Prehistory of West Virginia
The area of the United States now known as West Virginia was a favorite hunting ground of numerous Native American peoples before the arrival of European settlers. Hunters from neighboring lowland states ventured into West Virginia's mountain valleys making temporary camp villages since the early archaic period. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston, and Romney. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of a village society having a tribal trade system culture that practiced limited cold worked copper. As of 2009, over 12,500 archaeological sites have been documented in the Mountain State (Bryan Ward 2009:10).[1]
Origins
In quote, "the nationalist, the collector, and the curator...each looks upon the past as a piece of property. Another approach is possible— to see our collective cultural remains as a resource whose title is vested in all humanity.", Karl E. Meyer, The Plundered Past (Meyer 1973:203).
Antiquity West Virginia, in a broad sense, can be characterized as evolving through acculturation and assimilation with a few exceptions. Nomadic Paleo-Indian hunted throughout the state using variations of spear points at the end of the Pleistocene. These evolved into the Mountain State's Archaic Indians living in temporary villages on the Kanawha region streams, Monongahela and Potomac tributaries streams of the Allegheny Mountains. The early regional Archaic adapted to use of basic Atlatls. Passing of time, an early Woodland culture coming from the east later began a friendly trade with the evolving Ohio Valley archaics. They brought with them the utility of steatite made bowls thought to be from the steatite in Virginia. These bowls were soon replaced in the valley by the making of local sand stone bowls. The Eastern Woodland continued the trade with the region's Archaic who became the Adena Mound Builders of the Ohio Valley. (Dragoo)[2] This acculturation led to an early tradition of large burial mounds built in the Mountain State. Popular examples of their mounds are the largest mounds which include: the St Albans site (Broyles 1968), Turkey Creek Mound (46PU2), Goff Mound, Reynolds Mound, St Mary's Mound, Camden Park Mound, Criel Mound, Grave Creek Mound, and Indian Mound Cemetery. The Grave Creek Mound in Moundsville is the largest and around its outer base was a moat. At Cresap Mound, Carnegy's Dr. Don Dragoo was able to provide greater detail which redefined what constitute Early-Middle Adena (BCE 1000) as opposed to Late Adena (BCE 500). Woodland cultures basically means the coming of the bow for fire making, shaft-end dressing of stick of wood (i.e. fish gigging rod or cooking rod, wood shaft hand tools) and some will later include the stone point arrow.
A leather rap "shoe" was likely common upon man's arrival to the Mountain State. The use of footwear protection seems to have started around 26,000 years ago long before the arrival of the Paleo Indian dates in West Virginia. "I discovered that the bones of the little toes of humans from that time frame were much less strongly built than those of their ancestors while their leg bones remained large and strong," explains Dr. Trinkaus of Washington University in St. Louis, Mo. "The most logical cause would be the introduction of supportive footwear." He analyzed the foot bones of western Eurasian Middle Paleolithic and middle Upper Paleolithic humans.[3] Thus far, science understands shoed human will arrive in the state after the Pleistocene Epoch (2.588 million to 12,000 years BC) or 6th epoch of the Cenozoic Era.[4] As once anonymously stated, The consequent history of the land become the participant— the nomadic Paleo-Indian.
During the Pleistocene's Wisconsin Glacial Episode, the Bering Sea fluctuated at least twice to become a dry landmass because of interglacial warm periods.[5] The land was called Beringia. This Bering land bridge was about (c.) the size as Alaska and connecting with Russia Chukotka Autonomous Okrug region. It was exposed at least twice from 75,000 to 45,000 BP, and again from 25,000 to 14,000 years ago (c. 24,000—c. 12,000 BC) according to The Digital Atlas of Idaho Project (DAI). The last waning Beringia had in places melting snow drifts reaching to the Brooks Range Glacier. The weather pattern, a consistent warm period, allowed a patchwork of vegetation along the coast and an earlier discovered corridor between the Cordilleran (western US-Canada) and Laurentian (eastern US-Canada) ice sheets. This passable land bridge had a band of developing boreal-like from a Tundra like Biome of flora spanning through Beringia to Montana and Idaho region. Beringia is suspected to have possible annual growth season of four or five months along more sheltered places. This allowed many animal Species and Paleo-Siberian hunters to pass between the two continents. Russian archaeologist, Yuri Mochanov has provided evidence and descriptive culture of the Siberian hunters from 14,000 to 12,000 years ago (c. 12,000—c. 10,000 BC). From studying teeth, scientist Cristy Turner exposed a possible migration route from the Aldan River (Upper Lena Basin) to the Sea of Okhotsk where scientists also suspect a possible migration along Beringian coast. Today's Bering Strait overlay Beringia where Inuit and Aleut peoples live along Bering Sea shores.
The last interglacial period was 125,000—75,000 BP. It preceded the colder Wisconsinan (Wisconsin) Stage with ice terrace advancement beginning c. 30,000 years ago and reaching a zenith around 21,000 years ago. About this time or by 18,000 years ago the now fluctuatingly warming weather ends the Stage approximately 10,000 years ago. Today's Interglacial period is called the Holocene geological Series Epoch and Yet to be named Stage Age which mark began at 11,700 years ago (Ogg, Smith and Gradstein et al. 2004, 2008.[6]). Paleo-Indian people lived in the previous Upper (Stage Age) of the Pleistocene epoch (Series Epoch) of the Quaternary (System Period) of the Cenozoic (Erathem Era) of the Phanerozoic (Eonothem Eon), from the International Commission on Stratigraphy (IS Chart 2008). It was after the Paleo people arrive in North America the saber-toothed cats, mammoths, mastodons, glyptodonts, horses, camels, among others, become extinct.
Local cultural anthropologists abstracts having preliminary interpretation provide clues of the spread of cultural items, or traits of idea and material found in collective identities, as suspected exchange through inter-cultural middleman trade, migration, direct trade and intermarriage, enslavement after warfare or simply mutual absorption between the peoples of the Prehistoric. The content of archaeological site projects within the state can often require years of lab research for scheduling and the resource funding considerations in finding which kind of knowledge exchange took place.
Mountains and rivers
West Virginia (WV) is within the physiographic provinces unglaciated Allegheny Plateau which include parts of the Allegheny Front and Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians easterly. These west (W) hills along the Ohio Valley climb east (E) up tributary streams to the base of the Allegheny Mountains. The lowest altitude averages 550 to 600 feet (170 to 180 m) above the sea, SW bottoms along the Ohio River (normal pool 538 feet (164 m)). Below the E slopes of the Allegheny Front c. 2,600 to 4,700 feet (790 to 1,430 m) peaks passing down the Potomac River on the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia are similar land altitudes having relief of up to c. 2,000 feet (610 m). The plateau reach from the SE Ohio (OH) through western WV easterly to the physiographic province, Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, became dissected with a summit level ranging from c. 1,200 to 1,800 feet (370 to 550 m) (Ehlers & Gibbard 2004:237). The tributary rivers commonly have broad rolling upper land having watersheding branches with steeper hills suitable for Grazing wildlife and today's farming agriculture. Here in the W central of the state the rushing colder mountain trout holding streams form the deeper warm water fish holding brooks and then smaller rivers feeding the Ohio River— the actual Plateau. The smaller rivers were once Gulf of Mexico distancing spawning rivers of migratory fish such as the ancient sturgeon (WVDNR). The highest peaks today in the state are over 4,800 feet (1,500 m). The Allegheny Mountains have no volcanic peaks and are rather quiet with very little and unnoticeable earth quake activity. The state mountains were formed by an Orogeny effect of the North American Plate.[8] The Taconic Orogeny near the end of Ordovician time formed a much higher mountainous area in E West Virginia approximately 350 million to 300 million years ago in the Carboniferous period. The plateau and mountains have a long history of erosion and throughout the region before peaking formation. The West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey in 2006, "These highlands formed the main source of sediments for the succeeding Silurian Period (c. 443 million years ago) and part of the Devonian Period (c. 416 million years ago)." Devonian was about the time lobe-finned fish developed legs (Tiktaalik) as they started to walk on land as tetrapods. The Mesozoic Era (c. 250 to c. 67 million years ago) of the Age of Dinosaurs is marked by Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event and following Cenozoic Era with the dominant terrestrial vertebrates mammals from c. 65.5 million years ago to the present— the Age of Mammals. Some of these ancient animal evidence are found as fossil between the geologic strata near the abundant sections of coal seams and nearby natural gas (fossil fuel ranges) in the state.
The Quaternary ice age (BC ~2.6 million) began about the time of Pleistocene Epoch. The weather had been by far milder. Sitting snugly in the then much higher mountains was Glacial Teays Lake, extending from SW Virginia through the New-Kanawha river to its northerly drainage river, the very ancient Teays River. It flowed through Ohio to central Indiana across Illinois to the Mississippi Valley. Lying on the north was the Pittsburgh drainage basin. (Jacobson, Elston and Heaton 1987:abstract[9]) The Mississippi at the time was an embayment of the Gulf of Mexico reaching to Illinois. Glacial Teays Lake last occurrence was c. 2 Million years ago when it outburst and the wash build up created the final large prehistoric lake in the western of the state. Lake Tight lasted only c. 6500 years before it outburst forming the Ohio Valley.[10] The Ohio-Allegheny system (Ohio Valley) on the western half of the state was in its present form by the Middle Pleistocene, c. 781 to 126 thousand years ago.[11] The remaining glacial lake in the northern area of the state was the glacial Monongahela Lake. It had been blocked by ice terraces or ice sheets in the north and western Pennsylvania. Upon ice retreat, it outburst through the basin to the north. It would reform with the next re-advancing glacial ice drift, ground rise and again, another late last occurrence with outwash build-up.
The last maximum extent (LGM) of glaciation was approximately 18,000 years ago.[12] This last returning advancement of glacial ice approaching the Ohio Valley began c. 30,000 years ago. West Virginia had no Ice Sheet buildup. Although during the Last Ice Age, smaller glaciation impounded lakes continued to collect precipitation on the plateau.[13] These chilly lakes among mountain peaks were separated from the continental ice sheet to the north. The deeply carved river valleys like the upper Canaan Valley to Blackwater Canyon and the Dolly Sods Wilderness to Cheat River areas are called Paleozoic Plateaus. The "Driftless Area" drains into rivers having rugged regions of bluffs and valleys. According to the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey, the two large Ice Age lakes varied throughout the epoch. The last glacial lake, Monongahela, occurrence in the Mountain State "Carbon-14 dates of c. 22,000, 23,000, and 39,000 years old". It reached as far south as Weston into the state. Monongahela lake redeveloped and overflowed perhaps at several places as its age is older than 780,000 years BP (WVGES 2005). The first ice-damming event was a pre-Illinoian (Stage) lake which outburst during the earlier ice retreat towards the NW Pittsburgh drainage direction (Jacobson, Elston and Heaton 1987:abstract). The last occurrence of the Monongahela lake an outwash gravel dam backed up slackwater at Allegheny-Monongahela confluence during an Illinoian ponding event last glacial retreat. The last outburst drained to its present coarse, the central Allegheny Mountains or northern tributaries of the state feeding the Monongahela River to the Ohio River.
The Cirque and Tarn (lake) were among heads of smaller outwashes through the Allegheny Plateau. Some of these backed waters cut through leaving higher flatland or terraces among ridge tops above the major river bottoms of which runoff sheds. Higher in the state is Cranberry Glades example lay between Mountain ridge top and peeks with five small, boreal-type bogs. These feed the mountain river, Cranberry River, a trout-holding biom. From these various mountain and hill formations, the Allegheny Plateau has eroded and settled. In Pennsylvania the Titusville Till, results of very ancient Monongahela lake sediment, has an age of c. 40,000 years. There are several different strata of till layers across the region. Outflow of melt and weather contributed to the hill and mountain erosion. On top of the layers of geologic strata, settled drifts of kame or gravel shoals lay under soil sediments along the valley bottoms. "As one proceeds westward, the rocks are younger and younger," states Peter Lessing, July 1996, West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey. Below outcrops of the Paleozoic Plateaus are the largest kind of sediment by erosion, the large boulders peeking above the rivers surface. A variety of stone of geology for lithic tool making is found across the state in valleys (Brockman, US Forest Service, 2003). From these stone, artifacts are found providing evidence Paleo-Indians were passing through the Mountain State (Dragoo 1963). State universities and the U.S. Geological Survey Paleoanthropologists have found evidence of early Archaic people habitation during Holocene Climate Optimum—a rough interval of 9,000 to 5,000 years B.P.
Ecosystems and Migration
The state's ecosystems influenced the movement of the siminomadic Archaic Indian. The land gradually changed from a tundra to a boreal (i.e. evergreen forest or a Taiga) and eventually to a highland "oak-hemlock" (Rhododendron and Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests) or nut tree and berry forest (Dwyer 1999:14). Here, this attracted modern game animals followed by a new way of living for the nomadic hunters. The flora, according to the 2009 Historic Preservation Plan, as described, "Paleoenvironmental data suggest that modern deciduous forests had reached areas south and east of the Allegheny Front by ca. 7800 BC...Carbonized nut hulls from the St. Albans Site (46Ka61) in Kanawha County date to ca. 7000 BC and provide additional evidence in West Virginia of the increasing variety of food in people’s diets." The State's bioms are broad scope from boreal Cranberry Glades through to the Ohio River Islands National Wildlife Refuge.
Geography influenced the movement of both man and beast in the state. The central area has the New River (Kanawha River) flowing from the Ridge and Valley Province. Opposite the New River, the Head of the Tennessee River (Powell, Clinch and Holston valleys) drains south westerly the Ridge and Valley Province. The upper branches of the Big Sandy River (earliest called Osioto Mtns, Lewis & Evens 1750) drains this province's southerly northern slopes. While emptying near the mouth of the Ohio River, the Tennessee River and parallelingly north Cumberland River reaches from the west draining Cumberland Plateau opposite the Big Sandy watershed. The Tennessee River reaches easterly to the Ridge and Valley Province of the Great Smoky Mountains, part of the Blue Ridge Mountains which are a division of the larger Appalachian Mountain chain. The Potomac River, James River and Dan River basins drain the eastern slopes of these mountain ranges. Ancient mountain trails through eastern Kentucky and West Virginia allowed Native American passage between the northern Till Plains of Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, otherwise a part of the "Corn Belt" or Midwestern United States and the Piedmont Plateau, and Atlantic Ocean coastal plains. Many migration, trade and warrior trails with branching minor hunter paths were there across this greater region.
Between 10,800 and 9500 BC, the continental glaciers had retreet beyond the Great Lakes.[14] Glacial lake outburst floods occurred during the melt outflow and a couple of occurrences at times throughout these millenniums of Palaeo-Indian followed by Early Archaic.[15] Not only lake outburst, recent flood scouring disturbed lithics and ceramics in a thick near-surface layer of alluvium on the South Branch of the Potomac at the Romney bridge replacement archaeological site (GAI Consultants, Inc. (GAI) 2003).[16] Early Lake Erie (Lakes Michigan and Erie combined) had flowed west out Little River (Great Black Swamp proglacial lake's drainage embayment) and the Wabash River before changing direction to the east into Glacial Lake Iroquois.[17] An earlier sediments built up event outburst near the Little River. Over time, outflow sediments again built up. This time with land rise contributed to the change of drainage direction and the remaining Great Black Swamp. The Early Lake Erie finally assumed their present shapes about only 3,000 years ago— arising Woodland Period. Lake Erie's level was similar to Lake Nipioing phase of Lakes Michigan and Huron basins 5,000 BP. By 3,500 years BP the level had lowered by 4 meters and by 2,000 BP the level had increased to possibly 5 meters above today's levels.[17] This period (by 2,000 BP) saw the Hopewell culture arrive from the north in west central Ohio and Indiana in mass (Dragoo 1963, Carnegy Vol 37). These groups were preceded by similar trading people also from the north (Dragoo 1963). Of these earlier trade people also from the north, a vanguard Armstrong variant in SW West Virginia mingled peacefully with Late Adena (McMichael 1968). Native American cold worked copper from the pits in Wisconsin Old Copper Complex region have been found in some Adena mounds (USGS, Dragoo, McMichael et al. 1957, 1963, 1968; Cyrus Thomas, Smithsonian 1894, myth debunking scientist). The Upper Ohio Valley was experiencing the Sub-Atlantic climatic phase (c. 3000-1750 BP) of warm and moist climatic conditions and stable stream levels (USACE) upon the occurrence of the Hopewell culture. This climatic phase began after the much earlier arise of indigenous Early Adena Culture (46MR7 BCE 1735) in West Virginia (McMichael 1968).
The Mountain State's larger bottom lands and terraces are suitable for large scale crop rotation agriculture (Sandretto, Soil Management, USDA 2005). However, according to George Washington in 1770, many areas are not so relatively level land with narrow bottoms and not deep in fertile soils nor high in organic matter although good as Grazing land. He did find plenty suitable places for homesteading for his veterans as did Native Americans before him (LOC, Jackson & Twohig 1976:304~308). These earlier Native American were of migration while the frontier settlers were of Immigration or a Nation state Sovereignty concerning Emigration or naturalization by definition (Diner 2008[18]). The various earlier Native American arrived or arise in the state developing Iconic art (McMichael 1968:19 fig.15, p. 50 fig. 47) and a Wampum system. There was no modern written language in the state until European contact and the historic period. The prehistoric Native American were concerned not of a modern border demarcation of historic governments.
and: Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests
Paleoclimatology
The study by scholars of Paleoclimatology and required research of the United States Army Corps of Engineers provides insights of prehistorical weather. The last time of continental glaciers in the North America of the Laurentide ice sheet is called the Wisconsin Glacial Episode. This was the last advancement of glacial ice sheet. The colder weather began c. 30,000 years ago. This weather caused the ice sheet to advance until 23,500 to 21,000 years ago. During the warm weather thawing, pockets of colder temperature periods lasting from several hundred years to a little over 1000 years occurred. Temporary weather patterns are called stadial periods. The last brief cold period during the Wisconsin Glacial Episode lasted for c. 1,300 years from approximately 12,800 and 11,500 years ago. This freezing period temporarily stalled the ice sheet thawing north near the Great Lakes.[14] It is called the Younger Dryas Stadial with dates c. 10,800 and 9500 BC. There is clear archaeological evidence nomadic Paleo-Indian arrived in the upper Ohio Valley utilizing the Kanawha Black flint at this time. According to Illinois State Museum, "These climate changes were causing fundamental changes in the ecosystems of North America."
Richard L. Meehan of Stanford University characterized the Younger Dryas Stadial. Paraphrasing Stanford, as quickly by 12000 BP (c. 10,800 BC) temperatures plunged 7 degrees, the sea level had reached 100 feet below present level. The sea level hesitated, "the circulation system of the North Atlantic went into a kind of planetary fibrillation."[19] Excerpt from Stanford, "After a millennium, the end of the Younger Dryas (c. 9500 BC) came about almost as quickly as it had begun, warmth returned... a great green spring in the northern lands (Stanford U., Meehan 2010)."
The warm period during interval of c. 9,000 to 5,000 years ago is called the Holocene Climate Optimum. This was a period of steady warm weather for the indigenous Archaic Indian. After the great stall of temperate vegetational change due to long term weather, now the Indian were becoming less broad ranging nomadics in the Kanawha region (46Wd83-A). Towards the end of the Archaic Indian period of the Upper Ohio Valley and tributaries the seasonal weather was a time of meridional circulation and penetrations of large storms coming from the Gulf of Mexico. The region's Archaic had hunted smaller game and began fishing shifting their seasonal living between base camps. With some climatic overlapping, the western and northern valleys of West Virginia, in general, became warm and dry with less effective precipitation c. 4500 BP causing the bottom land flora to thin. This in turn caused an occasional major flood and serious erosion during the early part transitional weather pattern. The people of these days saw vegetation shifts reacting to climate in the state (S. Munoz et al., PNAS 2010).
The valley people's conscientious efforts to change was the beginning of agriculture and food storage pottery at the progressively more settled hamlet. Burial mounds appear and soon grow in size which also signals settling to area of an ancestral valley. The fickle drought period was followed by the following periods: Sub-Boreal climatic phase (c. 4200-3000 BP) cool and wet period, Sub-Atlantic climatic phase (c. 3000-1750 BP) warm and moist climatic conditions, Scandic climatic phase (c. 1750-1250 BP), Neo-Atlantic climatic phase (c. 1100-750 BP) meta-stable conditions, Pacific climatic phase (c. 750 BP, Little Ice Age) cool and wet periods (USACE). The weather patterns influenced the early people's culture of the state.
The prevailing weather pattern in the Middle Ohio Valley ca. AD 1350-1600 was cooler and wetter conditions followed by increasing frequency of droughts. In contrast, the upper Ohio Valley was experiencing milder weather patterns (Staller, Tykot and Benz 2006:226,227). The frequency of droughts in the Mountain State increased in the following decades. The data from this research, the authors write, is not convincing to determine drought frequency for ca. AD 1250-1400. However the development towards the north of the Allegheny Plateau, the Till Plains with natural fertile water-holding areas less effected by drought, was found in the earliest protohistoric period with expansive corn usage and growing villages (Mollenkopf 2005:37). These peoples (Olentangy River and upper Scioto), the Cole culture north of the central Ohio River, arrive the Sandusky culture[20] of the Great Black Swamp area tributary to Lake Erie. And, their easterly neighbors along the shores, the Whittlesey culture, "with a pallisade or a ditch, suggesting a need for defense".[21]
Rise and decline of the state's two true farmer culture's weather:
- Medieval Warm Period (~800-1300 AD)
- Little Ice Age Period (~1400-1900 AD)
The Eemian interglacial period (~130,000 to ~114,000 BP) was followed by the glaciating Wisconsin episode. Its climate is believed to be similar to today's Holocene period.
Earth and Ocean Sciences, Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
Paleo-Indian
Paleo-Indian culture appears by 10,500 BC in West Virginia passing along the major river valleys and ridge-line gap watersheds. One of many cave shelters in the state can be exampled at the Paleo hunting shelter at "New Trout Cave" in Pendleton County. (Grady and Garton, 1981 Grady, 1986). The Faunmap for the cave shows an age from 17060 to 29400 years ago. To note, a "Faunmap" is not always directly concerned with artifacts found at a rockshelter site. However, a cut and charred fragment from a firepit becomes very significant. From his research at Wyandot County, Brian G. Redmond 'The Archaeology and Paleontology of Sheriden Cave' in the north-west Ohio area, "more than 60 species of animals which include extinct taxa such as flat-headed peccary (New World pig also found at Welsh Cave, Kentucky through to Texas), giant beaver, giant short-faced bear, and stag-moose. In contrast to this vast faunal assemblage are a preciously small number of artifacts which document an early Paleoindian occupation of the cave." Archaeological investigations at the site has continued since 1996 (The Society for Pennsylvania Archaeology 2006:abstract). This ancient habitation location was near the Lake Maumee. Today's Little River (Indiana) had drained this proglacial lake (Forsyth 1959). Nearby Great Black Swamp, drained in the 19th century, was also a remnant of the bed of the proglacial lake which had formed about 14,000 years ago. Among the Megafauna of the region, a few American mastodon teeth have been found on the broader river bottoms in western West Virginia. Washington County, Pennsylvania and Brooke County, West Virginia share the two state's border. Less than a dozen miles from the Northern Panhandle of West Virginia is Avella, Pennsylvania and nearby Meadowcroft Rockshelter.
Kanawha Chert was found at Meadowcroft Rockshelter (36WH297) Washington County, Pa.[23] Kanawha Chert source is 183.4 miles (114 km) southwest of Meadowcroft (Vento and Donahue 1982:116). Quoting, "The lithic raw material data indicate the early inhabitants of Meadowcroft Rockshelter had been in the region long enough to discover local chert sources, but also utilized or exploited materials from a much larger territory than just the local region. Alternatively, the exotic lithic materials may indicate trade with neighboring groups, if they were present at that time." Paleo occupation has been dated from 11,320~14,225 BC (radiocarbon date, Sciulli 1982:176).[24] As the Ice Age animals became extinct in the region, the Paleo or Clovis culture transition their hunted game and stone tool making from the fluted Clovis Point. The following Plano culture's spear point (8000-7000 BC) lack the groove or flute of the earlier Clovis Point. These extend westward now hunting bison on the High Plains extending to Ohio and into the early Archaic.[25] The Dalton Tradition (c. 8500-7900 BC, Goodyear 1982:389-392), or some of the cluster ranging to or through WV (Justice 1995:41), represents another technical shift and this cluster includes a type of adz (Justice 1995:41).
Archaeologist from the University of Cincinnati, Dr. Ken Tankersley, excavated an amazing site with evidence of Clovis people and the remains of their hunt of many extinct game dating 13,000 years ago in NW central Ohio. He found evidence of a serious Comet strike, not yet located, may have caused the Extinction of the Pleistocene giant mammals. Two other early neighboring sites, Cactus Hill in SE Virginia Clovis culture dated to 10,920 BP to dates ranging from c. 15,000 to 17,000 years ago and Saltville SW Virginia, dating 14,510 BP, having different weather patterns. A Pennsylvania archaeologist and field crew member, Dr. Mark McConaughy, during the 1974 season personally collected many of the samples at the Meadowcroft Rockshelter (Adovasio, et al. 1977; Carlisle and Adovasio 1982). Dr. Mark McConaughy in 14 January 1999 writes, "Pre-Clovis sites have to have artifacts dating older than 12,500 years ago." However controversial two other sample dates there at 17,650 BC (SI-2060, uncorrected) Pre-Clovis,[26] Paleo-Indian was living through central Ohio, upper Ohio Valley and Virginia Ridge and Valley to the Piedmont Plateau prior to the weather pattern of c. 10,800 BC through 9500 BC— Younger Dryas Stadial.
Archaic Indian
6700 to 5700 BCE
Occurs from northern Alabama north to New York and into Ohio, Michigan and eastern Kentucky (Broyles 1971).
The chronological cultural changes in general seems to have been by influx from the surrounding regions to the Mountain State. The earliest stone point surface finds, like the Dalton variants (8700 to 8200 BCE), are very rare. These become more common approaching the Mississippi Valley, example Sloan site (8500 BCE) in Missouri. An early, rare, Archaic stone point is exampled with the Kessell Side Notched point at the St. Albans Site which dated to 7900 BCE (Broyles 1971). Although nearly a thousand years earlier, it is similar to the early Big Sandy point (Lewis and Lewis 1961, Tenn.) and Fort Nottoway point (Gardner 1988, Virginia).
Anthropology helps explain from whom and where did the state's Archaic people arrive. According to the Geological Survey and written by Don Dragoo (1963), the longheaded Paleo-Indian ancestor of a southern Archaic Isawnid (i.e. Indian Knoll Culture of Kentucky) and the northern Archiac Lenid (Great Lakes Area) variety were well on its way by at least 6000 BC in eastern North America and by 4000 BC the two varieties were clearly separable (Dragoo 1963).[27] By 2500 BC the Archaic cultures of eastern North America had separated into two distinct phases; reverine (river-delta) environment in the south and those adapted to the lacustrine (lake-streams) resources of the north. A Mesoamerica population, the origin of the Walcolid and other brachycepalic (heads of high, round vaults) varieties from the Archaic South moved up to central Mississippi River area. They were located just below the Baumer Culture. They were a well differentiated Walcolid variety by 900 AD (Neumann 1960; Dragoo 1963; Sponemann Phase, Ill. Peregrine and Ember 2001:260). Recent research for example in her analysis of Seneca material in 1966, Dr. Sublett concluded the Clover Phase (one type of the many Fort Ancient people) were of the Lenapid variety. This variety has since been changed to Illinid and does not neccessarily mean northern Algonquan nor Iroquois(Fuerst 2002, CWVA). The physical types were based on Dr Neumann's Eastern Woodland, the Muskogids, Illinids, and Lenids. Late modern forensic anthropological work continues in the state.
The Lower Ohio Valley contrasting the upper Ohio Valley is considered a transition zone, or one of five zones of the Western Mesophytic Forest Region (Braun 1950:122). The not so dense deciduous forest terrestrial ecoregion were among open grasslands. Throughout this oak savannah territory held varyingly fields of cane, wild rye and clover areas of this called Bluegrass section (Jefferies 2009:26). The first Adena came into eastern Kentucky and assimilated the northern parts, pushing the Baumer south mixing with the Walcolid. A variant of the Copena Culture on the Tennessee River system became trademen from the Gulf of Mexico and the Adena (Dragoo). Dr Dragoo illustrated in his 1963 publication (Vol 37) the several coarse cloth of the broad Adena trade region. Of these precious few rarely found examples in the state were made of cotton. Cotton does not grow well within the state, wrong climate. Followingly, the Kentucky Adena intermixed with these along this trade route. These continued the Gulf Coastal trade up the Ohio Valley into West Virginia. It is thought Mesoamerican seeds' propagation would eventually progress in this way to the state.
Archaic are evidenced by the frequent use of ground-stone implements and flint woodworking tools in sites having bowls, knives, net sinkers, and elaborate weights for "spear-throwers" correctly called atlatl. The "atlatl & dart", this improved dart is not dynamically like a spear, become rather common about 4000 BC. The archaic stone point chronology in the Kanawha Valley generally begins with Kanawha Points of LeCroy Period (6200-6300 BC) and followed by the Stanley Period (~5745 BC), Amos Period (4365-4790 BC), Hansford Period (3600-3700 BC) ending with the Tansitional Period (1000-1200 BC) to Adena-Woodland (Kanawha Valley Archaeology Society). Some Brewerton Phase side and corner-notched points (Side-notched Tradition) are often found resharpened to a considerable extent, some having been modified as hafted end-scrapers. A few uncommon "Pointed Pole Adzes" are suspected to have been used for heavy wood works at one late northern "Panhandle Archaic" site (~2000 BC) by recent studies. A dug out canoe has been suggested. Not many centuries after the 4000 BC weather, in general, Red Ocher and Glacial Kame having connections with archaic Copena culture variation on the Tennessee River system began assimilating (Dragoo, 1963). Continued with the arising of the Adena, these trade system mix will derive the state's fort builder cultures over a millennium later (Dragoo).
In Woodland perspective comparison of period and date of earlier archaic mounds, the Lower Mississippi delta region has the Monte Sano mounds of c. 7,000 years old. The Frenchman’s Bend and Watson Brake mounds are thought to be close to 5,500 years old according to Rebecca Saunders, archaeology professor and associate curator of the Louisiana State University Museum of Natural Science. The Ohio Valley does not have the earliest mounds in North America. The archaic Copena culture was central to the Mississippi Valley (Dragoo 1963). Traditional thought has the greater Ohio Valley region latest archaic developing mounds in situ, otherwise, a progressing development of the Indigenous peoples (Geological Survey scholars of 1963). Late Archaic Kentucky trade preceded Adena Mound Builders.
Regional Archaic
The traditional Archaic sub-periods are Early (8000-6000 BC), Middle (6000-4000 BC), and Late (4000-1000 BC), (Kerr, 2010).
Transition to mounds
The West Virginia Archaic Traditions (7000-1000 BCE) evolved from the nomadic Paleo-Indian (before 11,000 BCE -Late Paleo ~9000 BCE, ◦Plano cultures) already in the greater region. The Archaic characteristics are not shared in any way with Asian people and rising Eastern Woodland period with exception of the Eskimos and the Athapascans of the north west North America. (Stewart 1960, p. 269) and (Dragoo 1963, p. 255) The burial mound complex of the Adena (Ohio Valley Mound Builders) is unlikely related to those in Asia because it was not in use in northeastern Asia at an early enough date according to Chard. (1961, p. 21-25) The general area of archaic include the Kanawhan, Monongahela and Panhandle Archaic Complex.
In 1983, state sponsored archeological activities was transferred from the Geological and Economic Survey to the West Virginia Division of Culture and History. For practical purposes, the Adena is Early Woodland according to West Virginia University's Dr. Edward V. McMichael (1968:16), also among the 1963 Geological Survey.[29] He was explaining these provided the greatest social and cultural influence in this region. Jonathan P. Kerr writes, "Traditionally, archeologists distinguish the Woodland period from the preceding Archaic by the appearance of cord-marked or fabric-marked pottery, the construction of burial mounds and other earthworks and the rudimentary practice of agriculture (Willey 1966:267)." [30]
Red Ocher and Glacial Kame archaic evolving together resulted (Dragoo):
- Small Gravel Mounds (drainage-way sedimentary) at first of the Glacial Kame
- The introduction of red ocher in burials,
- Animal masks and head dresses,
- Medicine bags,
- Conical tubular pipes,
- Grooved axes,
- Atlatls now with atlatl weights for better leverage.
- Cremation acreation on conical mounds ending the era
Sometime after BC 2000 large conical mounds with a cask made of small logs inside develops. The small conical gravel mounds quickly progress in size as an Early Eastern Woodland people arrive in trade from the east (Dragoo 1963). These become known in West Virginia as large conical mounds of the Adena Mound Builders.
Conical Mound Builders
Adena (1000 BCE-500 CE) inherited their archaic ancestor's crafts in the Ohio Valley. Their houses were single poled, wickered sided with bark-sheet roofs. A few sites show a double pole method. Village orientation is uncertain. The mounds were made more elaborate inside including burial with small log caskets inside them. On their still small patches, they grew a little more local variety of vegetables and roots. They are not known to clear-burn large bottoms for garden nor for wild life habitat attraction. One and only one site has what some scholars suspect to be a small bird pen. Notwithstanding suspicion, they did not practice complex garden nor animal husbandry. Their society was localized to the village's mound. At cultural zenith, villages spread throughout the Mid-west by the village tribal trade system lacking sophisticated centralized political cohesion.
Tobacco was used in pipes having effigy shapes of ducks and others forms of nature. The turtle figurines seem to have held a special iconization that might have been similar in meaning to the Late Woodland totem. Not many, but some copper adornment and tinklers came from the Wisconsin copper mines and from the Atlantic, sea shells. It is not clear if their trading partner, Old Copper archaic culture, would derive earliest Hopewellian whom were known to trade with Classic Adena of central Ohio-Indiana, above the Ohio Valley. The Latest technology and continued studies may provide an understanding how and if Appalachian copper outcrops were utilized or not by the Mountain State's Conical Mound Builders. A limited amount of cold hammered copper adornment and tinklers are found.
Adnea made gourd rattles. Adena noble wore tanned heads of animals during their ceremonies. They had a couple of weaves for coarse cloth and dyed these from local roots and berry, using red ochre above all colors in their nobles' graves. They practiced cultural deformation of the skulls (Sciulli and Mahaney 1986). A braid twine was from leg tenons, leather and fibrous plants. There is no evidence of a raft nor burned out log canoes. Lashed log raft and recent studies suggest a dug out is possible on the Northern Panhandle. Their sachem did not live on a flat topped mound as the few centuries later "Priest Mound" or better known as the Mississippian culture nor Cahokia. Included later in their garden with the few variety of local indigenous plants, the sunflower can be found (McMichael 1968:26). Late Adena gardens compared to the Armstrong people gardens. These weighted atlatl users continued to have that friendly Woodland trade coming through the Allegheny Mountain's gaps and the following Late Adena trade of the Tennessee River valley (Dragoo).
The traditional assigned dating from province to province of the Woodland Adena period extends earlier and later in West Virginia. A large conical mound in the northern of the state is at Marshall County's site 46MR7 dating to BCE 1735. Of the Adena Culture, it is called Cresap Mound. In the south mountains of the state, Mingo County site 46MO1, large conical Cotiga Mound, is an Early Woodland burial mound dating to BCE 1400. It is located on the Tug Fork of the Big Sandy River. According to Don Dragoo, in 1963, a first horizon of Hopewellian from the north peacefully traded with Ohio Valley Adena. During the last few centuries Adena zenith (BCE 500), however, a second horizon with political cohesion (Priest Cult) arrived in mass invasion above the Ohio River. The group of scholars of the Geological Survey of 1963 found evidence the Late Adena fled south of the Ohio joining their kindred. And, some continued to flee as far as the Chesapeake Bay traditional trade area. A few fled towards the easterly Point Peninsula Woodland culture otherwise Eastern Great Lakes trade area. Their mounds progressively become smaller through Virginia. These soon assimilated with the regional Woodland People friends. The large conical Adena Turkey Creek Mound (46PU2) on the Great Kanawha dates to AD 886 (McMichael and Mairs 1969).
Woodland cultures
The Mid-Atlantic region cultural pattern is found early in West Virginia as explained by Dr Edward McMichael (WVU 1968). According to Dr. Don Dragoo, in 1963, an Early Woodland people from the east began to trade with the latest Archaic people in the state. Early Woodland peoples established sites on floodplains, terraces, saddles, benches and hilltops (Herbstritt 1980; McConaughy 2000). Storage or refuse pits in habitation sites appear. Analysis of a new style ceramic discovery by Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc. from Winfield Locks Site (46PU4) has provisional Early Woodland dates of 1500-400 BCE along the Kanawha shores. The earliest ceramics of the region's Woodland Culture (traditional 1000 BCE-1250 AD) is called the Half-Moon Ware. There are now two known types of early ceramics of the Woodland Culture. It has been suggested that oval or circular structures were used as houses. In 1986, Grantz attempted to test in Fayette County, Pennsylvania several post mold arcs for a pattern to confirm the suggestion of early village houses. Fragile understood and earnest effort, it was not confirmed. The Middle (AD 1-500 McMichael) and Late Woodland (AD 500-1000 McMichael) Periods for the Northern Panhandle of West Virginia will include the Mid-western cultures of primarily Adena and Late Hopewell (AD 1-500 McMichael) from McConaughy (2000) research. Dr. Dragoo uses the descriptive term, nebulas, to describe Late pan-Hopewellian— localizing societies. Later (c. AD 650), some Woodland will be along side very Late Adena (46PU2) and assimilating on the Greater Kanawhan region (Dragoo 1963). Burial ceremonialism and mound construction gradually becomes smaller which is phased out by the end of the Woodland period (McConaughy 2000; Dragoo 1956). Because these phases lack funding and resources, more field work and studies are needed to get a clearer view of these cultures. However, because tobacco was probably being grown and used, McConaughy in 1990, suggests the development of complex society and institutions as Doctor Dragoo's field work and the Geological Survey abstracts of 1963 being cited. Early Woodland peoples lived a more settled existence.
Fairchance Mound and Village (Hemmings 1984) is a Middle Woodland complex in the southern part of the Northern Panhandle in the state. The mound artifacts carbon dates to the 3rd century AD One of the tombs in the mound is unique as being a stone lined crypt. This "crypt" was simply a layer of "slab-stone" covering the mound with more dirt placed over the "sheets" of stone. This was not what one would think as a "boxed-in crypt" (McMichael 1968, Hohn et al. 2007, illustrations by Broyles & Queen, 2nd edition). This should not be confused with the centuries later Hadden Phase (AD 1100-1600) Hadden site (15To1) mortuaray complex (Allen 1977:14) stone box grave and stone slab-lined crematory cist (Long 1961:79-91, 1974) of the Kentucky Western Coal Fields Section (Pollack 2008:666). The Fairchance village pottery included Watson Ware that was lime stone tempered. The stone points were Fairchance-notched and Snyders points. The foods found through screening were the semi-domesticated "wild plants" listed in the summary below for this period. The nearby Watson Farm village dated between 1600 to 1400 B.P. and its small one yard high mound also contain a stone crypt. The limestone tempered Watson Ware along with a limited amount of grit tempered Mahoning Ware was found. Flotation samples were performed at this site, but, these have not been analyzed by botanical specialists. Chenopodium (sp.) was found and even it is not clear if it was domestic grown or wild gathered. These Middle Woodland people were subsisting primarily on wild plants and animals, fish and shellfish. Each site had but one single circular structure found which may be due to limited excavation.
The Cole Culture (CE 910-1135 OWU-276) follows the Hopewell in south-west Ohio (Baby, Potter, and Mays, Vol. 71 #4, 1966:196,197). Traits similar to preceding Hopwellian (Effigy mound builders), Dr Raymond S. Baby, Professor of Anthropology of The Ohio Historical Society, explains, "Too, they represent a continuation of an established Hopewellian architectural tradition." Ideas of technology and changing ways of living migrated between neighboring regions if not genealogy. Influence from the southeastern United States during late Cole period in Highland County, Ohio (southerly Till Plains) is manifest at the Holmes mound (1135 =*= 95 AD OWU-276) (Baby 1971:197). The earlier of the period, Voss mound (910 AD OWU-229B) example, was a ceremonial plaza (Baby, Potter, and Mays, 1966). "The only marked differences between the Voss and Hopewell structures were their size and the number of interior roof supports" describes Professor Baby (The Ohio State University, Anthropology).[32] These sites are assigned to the post-Hopewellian Cole Culture (Baby and Potter, 1965) based on features, tool inventories, and ceramics. The Zencor site (Baby and Shaffer, 1957) near Columbus, Ohio has three houses, arranged in a semicircle facing an open plaza, and the Lichliter site (Gerald 1971) south of Dayton, Ohio revealed 6 similar circular house patterns. More than 20 subsequent sites have been found since defined (1965:5-6), most in the Till Plains, Ohio's central and west-central region and several in east-central Glaciated Plateau (Applegate & Mainfort 2005:135). Baby and Potter postulated a trade or exchange between Cole People (i.e. Hopewell, Seip, Liberty sites) and Fort Ancient people (i.e. Baum, Blain, Gartner sites) and the main Fort Ancient territory to their south along the Ohio Valley (Applegate & Mainfort 2005:136 Dancy & Seeman Fig 10.1). Also in the shared Scioto Valley area or these counties can be found Serpent Mound. Hopewellian-like Cole People predate log palisading or wood walled villages trading with their mixing neighbors, the earliest southerly Scioto Valley Fort Ancient (Baby 1971:197). The polished lithics at sites near Romney Mound on Tygart Valley are similar to Armstrong. The pottery and cultural characteristics are also similar to Ohio Hopewell (McMichael 1968:34). They are called Montane Hopewell.
Maize horticulture appears in the Late Middle Woodland (1400 to 1000 B.P.) and seems to be an "economy" crop (McConaughy 2000, Dragoo 1956). "Climbing beans" similar to today's Kentucky Wonders planted beside "hills" of corn (The Three Sisters Crops) appear in the Northern Panhandle and Monongahela drainage system by the 14th century AD. This is after the northern West Virginia and western Pennsylvania "Hamlet Phase" of the Monongahela culture (Monongahela Drew "tradition", R L George et al. of Pa) which transitions to Fort Farmers (~800 BP) now located on higher creek flats and ridge line gaps. The grit tempered Mahoning Ware pottery becomes the primary ceramic form. Stone points, the Jack's Reef Corner Notched, Jack's Reef Pentagonal, Kiski Notched and Levanna, indicate that the "spear thrower", a common incorrect terminology for the atlatl and dart, was gradually gradually replaced by the bow-and-arrow during the Late Middle Woodland. Both the atlatl dart and earliest bow's arrow were being used in West Virginia at about this time frame.
Neibert Mound site (Maslowski 2003).
Late Woodland peoples Wigwam settlements increased in size within relatively fixed territories. Hypothesized, Late Woodland utilizing temporary hunting rockshelters increased the distances to procure resources. Facing Monday Creek Rockshelter (33HO414) in Hocking County, Ohio documents this resource expansion process.[33] The value of knowledge sharing across borders today can be exampled by quoting one of several. In his 2006 abstract, Steven P. Howard sums up his field team's findings, "Elements of the Ohio Hopewell fluorescence are evident at the Caneadea (Allegheny County, New York) and other northeastern mounds, but direct Hopewell influence appears to have been minimal. Data from northeastern mounds indicate that Hopewell may not be appropriate as a universal label for Middle Woodland mound building cultures."
State Archaelologist Dr. Robert F. Maslowski documents, "The Woodland (1000 BC – AD 1200) on the Kanawha and Ohio Rivers settlement patterns at Winfield Lock Site and the Burning Spring Branch site (46KA142) have provided radiocarbon dates and good physical descriptions of the earliest pottery in southern West Virginia. This site is a multi-component site having several strata with a stockaded Fort Ancient Village (circa AD 1500) with 25 houses. West Virginia's Middle Woodland Period (AD ~650) was redefined to include Adena with conical burial mounds. Gallipolis locks expansion project on the Ohio River for industrial navigation upgrading allowed the Kirk and Newman Mounds and an Adena ceremonial circle at the Niebert Site to be totally excavated. This provided for new interpretations of Adena ritual associated with burial mounds (Clay 1998, Clay and Niquette 1992). The paired post circle at Niebert consisted of outward sloping posts forming an open air structure. No artifacts were found in the structure but one large pit contained charcoal and fragments of cremated human bone. The structure was interpreted as a place where bodies were cremated and the remains reburied in local burial mounds like Kirk and Newman." (Maslowski 2003[34]).
Latest Woodland
Early Late Woodland (AD 350-750), maize (corn) is very rare. A 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BCE[35] This activity is a development of the Middle Woodland c. 400 BC to AD 400. This era signals a clear arrival of the Eastern Agricultural Complex or greater use and variety in gardening of the indigenous seed crops. Corn is little seen at a few sites extending Late Woodland, i.e. the following Woods type site. Corn propagates from the southwest to the lower Mississippi Valley. Growing of beans by the hunter-fishery horticulturalists precede the routine or addition of growing corn in the upper Ohio Valley. Contrastingly in North Carolina, a variety of corn arrived from the southwest as early as AD 200 and beans were being grown by AD 1200 (North Carolina University at Chapel Hill, Price, Samford, and Steponaitis, 2001). Not as fertile as the surrounding "Tillable Plains" regions, the Allegheny Plateau corn yields soon diminish in following seasons with no soil treatment or today's crop rotation method (Sandretto, Soil Management, USDA 2005). The following Late Prehistoric Woodland people approached solving this problem with the development of the Three Sisters Crop method or companion seed Sowing. As Dragoo explained, environment in geograghy effected development in ways of human living. Walton C. Galinat researched maize cultivation in the Eastern United States. These studies include terrain altitude deviation (valley vs ridge flats and plateau frost days) daily temperature changes and number of days for the growing season comparing variety of corn through time. Early variety of corn needed considerably more growing days than 8-row corn to include considering soil conditions and changing weather patterns. In New England maize was well established by 1200 CE and distributions of the Southern Dent Pathway established other varieties of maize after CE 1500. "Maize (corn) did not make a substantial contribution to the diet until after 1150 B.P.", to quote Mills (OSU 2003).
Watson pottery making people lived along the upper Ohio Valley from the Kanawha regions through the Northern Panhandle and adjoining state border area who also extends into the Eastern Panhandle. Tobacco growing remains important among certain tribes, hunter gathering gardeners, hunter-fishery horticulturalist, and later hunter-fishery farmers of the region. Tobacco seed is extremely small and seldom found in screening results in abstracts. Tobacco is evidenced to the many pipes and its bowl's residue found at certain sites rather than the seed itself. The arrival of the tomato in the region is suspect to historic if not found earlier of proto-historic. Both the squashes and gourds long predate corn and beans in the state. The cereal corn surpassed the Woodland's cereals little barley and may grass though wild rye, an overlooked Elymus (genus).
Watson people (AD 100–800) generally lived on flats above annual flooding of the major rivers nearby their small conical mounds. Their dominate pottery preference was decorated with a Z-twist cordage technique (Peterson 1996:95; Maslowski 1984a). This period signals an ending of large conical mounds northerly in and along the state. Here they arose adjacent the Armstrong people and following Buck Garden on their south extent. The spanning duration and region Woodland type site is Watson 46HK34 (Woodland/Watson) located at Hancock Co. Upon their horizon and zenith, there were no bean nor corn seeds in the state. These were hunters and fishermen, but gardeners of a larger variety of indigenous seed crops who were transitioning to just supplemental of gathering wild berries and nuts. The bean of the horticulturalists appeared sparsely in the area toward the ending of this period. About the time the Buck Garden arise, they are also found living in small compact villages (Michael 1968:30). Their mounds were made partly with rocks having more people buried within than earlier special person mounds before them (Michael 1968:30). Bow and arrow people follow the Watson People into the Northern Panhandle area and on the upper tributaries of the Monongahela River. Watson Pottery People would see the arrival of the arrowhead. Monongahelan pottery begins with a grit temper describe below in the Ceramic chapter. "The Watson sherds are of no ceramics of the Hopewellian Series", according to Prufer & McKenzie of Ohio and concurred by in state contemporary scholars.
Wood Phase was contemporaneous with Scioto Valley Tradition's earlier period of post-Hopewellian Cole Culture (Baby and Potter, 1965) of central Ohio. Influence from the southeastern United States during late Cole period in Highland County, Ohio is manifest at the Holmes mound (AD 1135, Baby 1971:197). The earlier of the period, Voss mound (AD 910) example, was a ceremonial plaza (Baby, Potter, and Mays, 1966). Cole houses of as many as six were orientated in a half circle facing an open plaza. These predate log palisaded villages. Nearly 100 miles southerly east of the Cole people on the Ohio Valley, the type site of Woods Phase on the Mouth of the Kanawha, is exampled at Woods (46MS14) which has very little occurrences of corn as a staple food. These horticulturalists are of the greater Kanawhas region. Like the Watson before them, these camps are found above the flood terrace but with linear and dispersed household groups. Charles M. Niquette explains his associates finding (46MS103 [36]), "Niebert's circular structures are the first well documented Adena structures to be found apart from mound contexts in the Ohio Valley." Niebert Site (46MS103) yielded important evidence of use by Late Archaic, Middle Woodland (Adena) and Late Woodland peoples (CRAI). The Late Woodland component in Cabell County, 46CB42 Multi-component, was more similar to Woods and Niebert than to Childers. This component was more similar to people in the interior Southeast than to those in the mid-Ohio Valley of central Ohio and northern Kentucky (McBride & Smith 2009). Small sherds of Woods phase pottery can easily be mistaken for Parkline pottery (O’Malley 1992). Parkline phase people were also present in the region, however, there appears to be no intensively occupied sites. This period seems to be a peaceful trade era for the latest Woodland cultures of the region.[37] The Fort Ancient hamlet and companion crop fields era, beginning with (46WD1) Blennerhassett Island Mansion (AD 891-973[38]), differentiate the Late Woodland Wood Phase of the Eastern Agricultural Complex in west-central West Virginia.
Hopewell at Romney Mound on Tygart Valley appears to be a distinct variant. They occurred during the neighboring Watson through Buck Garden period to their south and westerly in the state. However, this very late Hopewellian arrival of a particular small conical mound religion' appears to be also waning to the daily living activities at these sites (McMichael, 1968). This period begins a rapid fading away of influence by an elite priest cult burial phase centered towards the Mid-west states. This area is a portion of the greater Montaine.
Montaine (AD 500-1000) locations include the tributaries of the Potomac on the Eastern Panhandle region who also had an influence by the Armstrong Culture and Virginia Woodland people. Their traits are characterized as blurred. The Late Woodland Montaine had a lesser degree of influence by Hopewellian trade coming from Ohio. Yet by Romney, similarly polished stone tools have been found among the Montaine sites in the Tygart Valley.[39] Small groups of remnant Montaine people appear to have lingered much beyond their classic defined period in parts of the most mountainous valleys of the state (McMichael 1968). What little is known of the Montaine is from the early work of the Smithsonian. Their area is within the much less developed of the state, forest and parks, however requiring little immediate required field work. Albeit, New River has current required activity, 2010. Neighboring south the Incipient Intermountane (CE 800-1200) followed by the Full Mountane (CE 1200~1625) are found in the Ridge and Valley provence in western Virginia (Blue Ridge) and SW West Virginia border area to upper border area of W North Carolina (Brose, Cowan and Mainfort 2001:113).
Wilhelm culture (Late Middle Woodland, c. AD 1~500) appeared in the Northern Panhandle. "An excavation in Brooke County first drew attention to the distinctive practice of the Wilhelm people of building small mounds over individual stone-lined graves and then fusing several graves together into a single large mound", quoting Rice and Brown, West Virginia: a history, Edition: 2 - 1993 page 7. These had a Hopwellian influence (Rice & Brown 2nd ed. 1993:6). The less studied rural environs of early small rock mound building Monogahelan-like later arrises next to the atlatl and dart using Wilhelm area. Any influence is precently unknown. However, Watson people were also in this area. South of the Northern Panhandle, the Woods Phase follow the Watson people.
Armstrong culture (Woodland, c. AD 1~500) practice cremation and built small mounds central to the Big Sandy Valley. They are thought to be a variant of Hopewell or an influenced Middle Woodland from an earlier trade who peacefully mingled with the Adena mix (Dragoo 1963). Dr McMichael characterized them as an intrusive Hopewell-like trade culture or a vanguard of Hopewellian who probably peacefully absorbed some Adena through to the Great Kanawha Valley area. Here, this period is of the accretion by cremation or enlarging of the mounds. Their clay pottery has a glazed yellow-orange color as described within this article. Their villages appear to be scattered over a large area with small round houses. Their limited garden was compared to Adena. Small flaked knives and corner notched points were often flint ridge material. Sometimes called Vanport Chert, this material is from the greater Muskingum River valley area cited in the later Stone Industry chapter. They slowly evolve into the Buck Garden people (McMichael 1968:26).
Buck Garden (AD 500-1200) were more so throughout central Kanawha-New River Valley region following the upper Armstrong. They were first identified at the Buck Garden Creek site in Nicholas Co. (Rice & Brown 2nd ed. 1993:7). Buck Garden people buried under Rock Mounds and cliffs (McMichael 1968). They lived in compact villages and began raising beans included within the Eastern Agricultural Complex method or system. Many illustrations of living activities in print through the decades have been suggested. These ideas have ranged from bazaar to a probability. They grew or gathered seasonally root and ground vining foods, picked spring greens, berries and ramp followed by gathering shellfish up creek flats, hickory and walnuts. Use of spice and Sassafras is precently speculative. With their fishing pike, they fished the spring run and in the following cooler leafless seasons they hunted game. Like their rock mound burial within the state's interior, their extent use of rocks is not clear and speculative— small fishing jetties and possible use of the curious game-herding stone walls. A few centuries before AD 1200, they had migrated into the hillier areas of the state as the Fort Ancient Tradition and Monongahelan of the companion planting system begin to arise in the middle and upper Ohio Valley tributaries. The classic Buck Garden culture was gone by c. AD 1250. The Bluestone Phase and Monongahelan period had eclipsed the Buck Garden.
Childers Phase occupation at multiple strata Parkline Site (46PU99), Putnam County, West Virginia, is most likely associated with populations living in the Scioto Valley of Ohio of early Late Woodland ca. AD 400 (CRAI 2009[40]). This has compact cluster of thermal features and storage or refuse pits. Houses are not identified, although broadly, Woodland houses are generically described as small wigwam. At the Winfield Locks Site (46PU4) possible oval structures were suggested. Like the Parkline, this reflect cultural intrusions into the lower Kanawha Valley by small, highly mobile groups.
Parkline phase (AD 750~1000), intrusive Late Woodland, appearance on the Kanawha Valley is found at site 46PU99 (Calibrated AD 1170-1290[41] a multi-component site) in Putnam county. It is represented by numerous thermal features, including large, rock-filled earth ovens on the Kanawha Valley having its origination from the northeast Atlantic Seaboard dating to c. AD 900 (CRAI 2009). Their decorative pottery attributes are grit tempered pottery with folded rim strips, cordwrapped paddle edge impressions placed on vessel collars and lip notching and/or cord wrapped dowel impressions. Parkline phase "are thought to be inhabited for very brief periods of time by highly mobile, nuclear family groups (Niquette & Crites)." Corn was not a major subsistence. They are also thought to be frequent visitors to the Woods phase site (46MS14) as some sherds are found similar. Parkline phase's region extends up the Ohio River from Louisville, Kentucky to Point Pleasant, West Virginia, and along the Ohio's major tributaries as defined here. "Currently, no intensively occupied Parkline phase sites have been identified" in West Virginia.[42] Both of these peoples foreshadow the hamlet (place) village period of the Fort Ancient.
Anthropologist Anna Hayden, The College of William and Mary 2009, writes, "However, somewhere in the Middle Woodland (circa B.C. 400 to A.D. 900), these large-scale trading systems seem to collapse, ending the cultural continuity that had existed for some time (Custer 1994)."[43] Algonquian speakers from the Great Lakes region likely began migrating into the Middle Atlantic region around A.D. 100 or 200 (Potter 1993; Hayden 2009:8). Their dominate pottery preference was decorated with a S-twist cordage technique (Peterson 1996:95; Maslowski 1984a; Potter 1993; Hayden 2009:8). As many as six peoples shared a short period of transitioning in the Mountain State. The earliest hamlet village farmers of Fort Ancient and Monongahela were concurrent with the latest Wood, Parkline, Montaine and Buck Garden peoples for relatively short passage of time to a new way of living in the state using shell tempered pottery with variational pottery decorations and bow with arrows.
There are a number of un-studied locations back away from the excavated sites on the Ohio and Kanawha river known by various local archeological societies. Some locations have slipped the eye of the general public, locally protected. These uncatagorized inland sites have been left to traditional assumption, these being traveling hunter's camps. Some tribes were semi-nomadic or seasonally migrational not occupying the same location throughout the year. The Hunter's Camp near 13 Mile Creek of the Panther glyphics (46Ms81) are not assigned to a phase. The newly discovered cave during the US 35 upgrading in Mason County in 2009 falls into this group of sites. Although it is too early to determine phase affiliation, the grave found suggest it as something a little more than a temporary hunting camp location. The forensic examination is done in-site, no removal, and the State Road Department built a lockable concrete barrier to protect the cave from vandalism under the direction of Dr. Maslowski (CWVA) and Marshall University (WVAS), and students. There are many of these locations throughout West Virginia and some having small mounds that have not been excavated.
Eastern Panhandle, Potomac Valley
Mockley Phase of Middle Woodland dates from c. AD 40 of the Norfolk, Virginia region of the lower Chesapeake Bay. These people generally lived in smaller encampments as they fished and clammed. A few storage pits have been identified (Potter 1994). They had limited gardening, as recent findings suggest they included the sunflower which predates the large-scale Mesoamerican influence to the Carolinas and Virginia.
Mason Island culture (Mason Island Complex AD 900 – 1400, Kavanagh et al. 2009), an agricultural village complex, pottery is a newly defined pottery type now being called Page Plain along with a few sherds of Page Cord-marked ware in very limited numbers compared to the limestone-temper. Although a little too early in the state to be called as such, a precursor Levanna Triangle tipped their arrows. Mason Island Phase sites are also referred to as Page Phase as sometimes known in W Maryland.[44] This should not be confused with the Page Phase (AD 900-1100) [Web and Funkhouser 1930], a western Kentucky primarily mortuary complex at Page site at Logan County, Kentucky of the Mississippian Culture. The Mason Island's Page Phase is one of three Late Woodland cultural subdivisions known in the Monocacy River area just before European contact W from Alleghany county. It is not Mississippian. Dr Maslowski (2009),[45] "The New River Drainage and upper Potomac (Potomac Highlands) represents the range of the Huffman Phase (Page pottery) hunting and gathering area or when it is found in small amounts on village sites, trade ware or Page women being assimilated into another village (tribe)." According to Prof Potter of Virginia, they had occupied the upper Potomac to the northern, otherwise, lower Shenandoah Valley region before AD 1300 Luray Phase people "invasion". Mason Island people were pushed to the W Piedmont as about this time the Potomac Creek complex appeared in the coastal plain of the Potomac River (Potter 1994).
Luray Phase, are characterized by shell-tempered Keyser Cord-marked pottery; small, isosceles Madison points and palisaded, agricultural villages. These pushed out the Mason Island complex central Potomac Valley by AD 1300 to the neighboring areas including up the Eastern Panhandle rivers of the Montaine Culture (cit. Dent & Jirikowic 1990:73-76; Gardner 1986:88-89; Kavanagh 1982:82) people and New River drainage neighbors of Bluestone Phase (Jones 1987). Luray Phase were of an Algonquian dialect (Potter, 1994). Neighboring in Maryland, the Luray Complex dates to AD 1250–1450 (Kavanagh et al. 2009). The youngest within the Maryland Accokeek Creek site (AD 1300–1650) is associated with the historic Piscataway Indians (Kavanagh et al. 2009)[46]
Rappahannock Complex is of the Late Woodland of the Lower Potomac River basin of c. AD 900~17th century. It is not clearly defined, although there are two temporal phases—Late Woodland I and Late Woodland II (Fitzthugh 1975:112) Generally, their pottery was shell-tempered and similar to Townsend Ware pottery. (McNett 1975:235). Earlier phase, these people increasingly utilized smoked oysters, stored them and increasingly traded them further in land. Temporary oyster gathering sites is suggestive that they also divided their seasons to agriculture (Potter, 1994). Townsend ceramics were considered to be trade items associated with the Potomac Creek complex trade coming from the Algonquian Delmarva Peninsula (Custer, 1986) and Slaighter Creek Complex (Baker).
Montgomery complex (ca. AD 900~1450), were a Late Woodland people on the Piedmont Potomac Valley. They would take refuge to the James River by the middle of the 13th century with others from the greater Carolinas region. (Cissna 1986:29) They were similar to the Carolina Algonquians who had been living there (S lower lands) for a duration of nearly six hundred years (Outlaw 1990:85-91). There appears to be a coalescing with the late Potomac Creek complex evidenced by the building fortified villages along the Chesapeake Bay and Piedmont plains. It is thought building of these "forts" was in defence from Iroquois language groups coming and going to the region.[47]
Potomac Creek complex on the "Neck of the Potomac" valley may date as early as AD 1200 (Potter 1982:112), although clearly by the late 14th century. Their house shape seemed to be rectangular with the one example having a round end. (Schmitt 1965:8) A longhouse was clearly defined at two different villages. (Stewart, 1988) Their obtuse-angle clay pipes are similar to those found on the various Delmarva Peninsula complexes coastal Maryland and Virginia, to NE North Carolina. (Custer 1984, Ubelaker 1974, Potter 1982, McCary & Barka 1977, Green 1984, Phelps 1983) Schmitt had earlier define this kind of pipe to this particular complex (Schmitt 1952:63 & 1965:23) and maintained this position in 1963. Another early Schmitt assigned supposed unique trait of the later Potomac Creek was the human style shell maskettes having the "weeping eye" motif (Potter, 1994). "Shell mask gorgets with weeping eye designs are commonly found in E Tennessee, NE Arkansas, and the middle Ohio Valley on sites dating to the Protohistoric period or just prior to it (Drooker 1997:294,297, 301; Smith and Smith 1989).", quoting David Pollack, Kentucky Heritage Council. Potomac Creek dates from ca. AD 1300–1700.
"It is a mistake to assume that these language families (Iroquoian and Algonquian) can be extended backwards in time unchanged for several or more millenia, or that the speakers of these languages remained unchanged and stationary in their original homelands.", Hart and Brumback, American Antiquity, 68(4), 2003. pp. 737–752, Society for American Archaeology.
Monongahelan and Fort Ancient Tradition
Late Prehistoric cultures (AD 1200–1550) are suspected to have, within, dialectal or language differences. The Monongahelan and Fort Ancient Tradition, and the Page pottery maker people of the Huffman Phase generally have circular villages averaging two to five acres in size (Maslowski 2010). Houses will vary from bark or thatched roof and sided with bark, thatch or hides constructed as rectanguloidal of rounded corners or the wigwam styles. Self sufficient, normal trade was between neighboring hamlets. Commonly found at these small farming hamlets and later log palisaded villages are shell hoes, ceramic pipes, bone fishhooks, shell-tempered pottery, triangular arrow points, shell beads, and bone beads. Early and Middle Fort Ancients phases lived in their villages year round (Peregrine & Ember 2002:179), a common practice of others later in the state. Unseen in West Virginia, some houses in the central Ohio Valley will have mud daubed sides similar to Mississippian according to Peregrine and Ember publishing of 2002. Lynne P. Sullivan writes of Mississippian influenced E Tennessee, "There is little evidence for interaction between Upper Cumberland people and Fort Ancient groups that lived along the Kentucky and Big Sandy rivers to the north and east. In fact, the Upper Cumberland region appears to mark the northern margin of the Mississippian "world" in this part of the southeast."[48]
Among a few SE Fort Ancient sites, Orchard and Man, and Mount Carbon, Monongahela styled stemmed stone pipes have been found (Rafferty and Mann 2004:98). Although, there appears to be no Monongahelan Monyock Cord-impressed ceramic pipes at Fort Ancient sites. Shell tempered pipes are probably not Iroquoian as found at the Clover site and one of the two fragments from the Buffalo site. Iroquoian styled pipes can be found more often at E Late Protohistoric Fort Ancient sites than the more W sites. A pipe found at the Hardin site near the Big Sandy has an etching of a lizard.[49] These sites exampled are in the SW of the state.
During the following protohistoric period, CE 1550~1650, the rectanguloid house increases in size now having squared corners (McMichael 1968). On the central Ohio Valley, villages of late Fort Ancient of Ohio, Kentucky and SW West Virginia became large and multi-ethnic (Henderson 1988). Routine distancing or broad ranging trade developes. Through the colder seasons large family groups of the Clover Complex and Madisonville Horizon broke off from the village at the end of harvest season. These villages of several indivdual clans moved up different tributary streams to camp for the family's seasonal hunt, seed stock in hand or not, returning in the spring to their tribe's crop growing season village (Peregrine & Ember 2002:184). At the end of the Madisonville type site village, after 1525, it is suspected house size become smaller and fewer as perhaps coupled with "a less horticulture-centered, sedentary way of life (Drooker 1997a:203)." Also found late in the culture at the Logan and Marmet villages, shell gorgets are found styled similar to Holston Valley watershed of NE Tennessee and W Virginia, the Blue Ridge Mountains. This period at the dawn of history in the south western of the state can be characterized as of trade and/or influx with all of the surrounding states leaving some tribes or phratry villages pushed east or west from the Acansea Flu as seen on the Franquelin 1684 map (Jes. Rel. 1647-48, xxxiii, 63, 1898; Mooney 1894:28; E.B. O'Callaghan; Short title, "The Wilderness Trail", Charles Hanna Pp. 119).
Drew Tradition
Drew tradition (900~1350 CE) represents a separate cultural entity as Richard L George of the Society for Pennsylvania in 2006 explained. Before the 14th century AD log palisaded villages period, agrarian hamlets appear about 900 CE in N West Virginia and the W Pennsylvania area. These farmers are found peacefully during the warmer weather era on the larger bottom lands of the major trade route rivers. The houses tended to be circular in shape or wigwam. Their pottery differs from following pushed-to-upper tributaries defensive Monongahelan now having larger "bag shaped" or tear-drop bottom pottery (George 2006:Abstract)— a harsher era with colder weather. The contemporary Mahoning ware people, suspected to have been earlier influenced by late Hopewellian, also differs on the upper Ohio Valley (Mayer-Oakes 1955:193). Predating classic Mississippian influence at a great distance down river (Pauketat, 1050 AD "Big Bang" of Cahokia), George describes Drew pottery as like a "bean pot" or "more squat." Early Fort Ancient Tradition sedentary hamlet crops Roseberry Phase (Brose et al. 2001:70,85. CE 1050-1250) were adjoining southerly in the Little' and greater Kanawha region as were Feurt Phase (46WD35, 1028~1720 CE).
Monongahelan
Monongahela roots are of farm fields and hamlet with no palisading walls on the major broad river valleys following the late Watson people. The Worley village Complex (46Mg23), Monongalia County, West Virginia, dates to about CE 900. To quote the Maryland Archaeological Conservation Lab, "Monongahela ceramics are a complex series that begin with an early grit or limestone tempered group and end with a very anomalous collection of types found in southwestern Pennsylvania during the post-Contact period."[50] Their canal coal pendants are found from the Great Kanawha through to just the SW corner of Pennsylvania protohistoric Monongahelan (Johnson 1990, Brose et al. 2001:82). Now being pushed, their circular become palisaded villages move near ridge gaps. These villages were smaller and the artifacts are of a less variety than Fort Ancient (McMichael 1968). Houses were generally circular in shape often with nook or storage appendage. Late Monongahela (AD 1580 - 1635) sees a charnel house of a shaman burial at a few villages according to the Monongahela Chapter of the West Virginia Archaeological Society.[51] The village's community structure have also been identified. Differentiating the characteristics between Fort Ancient and interior Monongahelan of West Virginia, Dr. McMichael writes, "A reflection of the Monongahela's greater Woodland heritage was the continued use of small stone mounds in the Monongahela drainage area, well into the Late Prehistoric." A furthering difference of their palisaded village were bastions or shooter's platforms and a maze-like entrance sometimes covered. Late Monongahelan were likely middlemen in a marine shell trade network extending from the Chesapeake Bay to Ontario (MCWVAS 2010). At the Fort Hill Site (46Mg12) on April 13, 2005, Haudenosaunee claimed associated soil and artifacts of the funerary reburying away on their Tribal Land.
In a 1978 abstract comparing McFate Artifacts at the McJunkin site with Johnston and Squirrel Hill sites in western Pennsylvania, Richard L. George reviews, "It was suggested that the McFate presence on the McJunkin site may have been the result of foreign potters, namely women, living among the resident Monongahela... and suggest a major population movement from the north in the 16th century and an amalgamation of peoples speaking dissimilar languages." During this century Stadacona and Hochelaga (Jacques Cartier 1535–1536) had disappeared, and the tribes along the shores of the St. Lawrence were no longer those of Huron-Iroquois stock, but Algonquian (Journ, 183-84; Clev. ed XXXVIII, 181). To quote Richard L. George of the Pennsylvania Archaeology Society, "I believe that some of the Monongahela were of Algonquin origin... Other scholars have suggested that Iroquoian speakers were interacting with Late Monongahela people, and additional evidence is presented to confirm this. I conclude that the archaeologically conceived term, Monongahela, likely encompasses speakers of several languages, including Siouan."[52]
The 16th century saw both extended drought and colder seasons contributing towards an infux that pushed the Monongahela people from the broad bottom lands. The grown number of villagers may have been battling over food of another village up to the culture's end date of 1635, according to some scholars. There is evidence they were failing to poor health conditions along the Pennsylvania border area. In the E area of West Virginia, there is further evidence of Susquehannock movement into and habitation such as the Mouth of the Seneca (46Pd1) and Pancake Island (46Hm73). Into most of the 16th century, the western river bottom archaeological sites in the state show no evidence of European trade. The Monongahela culture extends a little later in West Virginia than traditional spanning dates (CRAI: 46MG75A, Belldina Bottom, Monongahela, cal. AD 1657, Maslowski 1988).
Ancient Tradition
Fort Ancient Tradition flourished from about 1000 CE through 1550 CE (Bryan Ward 2009:10-27). Today's scholars have determined these Central Ohio Valley farming villagers a non-Mississippian culture developing from within the region. The Ohio Historical Society shows the Fort Ancient Tradition[53] elements as: Madison Phase, Anderson Phase, Feurt Phase, Baldwin Phase, Brush Creek Phase, Baum Phase, Philo Phase, Clover Complex, Holcombe Complex, Crowfield Complex, Barnes Complex, Gainey Complex, Enterline/Lux Complex. Various Fort Ancient Tradition sites along the Kanawha Valley include: Roseberry, Shadle, Threemile Creek, Somers, Buffalo, Wells, Clifton, Marmet (46KA9 Clover) and Marmet Bluffs (46KA7 Feurt), Pratt, Brownstown, Burning Spring Branch, Mt. Carbon and Barker's Bottom; on the Guyandotte Valley: Gue, Logan and Mann sites, and the Dingess village nearby on the Tug Fork-Levisa Fork of the Big Sandy. Sites can be found on the New River and the bordering rivers of Big Sandy and Ohio rivers. A very early Fort Ancient village on the Ohio River at Wood County (46WD1) dated to AD 891 and again to AD 973 (Graybill 1987). From his 2010 paper, 'Landscape Archaeology, Fort Ancient, and the Clover People' ,"Within the region associated with the Fort Ancient archaeological tradition, mortuary practices varied both regionally and over time. However, relatively complete mortuary data are available for only a handful of sites." overviews Dr. Robert F. Maslowski, Marshall University Graduate College. Many of these studied locations are multiple village or camp component including the study of stratigraphy and geomorphology.
Blennerhassett Phase of the Fort Ancient Tradition appears by 1250 CE (Bryan Ward 2009:10-27). These people extend from the Mouth of the Little Kanawha area and began a few centuries before the Orchard people appear. They no longer utilized small burial mounds. The graves are now found amongst the houses surrounding the central plaza. Houses tended to be rectangular with round corners or oval in shape and were semi-subterranean with compacted floors. These people would become adept in palisading their circular villages with logs. This period shows a marked increase in corn diet than the earlier domesticated grasses or cereals of the preceding hamlet farmer. They continued to hunt small mammals, birds, fish, mollusks, elk, and white-tail deer. They follow the Roseberry Phase (Brose et al. 2001:70,85. CE 1050-1250) also northly from the Great Kanawha.
Feurt Phase (46WD35, 1028~1720 CE) ranges along the Ohio Valley from the Little Kanawha River down both shores and environs to the Guyandotte River and from here their area reaches across the Ohio River to the lower Scioto River in Ohio. Hobson Site 33Ms-2 (1100~1200 AD) is of Fort Ancient Tradition. The type of pottery (the found 791 plain, shell tempered (Type 4) body sherds), quoting James L. Murphy, "cannot be distinguished from the late Middle Woodland Watson Ware of the Upper Ohio Valley nor from the Late Woodland Peters Cordmarked Ware from the Scioto and Hocking Valley drainages". The Gue Farm site (46CB4) (1488, 1609, 1611) is a Feurt phase site (Maslowski 1984:152) and is two counties away from the Hobson Site. The Roseberry Farm site (46MS53) is another Feurt Phase (AD 1046, 1097, 1115, 1144, 1153, 1195, 1218, 1225, 1298, 1431, 1438, 1511, 1600, 1616 (CRAI)) people's location across the Ohio River from the Hobson Site and perhaps a half dozen miles away (Graybill 1979:10). The Blennerhassett Village site (46WD38), an island in the Ohio River near Parkersburg, West Virginia in Wood County, is another Feurt people location (AD 1720, AD 1663) (Graybill n.d.) perhaps some thirty miles upstream from the Hobson site. Lewis Old Town site (46MS57) dates at AD 1398 (Feurt Kuhn and Spurlock 1982:44) and not far from the Roseberry Farm site. There are more Feurt people locations in the area along the shores of the Ohio that could be elaborated here.
Bluestone Phase (Fort Ancient Tradition, highland farmers) is of Southern West Virginia eastern-most Cumberland (La Posta Volume 38 No 2 variously, Waseoto, Osioto, Osiata, Oseoto, and Onosiota[54]) and S Allegheny valley's watershed. These sites are of the New River (Bluestone and Greenbrier valleys) Fort Ancient Tradition component called, Bluestone spanning dates from AD 1028 through AD 1463 (Jones 1987). Their most studied sites by Jones are: 46SU3 (Barker's Bottom, AD 1463, AD 1438, AD 1403, AD 1308, 1359, 1380, AD 1283, AD 1280, AD 1028), 46SU22 (blank, AD 1431, AD 1421), 46MC1 (Snidow, AD 1322, 1340, 1393, AD 1293, AD 1064, 1075, 1127, 1133, 1159), 46SU9 (Island Creek, AD 1302, AD 1286). The area ranges from Summers through McDowell counties into the adjoining SW Virginia tributaries of the upper New River system. The Snidow Site (46MC1), multi-component site (strata), Mercer County, quoting the Council for West Virginia Archaeology[55] summary, "The rimsherds were recovered through waterscreening from lower floodplain features, many of which produced protohistoric glass beads and copper and brass artifacts dating to AD ca. 1600-1650."[56] It is thought examples of these among other of the Mountain State's sites are evidence of "inter-tribal" trade during the later of the phase, Bluestone, and this continued "trans-Native American" trade to the European contact areas.
Protohistoric
Clover Phase area lays in the south of the state (Griffin 1943, Maslowski 1984, Mayer-Oakes 1955). The type site is the Clover Site (46CB40). Clover Phase is divided into two phases, Early Clover dating CE 1450—1550 and Clover dates of CE 1550—1640 (Drooker and Cowan 2006). It shares the Great Kanawha area with a couple of late Feurt villages earlier mentioned. This Late Fort Ancient phase is contemporaneous and often included or compared with the Madisonville Horizon (CE 1450—1640), at Lower Miamis SW Ohio Mariemont Phase CE 1400/50—1650-70, Central Muskingum SE Ohio Wellsburg Phase CE 1500—1650, at Northern Kentucky and Lower Scioto Ohio sharing Montour Phase CE 1550—1750 (Brose, Cowan and Mainfort 2001:85 fig. 8.2). The Clover Complex spans Putnam, Mason and Cabell counties along the lower Great Kanawha and Ohio rivers overlapping a central area of the older Feurt Phase. The US Army Corp of Engineers (USACE) Abstract states, "The most significant site encountered in the Kanawha Navigation Project is the Clover Site (46CB40)". Clover Site (46CB40), Buffalo (46PU31) and Rolf Lee (46Ms51) are suspected to be the same population rotating to each location upon resource depletion, firewood and soil (Maslowski). All three Fort Ancient sites have multiple village occupations and within a day's canoe or hike from each other. These houses for each occupational period clearly surrounded a centralized plaza within the stockaded village rather than in clusters within the stockaded village. Rolf Lee (46Ms51) last occupational period, found was 26 Marine Shell gorgets. This very late introduction is either as trophy of raid, through trade or migration of Southeast people. (photos [57]) This uncommon large amount of Citico shell occurrence was contemporaneous with the Orchard site of perhaps a dozen miles above them. Quoting Dr. Maslowski, "Besides the characteristic lithics and pottery, Clover has well preserved burials, bone artifacts in all stages of production and shell artifacts. It is one of the Protohistoric villages that may eventually be connected with historic Indian tribes."
The neighboring Fort Ancient Montour Phase (AD 1550—1750) of NE most Kentucky to the Big Sandy Valley area has been compared to late SW Protohistoric sites in the state (Drooker & Cowan 2001). The rise of a "Miami-Potawatomi" pattern (AD 1550—1750) may have brought dispersed winter hunters during the protohistoric and earliest historic in the state and perhaps corresponds to the Montour phase in north-east Kentucky (Carmean 2009). The Hardin Village site had clustered houses similar with, but, smaller than Iroquoian-type "longhouses" (Huron type, Fenton[1978:303]) and a little larger than a "Mohawk" structure. The houses had no mud-daubed sides, suggesting bark, thatched or skin sided rectangular houses. They were similar to the Kanawha Valley "Buffalo"[58] Village (46CB40) site in structure (Hanson 1975 and Holmes 1994:56). However, Buffalo Village (46CB40) houses for each occupational period clearly surrounded a centralized plaza within the stockaded village rather than in clusters within the stockaded village. It was suggested that the earlier portion of Hardin Village houses were rebuilt causing the appearance of clusters rather than circular orientation within the walled village strata (portion) of the site. This location, overall, was occupied for a much longer continuous duration by a variation of people. Hardin Village site was abandoned by 1625 according to Drooker and Cowen 2001:101; Graybill 1981; Pollack and Henderson 1983. Death by warfare increased after 1650 through the Traditional Fort Ancient region (Drooker and Cowan 2001:83-106). Village population increased late in the period for two probable reasons according Dr McMichael. One suspected reason was increased corn production by companion crop method or smaller villages joined others for warfare defense. A few late villages show two palisaded walls and two rows of houses. The rectanguloid of about 18x30 feet increases in size to the about 25x50 feet rectangular house structure. Late village population ranged 1000~1500 (McMichael 1968:37).
Orchard (CE 1550~1650) town was not palisaded. These towns are rather open with a lineal orientation of the houses more often above the flood bottoms on broad rolling hill flats. Here, there was little wetland with mud bottoms and mosquitoe pools. Offset and just below the Fort Ancient level, a strata of Woodland Indian was found at the Orchard site on the second terrace above the flood bottom. Orchard people appear in the protohistoric period. Their shell tempered pottery varies and some at the type site are similar to two Ohio sites. This period in the greater region is of acculturation of tribes. Remaining of remanent indigenous people is anthropologically unknown, although their tribal villages did not survive for this represents a culture changing. The latter of the Orchard Phase is during the "Refugee Culture" as sometimes called in W Pennsylvania. Traditional history has the state's Fort Ancient attacked and destroyed. However, the Orchard site appears to be a 'trade village'. It is known a Southeastern Ceremonial Complex people arrives at Orchard (46Ms61), a Lizard Cult. Curiously from the Sandusky culture (AD 1200—1650), a sand stone pipe has what the Ohio Historical Society describes as an alligator engraved on it (OHS, 8.2 - Sandusky Pipe video [30]). It has been related to the "Water Panther" (OHS). Not like Buffalo (46PU31), Orchard (46Ms61) has not been characterized as attacked nor destroyed. Future lab studies may find clarity. The type site Orchard (46Ms61) had no formal excavations conducted at the site, although avocational archaeologists dug there from 1941 until the 1960s. These avocationals and regional academicians formed the West Virginia Archaeological Society in 1948.
Summary
As science evolves, James B. Griffin in later publication, 1992 page 53, writes, "Fort Ancient is a construct of archaeologists conceived in error, perpetuated by conceptual rigidity, and misinterpreted by some serious and imagininative archaeologists." Myra Jayne Giesen (OSU 1992), "Generally, Fort Ancient phases are thought to reflect geograghic differences rather than temporal defferences (Essenpreis 1978; Griffin 1978)." Adjoining the Feurt Phase on the Hocking Valley, the Baldwin Phase, Joseph E. Wakeman writes concerning late 19th century and early 20th century archaeology then concentrating primarily on ceramic (and point) studies, "Hocking Valley communities of the LP [Late Prehistoric] period may be better described without the baggage that the term Fort Ancient carries. These communities should be viewed as a tribal, agriculturally based, nucleated, permanent settlements that demonstrate variability in their material culture (even the ceramics) within the boundaries of a watershed" (Wakeman 2003:19). Like the Hocking Valley in adjoining Ohio opposite of Wood County of the Feurt Phase, the Ohio River tributary rivers have geographically similar canoe navigable feeder streams with branching watershed creek hollows. Western West Virginia and south-eastern Ohio share the physiograghic division called the 'unglaciated' Allegheny Plateau of steeper hills and cliffs than the glaciated Central Low Lands or the "Till Plains" (Wakeman:53; Brockman, US Forest Service, 2003). Seventy nine percent of Central Ohio Valley Fort Ancient Communities are found on the Terrace Bluff or Upland (Nass, 1988:Table 2) and forty eight percent of multicomponent sites are located on similar terrain (Nass, 1988:Table 1).
Some late prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were more to hunter or fishery phases practicing slash and burn Eastern Agricultural Complex gardening method. Continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic among certain tribes. Another group progressed to the more time consuming advanced companion crop fields method of gardening. Eventually tribal villages began relying heavily on corn to also feed their turkey flocks as Kanawha Fort Ancients practiced bird husbandry. A population of 50 to something over 100 people was common and some 175 or more villagers of the Monongahelan. The final decades saw village growth as mentioned. Not since the larger Adena mound villages, late prehistoric (AD 950~1550) villages were sparse across the greater region. A tribe would relocate to another old field within a several county territory along and crossing the saddles of the valley ways, bypassed or protected from distancing transits. This practice continued into the historic as, for example, Mingo Flats was well off the popular route south, The Seneca Trail. As with the few others remaining throughout the state, its village smoke would not be smelled along the raider's thoroughfare.
"The Fort Ancient tradition follows the Late Woodland period within the Ohio River Valley. Joining trees (DNA ANALYSIS) revealed that the Ohio Hopewell do not group with samples from Fort Ancient populations of the Ohio River Valley, but with samples from Glacial Kame, Adena or Norris Farms, possibly indicating some relationship between the groups. This in part could be due to small sample size and a low number of sites that have been amplified. More work within all of the Ohio River Valley cultures is needed to give a clearer picture to archaeologists, linguists and biological anthropologists alike." Lisa A. Mills, The Ohio State University 2003, preliminary DNA research.[59]
Bow and Arrow
The bow as a utility tool for drilling and fire starting arrives much earlier than the arrow. "The introduction of the bow and arrow coincides with the development of, or adoption of, a triangular tradition of point manufacture", to quote Dr. Billy Oliver, North Carolina Office of State Archaeology (2008). In 1877 at the Ash Cave site in the Hocking Hills, Ohio, dry organic remains of possible arrow shafts were recovered (Ohio Historical Society). Jack's Reef (notched) and the common Levanna projectile points are thought by many to represent the initial introduction of the bow and arrow to West Virginia. The first appearance of the arrow dates a little later, c. 600 CE, within the state.
The introduction of the bow and arrow for hunting appears in the greater region by AD 500 (OHS) and clearly at village sites into the Mountain State by 800-900 CE (McMichael 1968:35). The arrow was found to come from the north to the NW valleys and to the E Allegheny Mountains slopes from the Piedmont Plateau (Griffin, Tuck). The Jacks Reef and Levanna are true early arrow points within the state. Jack’s Reef Corner Notched (600~1200 CE, WVAS & WVCA) points are referred to as “Intrusive Mound” points (Justice 1987:218) as also generally confirmed at places of the state by the formal scholastic papers. There is evidence of the triangular point size in the mountainous regions progressively diminish in size from lower land's gradual evolutions (Oliver). Not only does the triangle point signal bow hunting in the state, it also sees a few examples of curious small stone walls on the ridge line flats of the SE region followed by the palisaded wood pole fort builder cultures in the NW valleys.
Propagation of lithics was summarized by Dr. Oliver, NC Office of State Archaeology in 1999, "If a tradition of manufacture can be identified and substantiated by stratigraphic discoveries in a number of distinct locales, it is then possible to recognize that particular tradition of manufacture through time and across space. Intrusive technological traditions may also be recognized. Recognition of attributes common to a particular tradition allows the archaeologist to go beyond pigeon-holing and make more meaningful interpretations from these ancient pieces of stone."
Surface arrowhead hunting yields a wide variation of projectile points along the major trans-region thoroughfares in the state. The state has centuries of "picking-up" points from the time of settlement and now become rather scarce. These have been saved by long held local private, university, and other public owned displayed collections. Along the western routes of tributary streams, points made of material from SE Ohio and W Pennsylvania are some times surface found north from the Great Kanawha, similar at a few sites. Although, the more distant distinctive neighboring cultural phase points are considered rare finds in the state. The earlier concave base type, elongated Yadkin (Levanna, Hranicky 2002:173), dates 300 to 1300 CE (Ritchie 1961 revised 1971). The scientist, Mr. Coe, based the longer and narrower Caraway on the Keyauwee Town 1936 excavation in North Carolina (Coe 1964 Formative Cultures of the Carolina Piedmont). Both the long slinder Serrated Western Fort Ancient and slightly shorter slinder Caraway projectiles are considered rare in Appalachia. Another very similar small, slender long triangle of Piedmont Plateau Late Woodland called the Uwharrie projectile point type also follows the larger elongated Yadkin and early large Levanna (Justice 1995:228; Coe 1969:49; Perino 1968a:100). The similar point, local SW Altizer and some Feurt variants with hints of "ears" (Hamilton-like), also appear in central Ohio Valley and dates CE 1400 (Carmean 2009[60]). These rare finds with edges flaring to the base along the Blue Ridge border areas also generally have concave bases or somewhat straight base. Not as more often found as dart points, the Hamilton is an occasion. The casual collector in the state can find the small acute isosceles triangle point with a concave base made of varying flint and chert. The small Clements isosceles triangle point having either straight or concave base is very similar in Virginia and North Carolina (Coe 1964). Also, the southern surface collector's small late protohistoric Hillsboro resembles the earlier WV small levanna , however spanning dates of 1200 to 1700 CE. A slightly larger triangle-like with no ears nor flaring leading edges to the base precedes the isosceles triangle Hillsboro and is called the Clarksville. Those of small acute isosceles triangle having either straight or concave base made of Kanawha Black flint and Hughes River flint are commonly found at Late Prehistoric villages in West Virginia (Justice 1995:228; McMichael 1965) and south western Virginia (Holland 1970:88). It is often simply called "a small Levanna" (WVAS).
Levanna and Yadkin points, rather than cruder flintknapping, are made using antler percussion flaking (bifacial) and finalized with a pressure flaking technique (Hranicky 2002:172). The latter technique is also used to resharpen earlier points as some have been found of some Madison types (Hranicky 2002; Wright 2003:86). Both antler and bone lithic making tools are also commonly found among Prehistoric West Virginia sites. According to Paola Villa, Colorado Museum of Natural History (ScienceDaily Oct. 29, 2010), the earliest evidence of pressure flaking was C. 20,000 BP of the Upper Paleolithic Solutrean culture. North Carolina's Dan River phase (AD 1000-1450)[61] and the protohistoric and contact period Sauratown phases (AD 1450-1620) are found to be a cultural continuity (Ward and Davis 1993). Of a similar flaking technique, the lighter Caraway Triangular point dominates at which time the incised rattlesnake gorgets influence from NW Tennessee and SW Virginia are found in several burials of site 31SK15 (Davis and Ward 1989; Eastman 1996). Some Citico rattlesnake gorgets are also found late in the Clover Phase in West Virginia. Excavations at Site 31SK15 by Coastal Carolina Research, Inc. page 14, "New ceramic styles may reflect interaction with the chiefdoms of the Catawba, Pee Dee, or Wateree drainages to the south (Eastman 1996)." It is suggested the term Yadkin be used for south of the James River and the term Levanna used north of the James River valley.[62]
Hamilton arrowheads range from S Allegheny Mountains and S Appalachian Mountains to Florida. The concave base Hamilton with dates spanning 1600-1000 B.P. is also called Uwharrie in its central region. Along the upper Ohio Valley, a similar type to Hamilton has a subtle concave sides with small Ears at the concave base apparently comes from the north Hocking River's Coshocton flint as surface finds and the type occasionally seen at certain Feurt villages (Murphy 33Ms-2 abstract 1968:4, p. 1–14). A similarly described as Kelli Carmean writes in 2009, "Sharp (1988:195) has described basal projections, or "ears," a variation also present on some Broaddus specimens...In northeastern Kentucky, Type 2 points are diagnostic of the Early Fort Ancient (AD 1000-1200); elsewhere this type lasts longer, and marks Early and early Middle Fort Ancient (AD 1000-1300) times." A similar shape is found along the Guyandotte River area locally called an Altizer having no clear dates. These are varying triangle examples surface found in collections.
Madison has a more of a straight base dates 1100-200 BP. Originally named Mississippi Triangular Point in 1951, Edward G. Scully renamed it to the Madison point having advanced research. Variously temporal to region, Railey types 1 through 6 are trans-regional. Madison Railey 4,5,and 6 types appear as the simi-sedentary early fur trade hunters also through the Ohio Valley. Later numbered types begin the 16th century (Drooker & Cowan 2001) arriving in the state. These small triangles signal in the state the transitioning of Late Fort Ancient. Seasonal hunters camps and returning to growing seasonal towns quickly eclipse the sedentary farm culture period (Carmean 2009). Madison arrowheads range the complete Mississippi drainage and Gulf Coast through to along most of the Atlantic Coast (Justice 1995). Both point types, elongated and the somewhat equal distant triangles of both dark flint and chert, are surface found across the state. The small Kanawha Black Flint Lavenna is predominate in central and NE of the state.
Hunters and Warriors
As the changing weather system warmed the greater region harbingering in the Late Prehistoric agricultural period, the centuries of about CE 950, scholars describe an enduring drought from roughly AD 800-900 deforested parts of Central America. Some find this corresponds with the end of the Late Classic period of the Maya.[63] Meanwhile, the Late Northeastern Woodland people prior to the Woodland II period of the Virginia (Hantman in his 'Monacan Archaeology of the Virginia Interior' , 1993, 2001) border region were also experiencing milder weather as N Ohio Valley Cereal grasses, Tuber, Bean and Gourd field farmers see corn arrive.
It appears weather conditions ca. AD 1350-1600 provided better for corn growing on the upper Ohio Valley and the Mountain State tributary valleys. At this time frame, the central and southwest Ohio (Till Plains) had cooler and wetter conditions effecting silking, polination and grain filling stages that likely accounted for less yields. Corn consumption decreased in the middle Ohio valley (Staller, Tykot and Benz 2006:226,227[64]). The following weather pattern had intermitant droughts. This research also included isotope analysis of samples from 47 archaeological sites in W and S Ohio, and W West Virginia (Staller, Tykot and Benz 2006:219,220). The scientists point out that samples from associated faunal remains would also be useful to obtain a clearer understanding. Donald and Greenlee, in 2005, hypothesized a combination of ecological conditions and pre-existing agricultural technologies could also explain the regional people's diet.
Hamlet and crop farmers who trade with the Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico coincide with adaption of hunting bows in West Virginia. As a quick overview in scope, the early arrowhead called intrusive mound sniders point wanes. In a broad sense, a Hamilton point type appears along side other triangle types while the dart is still in use. At some Feurt sites a needle-like elongated triangle point appear along side large triangular points. A precursor to the Levanna is the large type easterly of the state during early northerly Monongahelan and easterly Page pottery people areas. The Late Prehistoric people of the state would see the triangles reduce in size to true Lavanna arrow points. The following fort building farmers see early Madison types, smaller triangles, arrive toward the middle 14th century. Atlatl, smaller lance points and small knives extend into this period among some of the peoples. Other stemmed "bird points" can occasionally be found, but, not as often as the archaic stemmed and notched atlatl dart's point.
River boating also becomes significant during the atlatl stone dart and arrow stone point arrival with some evidence of a coastal trade. Some hunters and warriors transitioned to bow and arrow. Although, the atlatl and dart continued use along side the arrow in the state into the Late Protohistoric. The main water way trade was the Ohio River tributaries to the Tennessee River system (Dragoo) and the James and Potomac rivers to the Chesapeake Bay. Although gigging from canoe is suspected, bow fishing is unknown (McMichael 1968:48, Fig 45). Eventually, not only localized trademen canoeing (Wakeman 2003:19), it is thought building of forts was in defence of raids on these productive people who lived in their villages year round as sedentary agrarian (McMichael 1968). Dr McMichael explained warfare can be assumed as some bodies with points in them were found at the last occurrence of a culturally uncommon large palisaded Fort Ancient village at the Buffalo Site, 46PU31. Along with other local smaller groups of Fort Ancients, Rolfe Lee 46Ms123 village period #2 is suspected to have returned to Buffalo's last occupation. Traditional historians, Atkinson, Lewis and others within the state, declare Buffalo village was destroyed as a result of Fur Trade encroachment. Since then, a shell tempered pipe (Fort Ancient) and part of an Iroquois pipe is found in one of the 46PU31 occupational period artifact manifest to example briefly. Soon following transitioned is Late Clover phase and Orchard of mixed cultures now with much larger towns having no palisaded walls (McMichael 1968; Maslowski 2010). Advanced hunting tools in hand and a changed emphases, these mix now seasonally break away from the town to winter camps up tributaries to gather fur for trade (Drooker 1997a:203; Drooker & Cowen, Transition of the Fort Ancient Cultures of the Central Ohio Valley, reprint 2001:83-106). The last occupation at Rolfe Lee 46Ms123 period #1 is suspected to be one of these un-palisaded towns during the dawn of local history.
Hunting parties left their towns after the growing season moving up tributary streams to temporary camps through the winter in the state (Maslowski 2010; Drooker and Cowan 2001). Local legends characterized the hunt having a religious respect (Adair 1775[65] Filson 1793;[66] Atkinson 1876;[67] Lewis 1889, 1895, 1909[68]). Early historic weather by a number of historian writings was colder with extended spells of drouth. Beaver dams were not drained before the Fur Trade influx era of the 18th century. The Riparian zone on the lower western drainage, Allegheny Mountains, have some creek bottoms which were covered over with shallow beaver lakes. At the base of these hills is the mantel created by watering animals at the edge of the beaver lake. The narrower bottom creeks become brooks flowing around cliff ridge-lines and rolling hills on enveloped terraces feeding the bottomland of major rivers. Along the bottom land and terrace of slower moving waters the Late Prehistoric farming Indian had lived and canoed. Occasionally, an earlier hunter's point from antiquity can be found around these mantels of which are distant across plowable bottoms from today's dryer creek beds. With an exception of elk and mountain lion missing today in the state, these bowmen hunted today's game.
In summary, the triangular Lavanna fades away across the greater region perhaps a century before Europe contact as more variations of the Madison Triangle (Railey type #4, #5, & #6) progresses. However this the case in general across the Northeastern United States and the developed Old South, this does not mean the production of point type stops at certain locations where less amount of urban archaeology work is conducted today. A metal triangular point resembling a Levanna was introduced by the French as trade ware more than three centuries later. As seen on Page 39 of the Jamestown site 1999 Interim Report (Mallios and Strube, 2000), several variation of very nice small elongated trangle points and the smaller equal distant concave base Levanna are found after 1600 CE. This may too represent a change, migration or relocating of tribal villages as Colonial trade develops and the following Colonial settling onto prime farming lands during the Tobacco in the American Colonies expansion. Similar to both styles of these points are found at varying Fort Ancient sites.
Stone industry
Traditionally, archaeologists visually identify the geological origin of cherts using color and texture as the principal criteria. Officials and scientists from the Midwest to included Missouri, Indiana, Alabama, Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and Virginia, working together in workshops, are now using Neutron Activation Analysis, Macroscopic, microscopic, and geochemical identification techniques to help identify regional cherts and chert sources. Rarely seen in the mountain valleys of West Virginia, Indiana, to date, has 23 distinct chert types which is considerably more of variation than West Virginia. Documentation in a large-scale data set from Kirk horizons at Indiana's Farnsley Site (12Hr520) near Louisville, Kentucky, the Muldraugh chert and Wyandotte chert, among minor representations of exotic and other local or semilocal types, have suggested a pattern of more routine movement of Archaic Kirk towards the south and east.[69] Representative examples included of lithics from West Virginia are Kanawha Black Flint, Hillsdale/Greenbrier, Helderberg, Hughes River among Flint Ridge, Carter Cave, Paoli, Knox, rhyolite, and ferruginous sandstone that were brought in from surrounding states (CWVA).
Towards the northly half of the state, common projectile points are from Flint Ridge, Ohio, Kanawha Black flint Mount Carbon outcrops, Hughes River Flint, and Goose Creek outcrop in Ritchie County according to Mr Cox, The Ritchie Gazette, 1979. Historian, Captain William A. Cox, Jr. described the Hughes River Flint outcrop as "twelve to fifteen feet thick, where best developed. . . The color varies from light, almost milky white, to buff, to grayish black." Kanawha Black flint ranges from Gauley Mountain near Kanawha Falls through down stream tributaries to Charlestown. In the Bluestone Lake area, woodland projectiles of red chert came from Mid-Atlantic states or The Carolinas outcrops.
It is legal to dig for "arrow heads" on one's own private property. However, for any suspected human bone find, one must stop digging and report the questionable bone to the county sheriff in West Virginia.[70] and to amend and reenact §37-13A-5 This lawful department will notify the appropriate people for you. For hobbyist considerations, recorded details and location photos of the find increases value if not to the scientific community. The Council for West Virginia Archaeology (CWVA) and the West Virginia Archeology Society (WVAS) offers a list of resources to both formal school and "club" educators. They promote the understanding of our prehistoric heritage. "Since ours is only part of a larger regional picture", CWVA and WVAS have selected some credible Internet resources. Their link can be found in the reference section below.
Upper Ohio Valley Lithic Sources
(Mayer-Oakes, Carnegy Museum)
- Goose Creek outcrop
- Hughes River Flint
- Kanawha Flint
- Slade (aka Newman) Southwest to East in Kentucky
Bedrock chert along the both sides of the Upper Ohio Valley to the Big Sandy River's lower stream region is called:
- Brush Creek
Bedrock chert from counties surrounding Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania include:
- Loyalhanna
- Monongahela
- Uniontown
- Ten Mile
Stream cobble cherts of north eastern Ohio and western most Pennsylvania along Lake Erie (Alluvial cherts) include:
- Onondaga, Secondary to Ohio Valley
- Gull River, Secondary to Ohio Valley
Exotic to Upper Ohio Valley types include:
- Upper Mercer, counties of Coshocton, Ohio area
- Flint Ridge (Vanport cherts) southeast of Upper Mercer
- Delaware chert Franklin County, Ohio area, common west of the Scioto River. ASC Group, Inc. Ohio Valley Archaeological Consultants, Ltd.
Stone walls and petroglyph
Nearly every county have rather large stones with Native American art pictured or Petroglyphs. Most are on Homocline out-crops and boulders over looking stream valleys or are engraved on creek bed boulder's sides and some top-side, a variety. Below the mouth of Paint creek was a large "flat sided" stone embedded in the river the early settlers called the "picture rock" with many animals and a person engraved on it. Stone cutters used it for 19th century foundation construction. Another reported stream-bed stone, twenty miles above Charleston, had a notable large fish engraved of which stone received a similar fate as "picture rock". Near the mouth of Campbell's creek a large stream-bed stone with Petroglyphs was cut for making a hearth, it is recorded. A portion of this "picture rock" still remains.
It is not only many Petroglyph boulders that have been quarried and removed for building purposes in the state. Alfred Beckley made a drawing and measured an enclosed stone wall with entrances in 1836 he found on Big Beaver creek near Beckley at the town of Blue Jay, 46RG1. Growing from the semi-enclosure walls were a few trees. One pine was measured to be over three feet in diameter as recorded by Beckley. It has more often been described as a "fort" wall. A few folk guess it as a holding lot and still others an early Spanish prospector's seasonal encampment. The site did not receive the benefit of modern science other than the discoverer's foresighted efforts. Mr Beckley's report was published by Craig's "Olden Times" magazine which was in circulation from 1838-1840 at Pittsburgh.[71] It is reported the Blue Jay Lumber Company used the stone for an office building still standing. There are also reports of Native American laying low and small stone jetties in creeks for following fish into these for easier gigging.
Below the mouth of Loup Creek was a salt spring and was a noted "buffalo lick." On the ridge above it is the remains of a stone wall with gaps running along the ridge line. Around these gaps great quantities of elk, deer, bear and other bones were and are still found today. The 19th century Dr. Thomas S. Buster, a some five decades resident of Fayette County then, wrote of the ancient wall lying immediately above Armstrong's Creek, Mount Carbon Stone Walls Site (46-Fa-1).[72] He describes it about one hundred yards from the top of the mountain to Loup Creek, near the Big Falls, "When I first saw it, fifty-eight years ago, it was in a much better state of preservation than it now is. At that time a large portion of it was standing fully six or seven feet high, and was well built. Its thickness was about two feet at the base, and slightly tapered towards the top. There were a number of gates, or openings, in the wall, that are quite perceptible even at this time. They were, however, very plainly perceivable a half century ago. From the number of stones promiscuously scattered in the vicinity of the wall, my impression is that it was originally greater than seven or even eight feet in height." This wall was nearly three and a-half miles long. Some have suspected it was nearly 10 miles long connected and having short branching elements also connected. Parts of some examples of these walls have been damaged during the 20th century. Immediately above the mouth of Paint creek on the Kanawha River, a similar stone wall was nearly five feet wide at some locations. This example was only about a-half mile in length, but had higher walls of nearly ten feet high.[73] A long held theory has watering and salt licking animals driven to the wall's gaps where waiting hunters had an advantage over the "herded" game. On bottom land near Mount Carbon, excavations of the 1961-1962 dated back to about the 6th century (AD) and other dates to the 16th century Fort Ancient occupation. The nearby Robson Mound was reported to be a stone and earthen mound of about fifty five feet high before fortune hunters reduced it to a couple of feet long before modern science arrived. The nearby Dempsey Mound in Fayette County, along Laurel Creek, also was reduced before modern science arrived. Beards Fork Petroglyphs are a few miles away. The site at Alloy in Fayette County, 46FA189, is a Woodland occupation site.
From the state's Native American oratory an interpretation of these sites is suggested. The watershed springs near flint outcrops having archaeological sites are interpreted as having spiritual significance being portals to other spiritual dimensions like the Underworld (Gage 2009:IV.). The outcrops were interpreted as the place of the “Flint Spirit.” The spirits of Native American travelers on the river and the spirit of the river also held a religious significance. Collectively of stone walls and rock piles or cairns near archaeological sites, "the evidence begins to suggest these sites are part of a regional phenomenon", Gage 2009:V. The locations include: Paint Creek Stone Wall, Rush Creek Wall, Raleigh County WV Wall Site (Unverified), Omar, Logan County, WV (Unverified), and other more stone cairns throughout the Kanawha Region (Inghram, Olafson, & McMichael, 1961).
Ceramic industry
Photographs by Roland Barnett.
Late Archaic component at the Burning Spring Branch Site (46KA142) on the lower Kanawha Valley, "transition from imported steatite bowls to locally made sandstone bowls and finally Early Woodland pottery and is an example of Late Archaic technology transfer. Steatite is not found in the local area. The closest sources are in Virginia. A few steatite bowls have been found at the Burning Spring Branch site and other sites along the Kanawha River. These were rapidly replaced by bowls made of local sandstone. The general shapes and sizes of the bowls are identical to the shapes and sizes of steatite bowls from Virginia." [74] The local introduction of ceramics and their cultural-temporal relationship to sandstone and steatite bowls to Fayette Thick ceramics at Coco Station (46Ka294) preliminary examination suggests the deposits date primarily from c. 1200 to 800/700 BC (Anslinger 2003:abstract)
The earliest ceramics of the region's Woodland Culture is called the Half-Moon Ware. Studies of late at Winfield Locks Site (46PU4), Half-Moon Cordmarked variant is a new provisional Early Woodland (1500-400 BC) ceramic series (Niquette and all[75]). Jonathan P. Kerr writes, "Traditionally, archeologists distinguish the Woodland period from the preceding Archaic by the appearance of cord-marked or fabric-marked pottery, the construction of burial mounds and other earthworks and the rudimentary practice of agriculture (Willey 1966:267)." [30]
Johnson Plain and Levissa Cordmarked are Early Middle Woodland ware from the Adena Phase of the Scioto Tradition in Ohio. These are similar to Peters ceramics and considered ancestors of the Middle Woodland wares of the Scioto Tradition from certain Ohio Adena sites (Prufer and McKenzie, 1965). Two variants of the Adena ceramics in the Ohio Valley are the Fayette Thick and Adena Plain.
Watson ceramic pottery appear during the end of the Middle Woodland period, ca. AD 100 – AD 800. Exterior surface finishes are either cord-marked, plain, and rarily decorated incised towards the eastern area. It is often more to smoothed surface. This type of ceramic post-dates Classic Adena occupations on the upper Ohio River Valley. Watson immediately precedes the Page ceramic components in West Virginia. Watson ceramics are also found on the upper reaches of the Potomac River Valley in western most Maryland, West Virginia, ranging to eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania, otherwise over a large area in the upper Ohio River Valley. (Type Site, Watson 46HK34, Maryland sites with Watson components Mexico Farms (18AG167) ref. Dragoo 1956; Mayer-Oakes 1955; Wall 1993a, 1993b) Radiocarbon date; Adell, West Virginia (46GT67) Radiocarbon Dates 1270 + 60; AD 625-980; intercepts @ AD 720,745,760 Sample #Beta-51491 Wall 1993a. Radiocarbon date; Mexico Farms (18AG167) Radiocarbon Dates 1620 + 170; AD 50? – 710, intercept @ AD 420, Sample #Beta-42753, Feature 1a, Wall 1993a, 1993b. The Watson sherds are of no ceramics of the Hopewellian Series (Prufer & McKenzie, The Ohio Journal of Science 66(3): 246, May, 1966).
Mahoning Plain and Cordmarked Pottery(Mayer-Oakes’ 1955:192-195) type description includes three main types that date to the Middle-Late Woodland: Mahoning cordmarked, Mahoning plain, and Mahoning incised (MacDonald 2000b). A coil method, using crushed igneous rock (e.g., granite) or quartz temper are called Monongahela cordmarked and Mahoning incised. Mahoning incised is more common on the Ohio Valley. Mahoning cordmarked decoration was crafted on the lip area. It may also be notched or impressed. A few sherds have shown evidence of fabric impressions. The rim is slightly flared and sometimes found folded. Decoration is confined along the rim to the necks . Mahoning ware "seems to occur on sites which are Middle Woodland or Hopewellian" (Mayer-Oakes 1955:193).
Peters Cordmarked and Peters Plain ceramics pre-dates the Fort Ancient Tradition in southern Ohio. The Peters Phase of the Scioto Tradition is of Late Woodland in southern Ohio. The pottery surface color ranges from orange-buff to medium dark grey. Quoting the abstract in citation, "Cordmarking covers the entire body in every case up to the lip. Cordmarking is always vertical. Two kinds of cordmarking can be distinguished: impressions that are entirely unsmoothed, and coarse markings that are slightly smoothed. The former is invariably densely spaced and fine, the latter broadly spaced and wide... Rims are straight, occasionally marked with deep punctates, roughly rectangular... Lips are flattened." The temper is mixed coarse consisting of angular fragments or small split pebbles of chert and diverse rocks. Flint and chert chippage is common. Dr. McMichael, State Archeologist of WV at the time, provided Armstrong Indian and Buck Garden Indian ceramic samples for Peter's Cave comparison. There was similarity to the Late Woodland nearby in West Virginia. To continue, "Peters Cordmarked post-dates the Hopewellian Phase of the Scioto Tradition. On the other hand, this pottery type is obviously related to McGraw Cordmarked of that phase. We (Prufer & McKenzie) consider it a lineal descendent of that type." [76]
Armstrong focus (AD 1~500) leading characteristics are being thin and tempered with particles of clay similar in color to the Peters ceramics, an oxidized color. They can have simi-pointed or flat bottoms and are generally large (Michael 1968:26); see Peters Cordmarked and Peters Plain.
Buck Garden focus (AD 500~1200), crushed rock of flint or sandstone tempered; cord marked and occasional paddle edge decoratons. It is similar to Armstrong with less variation in shape and size. (McMichael 1968:27).
Connestee focus (AD 200-950) western North Carolina, Sand tempered; plain, simple stamped, brushed (Wetmore 2002).
Hamilton focus (AD 600-900) eastern Tennessee, Limestone tempered; plain, cordmarked (and smoothed), incised, and punctated (Lewis and Kneberg 1946; Schroedl and Boyd 1991; Wetmore 2002).
Pisgah pottery (AD 1000-1450) tempering was with fine river sand, finely broken pottery and crushed quartz. Shell temper pottery was very rare. Pisgah Phase pottery has no animal effigy forms nor tripod feet as found farther south and west. It is characterized as a zenith of a Mississippian influence in eastern Tennessee and adjoining area (period, Ward and Davis 1999:160; Geier 1992:284–285; Dickens 1976:211; Purrington 1983:145–147). This phase represents specialized use of uplands which increased and sedentism is evident.[77]
Parkline pottery (ca. AD 750~1000) is found from the Cincinnati area through the Middle Ohio Valley.[78] It attributes are grit tempered pottery with folded rim strips, cordwrapped paddle edge impressions placed on vessel collars and lip notching and/or cord wrapped dowel impressions.[79]
Page pottery dates from ca. AD 900 – 1450 western Piedmont Plateau region and west through the Great Valley, Ridge and Valley, and Appalachian Plateau regions of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. Page Cord-marked ware has limestone-temper material. Somerset phase ceramics are similar to Page ceramics of the upper Potomac River Valley. Somerset ceramics Type Site is based on the Pennsylvania Keyser Farm site (44PA1). Maryland sites with Page components include Nolands Ferry (18FR17)*, Mason Island (18MO13)*, Cresaptown (18AG119), Barton (18AG3), Sang Run (918GA22)*, Friendsville (18GA23)* (* collections at MAC Lab). The distribution of diagnostic Page Cordmarked Rims center of distribution is in the Huffman Phase on the James River drainage of and westerly of the Blue Ridge Mountains, otherwise, from the eastern slopes of the Allegheny Mountains through central Virginia, "diagnostic distribution".
Drew pottery (900~1350 CE) has a high percentage of plane ware and some with unique neck decorations. The latter has "parallel trailed elements as well as multiple motifs of lip appendages," according Richard George. This pottery's characteristics are slightly rounded bottoms rather than the tear-drop shape. The late Dr. Richard L. George, Society for Pennsylvania Archaeology, liken this pottery shape to a "bean pot." Drew is of an earlier phase of Monongahelan of northern West Virginia and south western Pennsylvania area. As suggested earlier by George, ongoing research projects evidence of Drew is increasingly seen as a separate culture (Johnson & Speedy 2009).
Monongahela Cordmarked, Plain, and Incised pottery is found to be tempered with crushed shell. They used a coiling technique with malleation, tapping, by paddle and anvil. A cord-wrapped paddle was made to create the Cordmarkings. Interiors are smoothed and are plain or cordmarked with some smoothing. Decorations are found near the lip and adjacent lower rim. Monongahela Incised has the addition of incised parallel or rectilinear lines. The Worley village Complex (46Mg23) dates to about 900 CE (WVAS). Monongahela ceramics begin with an early grit or limestone tempered group.[80]
Madisonville Series (1200-1500 AD) ceramics are associated with the Middle Ohio Valley and its tributaries with Fort Ancient Tradition. It is of the greater Cincinnati area. Like the other Fort Ancient variants, this often very pretty pottery is crushed shell tempered, a material similar to the later, contemporaneous period of their neighboring Monongahelan Culture pottery of the Upper Ohio Valley tributaries. The number of Madisonville artifacts discovered over the past century and one half numbers close to one million. This type of culturally unique ceramics being firstly, the early archaeologists would not be aware of following discoveries, ofcoarse.
Anderson pottery (1100 to 1400 AD) is typical shell tempered of the Fort Ancient Tradition in the Miami rivers drainage system in western Ohio. This area adjoins north of the Madisonville series generally west of Columbus and throughout the Dayton area.
Baum Cord-marked pottery (begins ~900 AD) of early Fort Ancient Tradition is a little preceding and neighboring up Ohio River to Feurt. Its location is Hocking River area and just to the east of Anderson. It has its roots in Late Woodland ceramics of the upper half of the Ohio Valley.
Feurt-incised pottery (begins ~1100 AD) of the Fort Ancient Tradition appear along today's Ohio and West Virginia state bordering shores using white shell tempering with its decorated incised oblique lines.[81] It ranges from the lower Scioto and Guyandotte rivers and upstream to the lower Muskingum and Little Kanawha rivers area central to the 'Mouth of the Great Kanawha River' greater area.
Cordage Twist impressed pottery decoration is found at Monongahelan and Fort Ancient sites of both shell tempered pottery and some limestone tempered (Peterson Table 5.2 1996-08:92; Maslowski 1973, 1978a, 1980, 1984a: Cordage Twist and Ethnicity). Middle and Late Woodland coradge twist in the state is among several more other earlier pottery finish types and more north-westerly S-twist cordage. Higher amounts of Z-twist is found at 7 sites in the W central of the state, or about half the amount increasingly to follow (Peterson fig. 5.2). By the Late Prehistoric and Protohistoric, the Z-Twist shows more predominant on the Peterson map 5.1 in the southern half West Virginia 14 sites with 70-100% and remaining 0-30% S-Twist Cordage. Gnagey village (SW Pa, 36SO55 CE 1000-1100 Monongahela, limestone) has 98% z-Twist (196 items) and 2% s-Twist (4 items), (George 1983:29). At the mouth of the Great Kanawha, Lewis Farm (46Ms57 CE 1300 Feurt, shell), and upstream on the ebbing water at Marmet village (46Ka9 CE 1600 Clover, shell), both were excavated having 100% Z-Twist Cordage. These two cordage methods in the region, Z and S twist, dates from CE 1000~1640, ending with Rolfe Lee #1 46Ms51 Clover, shell 87.7 Z-twist, 7% S-Twist (remainder non-in situ) and Rolfe Lee #2 46Ms123 Clover, shell 92% Z-Twist and 8% S-Twist (Maslowski 1984b).
The direction of the cord spin twist wrapped on the paddle is either S- left to right or Z- right to left. The type appears in E Virginia earlier (mix of twist pre 200 AD),[82] and through to Vermont (Haviland and Power 1994:121) after the end of the Middle Woodland period about CE 800 (Johnson and Speedy 1992, Petersen 1996:148). During the Sponemann phase (A.D. 750-800), Sponemann Site is the type site for non-American Bottom migrants making a high amount of Z-Twist pottery using chert for temper. These non-residents are a significant influx into the area with the first significant evidence for maize before the occurrence of the cities of Cahokia people.[83] The other dominant phase in the region of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers confluence is the Patrick Phase. These people existed from 1350-1150 BP. Like Sponemann people, they were more complex than bands, but, less complex than chiefdoms and the indicators are not present that would show a ranking and stratification society (Peregrine and Ember 2001:260[84]). Patrick Phase pottery is marked predominately with S-twist cordage (Richards, Simon and King, University of Illinois, Nov 18, 2010). The Z-twist percentage amount increases from late Protohistoric to CE 1700 found in the Dan River Phase in upper North Carolina.[85]
Cordage twist, as a learned motor skill and as an element of decoration changes not so quickly nor easily as supporting evidence is found at Virginia sites (Hayden 2009:44). Sites with mixed proportions of final S- and final Z-twist might exist as boundary settlements and may have more opportunity to interact with neighboring and yet culturally different groups (Carr and Maslowski 1995; McLearen and Mouer 1989; Hayden 2009:45).
Corncob-Impressed Pottery at Late Prehistoric Sites in West Virginia Because of very recent field research results, quoting "A significant percentage of the assemblage (Recent excavations at Burning Spring Branch 46Ka142) exhibited corncob impressing similar to that found in southwestern Virginia. A study of pottery from other sites in West Virginia determined that the use of this previously unrecognized surface treatment was extensive. This discovery adds weight to the argument that Siouan groups migrated through West Virginia and may have inhabited the Kanawha Valley. It also suggests that further research is needed to determine associations between the precontact inhabitants of the Kanawha Valley and those in southwestern Virginia and the Ohio Valley." Darla Spencer, RPA, Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc. 2008 West Virginia Archeological Society Annual Meeting.
Orchard Pottery appear after AD 1550~1600 (McMichael 1968:45; Spencer 2010:e-WV). It is shell tempered having emboss figures before firing. These are more often lizards placed between the rope lugs around the rim. There was no painting. They are sophisticated and considered funeral ware often found intact. This pottery is considered to be a late manifestation from a religious cult of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (McMichael). Coming from contemporary Europe contact region(s), these arriving people or this style development of acculturation is not considered in situ.
There are no clearly Classic Mississippian culture pottery found in West Virginia. A nearest pure Mississippian archeological site is located near Evansville, Indiana just below the Louisville Falls according to several regional societies, particularly referencing the Ohio Historical Society observations. These refined definitions are based on the latest modern tools and field science studies within the region which tends to obsolete publications of earlier decades based on older work from neighboring regions. Within the greater Mississippi Culture, the Plaquemine culture used shell for tempering on their round vessels with some having narrow necks that were engraved after firing as early as perhaps 700 AD.
A very early Fort Ancient village on the Ohio River at Wood County (46WD1) dated to AD 891 and again to AD 973 (Graybill 1987). The Feurt ceramics and neighboring Baum ceramics adjoining Baldwin phases and nearby Monongahelan ceramics are contemporaneous with the easterly Page pottery people of the border region of the Virginias from the Alleghenian mountain's divide. Watson ceramics period precede all of these in the upper Ohio Valley and into the Potomac Highlands. These ceramics are considered in situ, otherwise, a progressing of the Indigenous peoples.
Mid-Atlantic ceramics list
A partial list of Mid-Atlantic States Ceramics follows:
- Accokeek pottery dates from c. 900 BC – 300 BC throughout the Coastal Plain of Maryland and into Virginia to the James River. (Type Site Accokeek Creek 18PR8 ref. Egloff and Potter 1982; McLearen 1991b; Mouer 1991; Stephenson et al. 1963)
- Clemson Island pottery dates from ca. AD 800 – 1400 of Great Valley (upper Potomac River tributaries), Ridge and Valley regions of Maryland, central Pennsylvania, Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia and north-western Virginia.
- Keyser is shell-temered Cord-marked pottery pottery which dates from ca. AD 1400–1550 throughout the Piedmont, Great Valley, and Ridge and Valley regions of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. (Type Site, Clemson Island ref. Garrahan 1990; Hatch 1980; Kavanagh 1984; McCann 1971; Prezzano 1992; Stewart 1982; Wall 1992)
- Marcey Creek pottery dates from c. 1000 BC – 750 BC (Stewart 1982:74);1200 BC – 800 BC (Egloff and Potter 1982:97) throughout the Coastal Plain and Piedmont Regions, from Delaware south to the James River in Virginia. (Type Site, Marcey Creek site ref Ayers 1972; Egloff and Potter 1982; Manson 1948; Stephenson et al.1963; Wall et al. 2000; Wise 1975.)
- Schultz pottery dating to ca. AD 1600 has incised decoration, usually in triangular or diamond shaped patterns. These are found in western Maryland, south western Pennsylvania, Potomac Highlands of West Virginia and north western Virginia. Kent, "Susquehanna's Indians" (revised 2001), examined detailed ceramic descriptions of pre-Contact Susquehannock sequence.
- Selden Island pottery dates from c. 1000 BC – 750 BC Virginia to Delaware and southeastern Pennsylvania, throughout the Maryland Coastal Plain and Piedmont. (Type Site, Selden Island 18MO20 ref. Artusy 1976; Egloff and Potter 1982; Evans 1955; Manson 1948; Slattery 1946; Wise 1975)
- Shepard pottery dates from ca. AD 900 – 1450 throughout the Piedmont and Great Valley regions of Maryland, and rarely in the western Coastal Plain (Chesapeake Bay). (Type Site, Shepard Site 18MO3, Maryland sites with Shephard components Biggs Ford (18FR14)*, Devilbiss (18FR38)*, Rosenstock (18FR18)*, Shepard (18MO3), Hughes (18MO1)*, Winslow (18MO9) *collections at the MAC Lab. Curry and Kavanagh 1991; Griffith 1981; MacCord et al. 1955; Schmitt 1952; Slattery and Woodward 1992; Stephenson et al. 1963)
- Townsend ceramics are of the Shores of Maryland and Eastern Shores of Virginia (Hughes, 1980; Davidson, 1982a; and Wittkovski, 1982a Virginia) of the Late Woodland, Slaighter Creek Complex. Blaker, in 1963, defined this Delmarva Peninsula pottery as shell tempered, fabric impressed, conoidal with various incised and corded motifs (Custer, 1986)[86] Townsend wares date from ca. AD 950 – 1600.(MAC)
- Vinette pottery dates from c. 600 BC – AD 200 east coast from New England to Maryland and west to central New York and the Ottawa valley of eastern Ontario, primarily in rockshelter and in surface collections in Maryland (Gross 1972; Stewart 1981). (Type Site, Vinette Site, northeast of Finger Lakes, New York. ref. Gross 1972; Ritchie and MacNeish 1949; Ritchie 1944; Stewart 1981; Spence et al. 1990; Wall 1992. Maryland sites with Vinette components Chickadee Rock Shelter (18WA13), Bushey's Cavern (18WA18); Barton Complex (18AG3, 18AG8) nor radiocarbon dates in Maryland.
- Washington Boro pottery (ca. AD 1615–1630) has stylized face effigies on the castellations. These are found in western Maryland, south western Pennsylvania, Potomac Highlands of West Virginia and north western Virginia.[87] This ceramic type is of the late Susquehannock sequence on the upper Potomac Valley (Kent 2001).[88]).
County sites
Today, commercial complexes and highway construction sites require a geological and archaeological survey (industrial archeology and bioanthropology) before building can begin. Archaeologists and anthropologists identify the state's investigative "dig sites" using a standardized nomenclature. The first element of this system is the state's National "ID" number which for West Virginia is "46". The second element is the county in which the site is located, an abbreviation. For example, the 1st site in Mingo County is site 46MO1, Cotiga Mound, listing a Woodland burial mound dating to 1400 BC on the Tug Fork of the Big Sandy River. Another example, Marshall County's site number seven is an Adena Culture mound (1735 BC) called Cresap Mound, 46MR7. Burning Spring Branch site #142 in Kanawha County would be(46KA142), a site listed as having a multiple occupation of a Fort Ancient Village and a historic stratum. The U.S. Army Corp of Engineers also provide their required work in abstract to the public such as that on the 'Archeology of the Great Kanawha Navigation' .[89]
The following short list of more studied sites are examples of abstract site's name, their code and period kind: Childers 46MS121 Woodland/Newton, Watson 46HK34 Woodland/Watson, Fairchance 46MR13 Woodland/Fairchance, "x" ("x" = no given name) 46CB41 Woodland/Woods, Niebert 46MS103 Woodland/Woods, Woods 46MS14 Woodland/Woods, Cash Farm 46PPU79 Woodland, Weed Shelter 46CB 56 Woodland, Alloy 46FA189 Woodland, Jarvis Farm 46KA105 Woodland, Reed WV 46KA166 Woodland, Big Run 46WD53 Woodland, Muskingum Is. 46WD61 Woodland, "x" 46PU99 Woodland, Buck Garden 46NI49 Woodland (?46N149 multi-level component), Morrison Shelter 46NI8 Woodland (?46N18 multi-level component), Green Sulphur 46SU67/72 Woodland and "x" 46PU4 Woodland.
As of 2008, the county amount of archaeological sites listed: Barbour=18, Berkeley=95, Boone=122, Braxton=63, Brooke=57, Cabell=139, Calhoun=3, Clay=6, Doddridge=9, Fayette=202, Gilmer=10, Grant=110, Greenbrier=95, Hampshire=75, Hancock=44, Hardy=190, Harrison=7, Jackson=80, Jefferson=201, Kanawha=260, Lewis=25,Lincoln=17, Logan=52, McDowell=7, Marion=19, Marshall=102, Mason=176, Mercer=8, Mineral=42, Mingo=26, Monongalia=89, Monroe=152, Morgan=121, Nicholas=124, Ohio=159, Pendleton=96, Pleasants=43, Pocahontas=62, Preston=28, Putnam=147, Raleigh=137, Randolph=142, Ritchie=28, Roane=32, Summers=539, Taylor=14, Tucker=41, Tyler=10, Upshur=267, Wayne=101, Webster=16, 103,Wetzel=42, Wirt=13, Wood=155, Wyoming=29 sites.Summary
Doctor Smith (1992) suggests plants already "naturally" occurring on flood plains and their life cycle were being intervened by human by c. 5000 to 3000 B.P.. To quote Harris (1997),"farming is defined as a system of agricultural crop production that employs systematic soil preparation and tillage." Yerkes (2000) observed that Hopewell tradition utilized sumpweed, sunflower, chenopodium, knotweed and maygrass which were likely domesticated hundreds of years before, but, lacked true farming stone tools. The extent as true farmers in this region is still in debate. The Eastern Agricultural Complex (EAC) included gourds, squash, marshelder, sunflower, maygrass, erect knotweed, and goosefoot (Chenopodium). The increase in caries in teeth can be accounted for by an increased reliance on maize-- simple carbohydrates in the diet (Sciulli 1997). "Maize (corn) did not make a substantial contribution to the diet until after 1150 B.P.", to quote Mills (2003). The region's Fort Ancient included definable farming stone tools and domesticated the cereal, goosefoot (Wymer 1992) which will include their upper Ohio River tributaries neighbor and sister culture, the Monongahela Culture.
In 1750-51, Christopher Gist writes as he records the Allegheny Plateau, "All the Way from Licking Creek to this Place is fine rich level Land, with large Meadows, fine Clover Bottoms & spacious Plains covered with wild Rye: the Wood chiefly large Walnuts and Hickories, here and there mixed with Poplars Cherry Trees and Sugar Trees...this Night it snowed, and in the Morning tho the Snow was six or seven Inches deep; the wild Rye appeared very green and flourishing thro it, and our Horses had fine Feeding." The area also has small wild onions, small finger sized carrots, a wild sweet potato and small strawberry, among wild spices, all still here to be seen as documented in the forgotten from hundreds of years ago. The local Indians were not only making "corn bread", but, also "flat rye bread" called "banick" coming out of the protohistoric. Archaeologists (WVAS 1949, Apr), within the region, related earlier observation in the state, "also observed by the pioneers, the so called 'forts' composed of raised embankments arranged in crude circular, rectangles, and octagons, often connected by passageways; evidence of long-abandoned village sites were also noted and were frequently mentioned and shown on early maps as "Indian old fields."
In summary to quote Dr. Robert F. Maslowski, "The Adena Indians used pipes for ceremonies. They were carved of stone and they were exceptional works of art. Pipes and the smoking of tobacco became more common during the Late Prehistoric period. They were often made of clay and rather plain." "Nothing is known about Paleo-Indian and Archaic houses in the Kanawha Valley, but archeologists have found evidence of Woodland and Fort Ancient houses." "Woodland Indians lived in wigwams...The Woodland Indians grew sunflowers, gourds, squash and several seeds such as lambsquarter, may grass, sumpweed, smartweed and little barley." "Fort Ancient Indians lived in much larger square or rectangular houses...The Fort Ancient Indians can be considered true farmers. They cultivated large agricultural fields around their villages. They no longer grew such a variety of seeds but concentrated on growing corn, beans, sunflowers, gourds and many types of squash including the pumpkin. They also grew domestic Turkey (bird)s and kept dogs as pets."
Today, Wayne Gray Owl Appleton, Ph.D., West Virginia Division of Culture and History, summarizes Native American in West Virginia, "The contemporary community includes longtime residents who are finding new pride in their native heritage, and Native Americans who are newcomers to this area and who represent the pan-Indian community. The Native American community has struggled with oppression, imposed disruption, and insecurity since the arrival of European settlers in West Virginia. According to newspaper reports, individuals were being shipped away to Oklahoma reservations as late as the 1950s. Until 1965, it was considered technically illegal for a Native American to own property in West Virginia, though this law was seldom enforced. In spite of these hardships, vestiges of communities survived and their heritage is re-emerging with renewed pride."
See also: Archaeological theory, Behavioral archaeology, Environmental determinism, Hypothetico-deductive model, Post-processual archaeology, and Processual archaeology (New Archaeology).
Notes
- ^ The West Virginia Statewide, Historic Preservation Plan 2009-2014, West Virginia Division of Culture and History
- ^ "Mounds For The Dead" by Prof Dragoo Vol #37 Carnegy 1963 (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)
- ^ Abstract: Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear use, by Erik Trinkaus, Department of Anthropology, Campus Box 1114, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA [1] (12/01/09) Article: Protective footwear started nearly 30,000 years ago, research finds, by Neil Schoenherr, Washington University in St. Louis News & Information, Aug. 17, 2005 [2]
- ^ Gibbard, P. and van Kolfschoten, T. (2004) "The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs" Chapter 22:2.96. Editors: Gibbard, P. and van Kolfschoten, T. (2004) In Editors, A Geologic Time Scale 2004 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 0521781426 [3]
- ^ Idaho State University (ISU), Emergence of People in North America, The Digital Atlas of Idaho Project (DAI), interactive Atlas of Idaho, with links to the Idaho Geological Survey (IGS) and Idaho State University (ISU) College of Education Web Sites. [4] (11/24/2010).
- ^ Ogg, J.G., and Gradstein, F.M. et. al. International Commission on Stratigraphy, International Stratigraphic Chart, (2004; Cambridge University Press) and “The Concise Geologic Time Scale” [5] 2008. (ret 11/25/2010)
- ^ Hanson, Micahel C., GeoFacts, Ohio Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey, 1995.
- ^ Peter J Coney (1970). "The Geotectonic Cycle and the New Global Tectonics" . Geological Society of America Bulletin 81 (3): 739–748. Abstract: "Mountain complexes result from irregular successions of tectonic responses due to sea-floor spreading, shifting lithosphere plates, transform faults, and colliding, coupled, and uncoupled continental margins."
- ^ Robert B. Jacobson, Donald P. Elston and John W. Heaton, Stratigraphy and magnetic polarity of the high terrace remnants in the upper Ohio and Monongahela Rivers in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. U.S. Geological Survey, Received 23 February 1987. Available online 19 November 2004.
- ^ Geofacts, Ohio Dept of Natural Resources, Division of Geology, Bul. No 10
- ^ WHITE, GEORGE WILLARD, Pleistocene deposits of the north-western Allegheny Plateau, U.S.A, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society; 1968; v. 124; issue.1-4; p. 131-149; DOI: 10.1144/gsjgs.124.1.0131 © 1968 Journal of the Geological Society, London, Legacy
- ^ Glaciation of Wisconsin, Lee Clayton, John W. Attig, David M. Mickelson, Mark D. Johnson, and Kent M. Syverson, University of Wisconsin, Dept. of Geology
- ^ Jürgen Ehlers, Philip Leonard Gibbard, Quaternary glaciations: extent and chronology, Volume 2, Elsevier, 2004:237.
- ^ a b Lee Clayton, John W. Attig, David M. Mickelson, Mark D. Johnson, and Kent M. Syverson, Glaciation of Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin, Dept. of Geology.
- ^ University of Wisconsin Aquatic Sciences Center 2008; The Allegheny Mountains have no volcanic peaks. It was formed by an Orogeny effect of the North American Plate.; Peter J Coney (1970). "The Geotectonic Cycle and the New Global Tectonics" . Geological Society of America Bulletin 81 (3): 739–748. Abstract: "Mountain complexes result from irregular successions of tectonic responses due to sea-floor spreading, shifting lithosphere plates, transform faults, and colliding, coupled, and uncoupled continental margins."; Ohio Division of Geological Survey, 1998.[6].
- ^ CWVA [7] (ret. 11-25-2010).
- ^ a b Totten, S.M. "Chronology and Nature of the Pleistocene Beaches and Wave-Cut Cliffs and Terraces, Northeastern Ohio." Quaternary Evolution of the Great Lakes. Ed. PF Karrow and PE Calkin. Geological Association of Canada: Canada. 1985.
- ^ Hasia Diner, Immigration and U.S. History, 13 February 2008, State Department’s Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), [8](ret. 26 Aug 2010)
- ^ Climate, Culture, and Catastrophe in the Ancient World 2010, online
- ^ Lepper, Bradley T., 'Ohio Archaeology: An Illustrated Chronicle of Ohio's Ancient American Indian Cultures' , Wilmington, Ohio, Orange Frazer Press, © 2005
- ^ Citation: "Whittlesey Culture", Ohio History Central, July 1, 2005, [9]
- ^ Mollenkopf, Jim, ‘The Great Black Swamp II’ , © 2000 Lake of the Cat Publishing, Toledo, Ohio, P.37
- ^ Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Avella, Pennsylvania by Mark McConaughy, 14 January 1999 [10] (ret. 12/02/09)
- ^ MEADOWCROFT ROCKSHELTER 36WH297, NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK NOMINATION, Meadowcroft Rockshelter Registration Form (Rev. 8-86) OMB No. 1024-0018 [11]
- ^ Plano Culture, Ohio Historical Society [12] (9/22/09)
- ^ Mark A. McConaughy, 3 March 2004, Clovis First and Pre-Clovis Meadowcroft Rockshelter Discussion, 2004 National Historic Landmarks nomination for Meadowcroft Rockshelter written by the author. [13]
- ^ Louise M. Robbins and George K. Neumann, 'The Prehistoric People of the Fort Ancient Culture of the Central Ohio Valley' 1972:9-18, 106-108. Anthropological Papers, no. 47. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
- ^ Ohio Historic Preservation Office and the U.S.Department of the Interior's Historic Preservation Fund. Copyright © 2007 Ohio Historical Society, Inc. All rights reserved. [14] (Ret:11/22/09)
- ^ Shannon Tushingham, Jane Hill, Charles H. McNutt, 'Histories of southeastern archaeology'. University of Alabama Press, 2002 - Social Science, including first-person accounts.
- ^ a b 1996-2010 Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc. Prehistory of the Upper Cumberland River Drainage in the Kentucky, Virginia and Tennessee Border Region
- ^ "Stone Age Spear and Arrow Points of the Midcontinental and Eastern United States", by Justice, Noel D., Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1987.
- ^ PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE: A STUDY OF HOUSE TYPES IN THE OHIO VALLEY. THE OHIO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Vol. 71, No.4, July 1971. [15]. (ret. July 19, 2010)
- ^ A LATE WOODLAND HUNTING LOCATION IN SOUTHEASTERN OHIO, ABSTRACT: STACI E. SPERTZEL, ELLIOT M. ABRAMS, ANNCORINNE FRETER, and GREGORY S. SPRINGER, The Pennsylvania Archaeologist Volume 77(1), Spring 2007
- ^ Verbatim, A paper presented the Fifth World Archeology Conference, Washington, D.C., June 2003, Robert F. Maslowski, Archeologist, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (retired)
- ^ David Thier (2010-04-18). "W.Va. Stalagmite Points to Surprising Carbon Footprint". aolnews.com.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters:|month=and|coauthors=(help) - ^ http://www.crai-ky.com/education/reports-available-abstracts.html#report-91-71
- ^ Selected Abstracts From CRAI Reports, Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc
- ^ Graybill 1987
- ^ "Introduction to West Virginia Archeology", by Edward V. McMichael, 2nd Edition Revised, Educational Series West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey, by Paul H. Price Director and State Geologist Morgantown 1968, published by West Virginia Archeological Society, P.O. Box 300, Hurricane WV 25526, attn. C. Michael Anslinger, Pres.
- ^ Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc
- ^ The calibrated age for this date is AD 1160 as determined using the University of Washington's Radiocarbon Calibration Program (Rev. 3.0). The second sample submitted for absolute dating consisted entirely of carbonized Zea Mays. The conventional, C13 adjusted, radiocarbon age assayed was AD 800 +/- 50 B.P. (Beta-72568). The calibrated result (2 sigma, 95% probability) was AD 1170-1290.-- CRAI
- ^ Late Woodland Zea Mays at the Vintroux Site, Putnam County, West Virginia, By Charles M. Niquette and Gary D. Crites, Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc. [16]
- ^ Anna Hayden, thesis, Ceramic Production in Middle Woodland Communities of Practice: A Cordage Twist Analysis in Tidewater Virginia, The College of William and Mary, 2009
- ^ "Claggett Retreat Site (18FR25)", Archeological Society of Maryland, Inc. (ASM) [17] (2/26/10)
- ^ Geier, Clarence R., and J. C. Warren, 1982 The Huffman Site (44BA5): A Late Woodland Site, on the Jackson River, Bath County, Virginia. James Madison, University, Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 9.; Geier, Clarence R, 1985 An Ode to a 1000 Piece Puzzle: The Comparative, Anatomy of Four Early Late Woodland Huffman Phase Ceramic, Assemblages. Quarterly Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Virginia 40(2-3):65-107.
- ^ Maryland Historical Trust – Maryland Commission on Indian Affairs, Working Group on Native American Human Remains, Minutes of the Seventh Meeting, August 6, 2009, "Maryland State statute was written to reflect the treatment of objects in NAGPRA."[18]
- ^ "Commoners, Tribute, and Chiefs: The Development of Algonquian Culture in the Potomac Valley", by Stephen R Potter, Published by University of Virginia Press, 1994, ISBN 9780813915401
- ^ Sullivan, Lynne P., 'Archaeology of the Appalachian highlands,' Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2001 ISBN 1-57233-142-9
- ^ Sean Michael Rafferty, Rob Mann, Smoking and culture: the archaeology of tobacco pipes in eastern North America, Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2004
- ^ "Minority Wares in Maryland, Monongahela and Susquehannock Ceramics, Maryland Archaeological Conservation Lab". Retrieved 2010-02-19..
- ^ Monongahela Chapter of the West Virginia Archaeological Society, The Monongahela Culture [19] 2010.
- ^ Richard L. George, Revisiting the Monongahela Linguistic/Cultural Affiliation Mystery, ABSTRACT, Pennsylvania Archeology Society. Note: where George says "Algonquin," read "Algonquian."
- ^ Ohio Historical Society, 8a Fort Ancient Culture, [20] and video link explaining confusion between the ruins in central Ohio called "Fort Ancient" and its builders vs. the culture called Fort Ancient of the Ohio Valley: [21]
- ^ Osioto, Scioto River is not Shawnee, Albert S. Gatschet, Quawpaw Agency August 27, 1885 [22] (ret. July 28, 2010)
- ^ Abstracts,Annual Meeting of the West Virginia Archeological Society, Saturday, November 1, 2003 [23] (7/11/09)
- ^ "Analysis of Rimsherds from the Snidow Site (46MC1), Mercer County. David N. Fuerst, Department of Anthropology, University of Kentucky, Lexington.
- ^ Darla Spencer, RPA, West Virginia Archeological Society, Council for West Virginia Archaeology and Native American History Council of West Virginia. Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc., Hurricane, WV. Mason County, WV - An Archaeological Treasure:[24]
- ^ Foote Note: Using terminology of "Kentucky Heritage Council, State Historic Preservation Comprehensive Plan Report No. 3", Page 831.
- ^ MITOCHONDRIAL DNA ANALYSIS OF THE OHIO HOPEWELL OF THE HOPEWELL MOUND GROUP. DISSERTATION, Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree. Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University, By Lisa A. Mills, M.A., B.A The Ohio State University 2003, Dissertation Committee: Approved by Dr. Paul Sciulli, Professor William Dancey; Professor D. Andrew Merrwiwther, Advisor; Professor N’omi Greber, Department of Anthropology [25]
- ^ Carmean, Kelli, POINTS IN TIME: ASSESSING A FORT ANCIENT TRIANGULAR PROJECTILE POINT TYPOLOGY Southeastern Archaeology, Winter 2009
- ^ Andrew J. Myers and Malinda Moses Myers, An Examination of Dan River and Related Ceramics from the Stewart (44PK62/2) and Graham-White (44RN21) Sites, 68th Annual Meeting of the Eastern States Archaeological Federation held in Watertown, New York, November 8–11, 2001 [26]
- ^ Hranicky, Wm Jack, 2002:173, Lithic Technology in the Middle Potomac River Valley of Maryland and Virginia, Taylor & Francis US, ISBN 0-306-46794-1
- ^ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2010, July 22). Extreme archaeology: Divers plumb the mysteries of sacred Maya pools. ScienceDaily. Retrieved September 18, 2010, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2010/07/100722102041.htm
- ^ John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, Bruce F. Benz, Histories of maize: multidisciplinary approaches to the prehistory, linguistics, biogeography, domestication, and evolution of maize, Emerald Group Publishing, 2006 ISBN 0123693640, 9780123693648
- ^ Adair, James, The History of American Indians, London: Printed for Edward and Charles Dilly, in the Poultry. MDCCLXXV
- ^ Filson, John, The discovery, settlement, and present state of Kentucky. London : Printed for John Stockdale, Piccadilly, 1793.
- ^ Atkinson, Geo. W., History of Kanawha County, Charleston, pritnted at the office of the West Virginia Journal, 1876
- ^ Lewis, Virgil A, History of West Virginia in Two Parts, Philadelphia, Hubbard Brothers, 1889. The Original Indiana Territory: the Eleventh Amendment to the Federal Constitution, Fifth Annual Meeting of the West Virginia Historical and Antiquarian Society, Charleston, WV, Butler Printing Company, 1895. History of the Battle of Point Pleasant Fought Between White Men and Indians at the Mouth of the Great Kanawha River, Now Point Pleasant, Monday, October 10, 1774, Charleston WV, Tribune Publishing Co., 1909.
- ^ Regional Cherts and Chert Sources, Council for West Virginia Archeology, 4th Annual Spring Workshop, June 15, 2002, Charleston, West Virginia
- ^ Wise, Roger & Karen, West Virginia Archaeological Society, Amendments to WVC 29-1-8A§29-1-8a This is aimed at unmarked cemeteries that are destroyed by coal companies., §37-13-2, §37-13-4, §37-13A-5 of the Code of West Virginia, 1931, to amend and reenact of said code; H. B. 2826 (By Delegates Perdue, Hatfield, Marshall, Caputo and Fragale) [Introduced January 24, 2011; referred to the Committee on the Judiciary.]
- ^ "Beckley USA" (Vol. III), published 1968, page 744
- ^ Gage, Mary and James Gage, Analysis of the Mount Carbon Stone Walls Site (46-Fa-1), Fayette County, WV [27] (2010).
- ^ "Mystery Walls on Armstrong Mountain", West Virginia Hillbilly, December 7, 1989, West Virginia Division of Culture and History
Loup Creek wall, "Trees of all sizes and varieties may be seen growing up through the heaps of loose stones which were once built into the wall. One of these which I particularly noticed was a red oak fully three feet in diameter and not less than four hundred years old. This would indicate that the wall had been abandoned at least that long if not longer. The mystery to be solved is who were the builders of this wall and why was it constructed. William Morris the first permanent settler of the county located in the vicinity of this wall in 1774 and his descendants claim that he was told by the Indians that the wall was there when the latter came into the Valley. It is quite clear to every inquiring mind that the Indians were not its builders but that it was no doubt constructed by the same race that built the mounds and inhabited the territory of the United States for centuries prior to its settlement by the Indians." Quote from George Wesley Atkinson, 1876 (Public Domain), Page 94, "History of Kanawha County: from its organization in 1789 until the present". - ^ Abstract "Great Kanawha", Archeology of the Great Kanawha Navigation, LRH History U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District
- ^ CRAI PUB NO:92-81 PAGES: 375 FIGURES: 98 TABLES: 37 PLATES: 11
- ^ PETERS CAVE: TWO WOODLAND OCCUPATIONS IN ROSS COUNTY, OHIO. Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, Ohio, Abstract by Olaf H. Prufer and Douglas H. Mc Kenzie, Vol. 66 Pg 242 (ret. 11/25/09)
- ^ Purrington, Burton L., Abstract, CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN LATE PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN AN APPALACHIAN NORTH CAROLINA LOCALITY: SOME PRELIMINARY INTERPRETATIONS. Burton L. Purrington. VII(1):51- 61. 1982. Tennessee Anthropologist Abstracts 1976-2000
- ^ Ohio Historical Society
- ^ Niquette and Crites, Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc
- ^ Minority Wares in Maryland, Monongahela and Susquehannock Ceramics, Maryland Archaeological Conservation Lab
- ^ Virtual First Ohioans » Section Eight: The Late Prehistoric Period » 8a Fort Ancient Culture » 8a.11 Fort Ancient Pottery
- ^ Anna Hayden Apr 17 2009, Ceramic Production in Middle Woodland Communities of Practice: A Cordage Twist Analysis in Tidewater Virginia, A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Anthropology from The College of William and Mary. [28]
- ^ Andrew C. Andrew C Fortier, Thomas Maher and Joyce A Williams, The Sponemann Site: The Formative Emergent Mississippian Sponemann Phase Occupations (11-Ms-517). Volume 23. (American Bottom Archaeology) 1992, ISBN 978-0252011139
- ^ Peter Neal Peregrine, Melvin Ember, Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3, 2001
- ^ Andrew J. Myers and Malinda Moses Myers, An Examination of Dan River and Related Ceramics from the Stewart (44PK62/2) and Graham-White (44RN21) Sites, 68th Annual Meeting of the Eastern States Archaeological Federation held in Watertown, New York, November 8–11, 2001
- ^ Late Woodland Cultures of the Middle Atlantic Region, by Jay F. Custer, Edition: illustrated Published by University of Delaware Press, 1986 ISBN 9780874132854
- ^ Maryland Archaeological Conservation Lab, Updated: 02/01/2008 (2008, July 22)
- ^ Virginia Archeologist 39(2): 1-30.
- ^ http://www.lrh.usace.army.mil/about/history/greatkanawha/
References
- Council for West Virginia Archaeology
- West Virginia Archeological Society
- Introduction to West Virginia Archeology, by Edward V. McMichael, 2nd Edition Revised, Educational Series West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey, by Paul H. Price Director and State Geologist Morgantown 1968, published by West Virginia Archeological Society, P.O. Box 300, Huricane WV 25526, attn. C. Michael Anslinger, Pres.
- "The Kanawha Valley and its Prehistoric People" by Dr. Robert F. Maslowski
- "Archeology of the Great Kanawha Navigation" by Robert F. Maslowski, Archeologist, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (retired). A paper presented at the Fifth World Archeology Conference, Washington, D.C., June 2003
A presentation by Dr. Robert Maslowski: "Forensic Archaeology and the MIA Mission in Southeast Asia" - "Mounds for the Dead", Prof Dragoo, Carnegy Vol #37 (1963)
- Patricia M. Landau and D. Gentry Steele, "Why Anthropologists Study Human Remains", (What's the purpose?), Latin American Studies Org. (ret. PDF July 30, 2010)
- Mason County, West Virginia - An Archaeological Treasure by Darla Spencer, RPA, is Secretary/Treasurer of the West Virginia Archeological Society and member of the Council for West Virginia Archaeology. Photos and descriptions.
- "Doing archaeological research on the World Wide Web", A workshop presented at the 1997 Society for America Archaeology Annual Meeting, Nashville TN by W. Fredrick Limp, Center for Advanced Spatial Technologies, University of Arkansas
- "How Science Works - And How It Doesn't" by W. Hunter Lesser, The West Virginia Archeologist Volume 41, Number 1, Spring 1989
- West Virginia Historic Preservation Officer, Department of Culture and History, Cultural Center, Charleston, West Virginia, 25305. Grave Creek Mound Archaeology Complex
- Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc. (CRAI) of Kentucky, West Virginia, Illinois, Rocky Mountain West (Longmont, Colorado), and Ohio
- "Images from Moorefield Village Site 46 Hy 89", a Susquehannock site photos presented by Council for West Virginia Archaeology
- West Virginia Archeological Society, C. Michael Anslinger, and Doctor Sciulli (Ohio University), Upper Panhandle Archaic
- Videos of West Virginia archeology, Division of Culture and History
- "Ghosts of the Mountains", a video of Somerset County Archaeology, Pennsylvania, the working of sites of Monongahela people. Copyright 1997 The Pennsylvania State University
- "A MESSAGE FROM THE PAST" by Robert L. Pyle, © 1983 WV Division of Natural Resources
- West Virginia Archeological Society Annual Meeting 2008
- Guidelines for Phase I, II, and III Archaeological Investigations and Technical Report Preparation, prepared by the West Virginia State Historic Preservation Office, written by Patrick Trader, edited by Joanna Wilson
- Archaeology Videos by region, The Archaeology Channel
^The Golden Antiquity Periods dates are from the Amus Plant on the Kanawha River. The Kanawha Valley Archaeology Society folks provided AEP Power Company the artifact display during construction of the plant. At the plant museum, their explanations are found about the site. The public is encouraged to visit the Amus Plant Museum when near Winfield, West Virginia. Other periods are from Encyclopædia Britannica (1988 Ed.) Note, some dates have been updated to 21st century archaeology results in West Virginia.