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society. p. 400. ISBN 0871691272. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
- ^ a b c d Szentkláray Jenő (2008). "Temesvár és vidéke". Az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia Irásban és Képben (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Kempelen Farkas Digitális Tankönyvtár. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "stklaray" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ Franz Babinger (October 19, 1992). "Mehmed in Wallachia and Moldavia". Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press. p. 349. ISBN 0691010781. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Heltai, Gáspár (2009) [1574]. Magyar krónika, 2. kötet (in Hungarian). Kolozsvár, Hungary: ICON Group International (reprint). pp. 145–146. ISBN 054687357X. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
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: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "George of Podebrady". Prague, Czech Republic: Government Information Center of the CR. April 26, 2010. Retrieved 6 October, 2010.
{{cite web}}
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and|date=
(help) - ^ Bartl, Július (2002). "1463". Slovak history: chronology & lexicon. Mundelein, Illinois, USA: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 52. ISBN 0865164444. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "Spilberk Castle". Brno, Czech Republic: Muzeum města Brna. April 26, 2010. Retrieved 6 October, 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
and|date=
(help) - ^ Kristó, Gyula (1988). Magyarország története 895-1301. 1984/I (in Hungarian). Vol. 74. Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó. pp. 118, 126. ISBN 9789633899700. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Croatia". England: Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. February 12, 2009. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ Csukovits Enikő (2008). Mátyás és a humanizmus. Nemzet és emlékezet (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó. pp. 92–105. ISBN 9789633899816.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Antonio Bonfini (1995) [1568]. Rerum Hungaricum Decades (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Balassi Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 9635060408. Retrieved October 9, 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Thuróczy János (2001) [1488]. A magyarok krónikája és Siralmas ének (Rogerius mester) (spoken word (mp3)) (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 9633891299. Retrieved October 9, 2010.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Jan Długosz. Historiae Polonicae liber XIII.et ultimus (in Latin). pp. 470–473. ISBN B001C6WHOI (ASIN).
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value: invalid character (help) - ^ a b Heltai, Gáspár (1981). "XXXV. Rész". Krónika az magyaroknak dolgairól (PDF) (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Magyar Helikon (reprint). pp. 360–362. ISBN 9632078403. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
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suggested) (help) - ^ "A jászói vár" (in Hungarian). Jasov, Slovakia. Retrieved October 21, 2010.
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suggested) (help) - ^ a b Karl Nehring (1973). "Vita del re Mattio Corvino" (pdf) (in Italian). Mainz, Germany: von Hase & Koehler Verlag. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Delia Grigorescu (January 11, 2010). "Vlad the Impaler, the second reign - Part 4". Retrieved October 18, 2010.
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and|date=
(help) - ^ Bunyitay Vincze,. A váradi püspökség története (Epistolario di Pier Paolo Vergerio) (in Hungarian). Nagyvárad, Hungary: Episcopate of Várad. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
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