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Group 3 element

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Group → 3[note 1]
↓ Period
4 title="Sc, Scandium" style="text-align:center; color:#000000; background-color:#ffc0c0; border:2px solid #6e6e8e; ;"| Scandium crystals
21
Sc
5 title="Y, Yttrium" style="text-align:center; color:#000000; background-color:#ffc0c0; border:2px solid #6e6e8e; ;"| Yttrium crystals
39
Y
6 title="Lu, Lutetium" style="text-align:center; color:#000000; background-color:#ffbfff; border:2px solid #6e6e8e; ;"| Lutetium crystals
71
Lu
7 title="Lr, Lawrencium" style="text-align:center; color:#000000; background-color:#ff99cc; border:2px dotted #6e6e8e; ;"| 103
Lr
Legend
colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; background:Template:Element color/Transition metals;"|Transition metal
colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; background:Template:Element color/Lanthanides;"|Lanthanide
colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; background:Template:Element color/Actinides;"|Actinide
colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border: Template:Element frame/Primordial;" |Primordial element
colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border: Template:Element frame/Synthetic;" |Synthetic

The group 3 elements are a group of chemical elements in the periodic table. This group, like other d-block ones, should contain four elements, but it is not agreed what elements is the group composed of. Scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) are always included, but the later two spaces are usually occupied by lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), or by lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr); less frequently, it is considered the group should be expanded to 30 elements (with lanthanides and actinides included) or contracted to contain only scandium and yttrium. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; however, scandium, yttrium and the lanthanides are sometimes called rare earth metals.

Three group 3 elements occur naturally, scandium, yttrium, and either lanthanum or lutetium. Lanthanum continues the trend started by two lighter members in general chemical behavior, while lutetium behaves more similar to yttrium; the trend for period 6 transition metals to behave more similar to its higher periodic table neighbor is also seen in lutetium immediate neighbors, from hafnium, which is almost identical chemically to zirconium, to mercury, which is quite distant from cadmium but still share with it almost equal atomic size and some similar properties. They all are silvery-white metals under standard conditions. The fourth element, either actinium or lawrencium, has only radioactive isotopes. Actinium, which occurs only in trace amounts, continues the trend in chemical behavior for metals that form tripositive ions with configuration of a noble gas; synthetic lawrencium is calculated and partially shown to be more similar to lutetium and yttrium. So far, no experiments were conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element; out of them, only unbiunium (Ubu) (which could be considered a group 3 element if preceded by lanthanum and actinium)[note 2] has chances to be synthesized in the near future, being only three spaces away from current heaviest element known, ununoctium, while others (which would be considered a group 3 element if preceded by lutetium and lawrencium), which are further away from ununoctium[note 3] do not.

History

In 1787, Swedish part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock near the Swedish village of Ytterby, Sweden (part of the Stockholm Archipelago).[2] Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten,[3] he named it ytterbite.[note 4] Finnish scientist Johan Gadolin identified a new oxide or "earth" in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed analysis in 1794;[4] in 1797, the new oxide was named yttria.[5] In the decades after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements, meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within, which in this case would have been yttrium.[note 5] Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol "Yt" was used for the element, after which "Y" came into common use.[6] Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous yttrium(III) chloride with potassium to form metallic yttrium and potassium chloride.[7][8]

In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table, which had empty spaces for elements directly above and under yttrium.[9] Mendeleev made several predictions on yttrium upper neighbor, which he called eka-boron. The missing element was discovered by Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team, detected the element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite and prepared 2 grams of scandium oxide of high purity.[10][11] He named it scandium, from the Latin Scandia meaning "Scandinavia". Chemical experiments on the element proved that Mendeleev's suggestions were correct; along with discovery and characterization of gallium and germanium this proved the correctness of the whole periodic table and periodic law. Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev's prediction, but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev.[12] Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture, at 700–800 °C, of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides.[13]

Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain,[14] Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, and American chemist Charles James [15] as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia, which was thought by most chemists to consist entirely of ytterbium. Welsbach proposed the names cassiopeium for element 71 (after the constellation Cassiopeia) and aldebaranium for the new name of ytterbium but these naming proposals were rejected (although many German scientists in the 1950s called the element 71 cassiopium). Urbain chose the names neoytterbium (Latin for new ytterbium) for ytterbium and lutecium (from Latin Lutetia, for Paris)for the new element. The dispute on the priority of the discovery is documented in two articles in which Urbain and von Welsbach accuse each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other.[16][17] The Commission on Atomic Mass, which was responsible for the attribution of the names for the new elements, settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones. An obvious problem with this decision was that Urbain was one of the four members of the commission.[18] The separation of lutetium from ytterbium was first described by Urbain and the naming honor therefore went to him but neoytterbium was eventually reverted back to ytterbium and in 1949, the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium.

Lawrencium was first synthesized by the Albert Ghiorso and his team on February 14, 1961, at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now called the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) at the University of California in Berkeley, California, United States. The first atoms of lawrencium were produced by bombarding a three-milligram target consisting of three isotopes of the element californium with boron-10 and boron-11 nuclei from the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC).[19]. Nuclide 257103 was originally reported, but then this was reassigned to 258103. The team at the University of California suggested the name lawrencium (after Ernest O. Lawrence, the inventor of cyclotron particle accelerator) and the symbol "Lw",[19] for the new element, but "Lw" was not adopted, and "Lr" was officially accepted instead. Nuclear-physics researchers in Dubna, Soviet Union (now Russia), reported in 1967 that they were not able to confirm American scientists' data on 257103.[20] Two years earlier, the Dubna team reported 256103.[21] In 1992, the IUPAC Trans-fermium Working Group officially recognized element 103, confirmed its naming as lawrencium, with symbol "Lr", and named the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co-discoverers of lawrencium.[22]

Characteristics

Chemical

Bohr models for group 3 elements[note 6]
Z Element Bohr model
21 scandium 2, 8, 9, 2
39 yttrium 2, 8, 18, 9, 2
71 lutetium 2, 8, 18, 32, 9, 2
103 lawrencium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 3

Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior. The lawrencium is however, an exception, since its last electron is transferred to 7p1/2 level due to relativistic effects.[23][24]

Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group; chemical properties of both actinium and especially lawrencium are not well-characterized. The remaining elements of the group (scandium, yttrium, lutetium) are quite reactive metals with high melting points (1541 °C, 1526 °C, 1652 °C), usually oxidized to +3 oxidation state, even through scandium[25] and yttrium[26][27] can form lower oxidation states (as well as lanthanum).[28] The reactivity of the elements, especially yttrium, is not always obvious due to the formation of a stable oxide layer, which prevents further reactions. Scandium(III) oxide, yttrium(III) oxide and lutetium(III) oxide are white high-temperature-melting solids. The latter two exhibit weak basic character, but scandium(III) oxide is amphoteric.[29]

Physical

Elements that show tripositive ions with electronic configuration of a noble gas (scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, actinium) show a clear trend in their physical properties, such as hardness. At the same time, if group 3 is continued with lutetium and lawrencium, several trends are broken. For example, scandium and yttrium are both soft metals. Lanthanum is soft as well; all these elements have their outermost electrons quite far from the nucleus compared to the nuclei charges. Due to lanthanide contraction, lutetium, the last in the lanthanide series, has a significantly smaller atomic radius and a higher nucleus charge,[30] thus making extraction of the electrons from the atom to form metallic bonding harder, and thus making the metal harder. However, lutetium suits the previous elements better in several other properties, such as melting[31] and boiling points.[32] Very little is known about lawrencium, and none of the properties above have been confirmed.

Properties of the group 3 elements[note 7]
Name Scandium Yttrium Lutetium
Melting point[31] 1814 K, 1541 °C 1799 K, 1526 °C 1925 K, 1652 °C
Boiling point[32] 3109 K, 2836 °C 3609 K, 3336 °C 3675 K, 3402 °C
Density 2.99 g·cm−3[33] 4.47 g·cm−3[34] 9.84 g·cm−3[35]
Appearance silver metallic silver white silver gray
Atomic radius[30] 162 pm 180 pm 174 pm

Group borders

There is a dispute whether lanthanum and actinium or lutetium and lawrencium should be included into group 3. Other d-block group are composed of four transition metals,[note 8] and group 3 sometimes is considered to be as well. Scandium and yttrium are always included, but it is controversial which elements should follow them in group 3, lanthanum and actinium or lutetium and lawrencium. Ccurrent IUPAC definition of the term "lanthanoid" includes fifteen elements, including both lanthanum and lutetium, and that of "transition element"[36] applies to lanthanum and actinium, as well as lutetium but not lawrencium, since its does not show incomplete d-subshell, having electornic configuration of [Rn]7s25d147p1/21[note 9] due to relativistic effects,[23][24] and has not recommended a specific format for the in-line-f-block periodic table, thus leaving the dispute open.

  • Lanthanum and actinium are sometimes called the remaining members of group 3.[37] In their most commonly encountered tripositive ion forms, these elements do not possess any partially filled f-orbitals, thus continuing scandium—yttrium—lanthanum—actinium trend, in which all elements have relationship similar to that of elements of calcium—strontium—barium—radium series, elements' left neighbors in s-block. However, this is in disagreement with other d-block group, in which group 3 lies as well, especially its right neighbors, group 4, in which zirconium, hafnium and rutherfordium share similar chemical properties and not showing a clear trend.
  • Lutetium and lawrencium are included in other tables as the remaining members of group 3.[38] These elements are the last in lanthanide and actinide series, respectively. Since the f-shell is nominally full in the ground state electron configuration for both of these metals, they behave most like other period 6 and period 7 d-block metals out of all the lanthanides and actinides, and thus exhibit the most similarities in properties with scandium and yttrium, similarly to other d-block groups.

Some tables, including official IUPAC table[39] refer to all lanthanides and actinides by a marker in group 3. This sometimes is believed to be is the inclusion of all 30 lanthanide and actinide elements as included in group 3. Lanthanides, as electropositive trivalent metals, all have a closely related chemistry, and all show many similarities to scandium and yttrium, but they also show additional properties characteristic of their partially-filled f-orbitals which are not common to scandium and yttrium. Exclusion of all elements is based on properties of earlier actinides, which show a much wider variety of chemistry (for instance, in range of oxidation states) within their series than the lanthanides, and comparisons to scandium and yttrium are even less useful. However, these elements are destabilized, and if they were stabilized to match chemistry laws closer, they would be similar to lanthanides as well, and this doesn't correspond to the utmost elements of the series.

Occurrence

Scandium, yttrium, and lutetium the tend to occur together with other lanthanides (except promethium) tend to occur together in the Earth's crust, and are often harder to extract from their ores. The abundance of elements in Earth's crust for group 3 is quite low — all elements in group are uncommon, the most abundant being yttrium, with abundance of approximately 30 ppm. Abundance of scandium is 16 ppm, while that of lutetium is about 0.5 ppm. For comparison, the abundance of copper is 50 ppm, that of chromium is 160 ppm, and that of molybdenum is 1.5 ppm.[37]

Scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals.[40] Rare minerals from Scandinavia[41] and Madagascar[42] such as gadolinite, euxenite, and thortveitite are the only known concentrated sources of this element, the latter containing up to 45% of scandium in the form of scandium(III) oxide.[41] Yttrium has the same trend in occurrence places; it is found in lunar rock samples collected during the American Apollo Project in a relatively high content as well.[43]

The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite, (Ce,La,etc.)PO4, which contains 0.003% of the element. The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. Pure lutetium metal is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US$10,000/kg, or about one-fourth that of gold.[44][45]

Production

The most produced element in group 3 is yttrium, with annual production of 600 tonnes by 2001.[46] Lutetium and scandium, both mostly produced in the form of oxides, rate at about 10 and 2 tonnes per year, respectively.[47] Out of annual 2 tonnes of scandium, only 400 kg is mined during the year, while the rest is from stockpiles of Russia generated during the Cold War.

Group 3 elements are mined only as a byproduct from the extraction of other elements.[48]. The metallic elements are extremely rare; the production of metallic yttrium is about a few tonnes, and that of scandium is in the order of 10 kg per year;[48][49] production of lutetium is not calculated, but it is certainly small. The elements, after purification from other rare earth metals, are isolated as oxides; the oxides are converted to fluorides during reactions with hydrofluoric acid.[50] The resulting fluorides are reduced with alkaline earth metals or alloys of the metals; metallic calcium is used most frequently.[50] For example:

Sc2O3 + 3 HF → 2 ScF3 + 3 H2O
2 ScF3 + 3 Ca → 3 CaF2 + 2 Sc

Biological chemistry

Group 3 elements are generally hard metals with low aqueous solubility, and have low availability to the biosphere. No group 3 has any documented biological role in living organisms. The radioactivity of the actinides generally makes them highly toxic to living cells.

Yttrium has no known biological role, though it is found in most, if not all, organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and bones of humans.[51] There is normally as little as 0.5 milligrams found within the entire human body; human breast milk contains 4 ppm.[52] Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm (fresh weight), with cabbage having the largest amount.[52] With up to 700 ppm, the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations.[52]

Lutetium has no biological role as well, but it is found in even in the highest known organism, the humans, concentrating in bones, and to a lesser extend in the liver and kidneys.[53] Lutetium salts are known to cause metabolism and they occur together with other lanthanide salts, similarly to the nature; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides.[53] Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content, so it is not known how much does human take in, but the estimations show the amount is about only several micrograms per year, all come from tiny amounts taken by plants. Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic, but insoluble ones are not.[53]

Notes

  1. ^ The grouping used in this article is based on the Aufbau principle; for alternative groupings, see section Group borders
  2. ^ The element, however, violates the Aufbau principle; according to calculations, it should have electronic configuration of [Uuo]8s28p1/21, which is not associated with transition metals.[1]
  3. ^ After element 120, filling electronic configurations stops obeying Aufbau principle; for example, according to the principle, the next member of group 3 should be element 153, unpenttrium, which should have an electronic configuration of [Uuo]8s25g186f147d1, with 5g-subshell filled at element 138. However, 7d-orbitals are calculated to start being filled on element 137, while 5g-subshell closes only at element 144, after filling of 7d-subshell begins. Therefore, it is hard to calculate which element should be the next group 3 element.[1]
  4. ^ Ytterbite was named after the village it was discovered near, plus the -ite ending to indicate it was a mineral.
  5. ^ Earths were given an -a ending and new elements are normally given an -ium ending
  6. ^ If lanthanum and actinium are included instead, the table is finished the following lines:
    Bohr models for group 3 elements
    Z Element Bohr model
    57 lanthanum 2, 8, 18, 18, 9, 2
    89 actinium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 9, 2
  7. ^ If lanthanum and actinium are included instead, the table is finished the following lines (some data for actinium is approximation):
    Properties of the group 3 elements
    Name Lanthanum Actinium
    Melting point 1193 K, 920 °C 1323 K, 1050 °C
    Boiling point 3737 K, 3464 °C 3471 K, 3198 °C
    Density 6.162 g·cm−3 10 g·cm−3
    Appearance gray silvery
    Atomic radius 187 pm 215 pm
  8. ^ However, group 12 elements are not always considered to be transition metals
  9. ^ The expected configuration if lawrencium obeyed Aufbau principle would be [Rn]7s25d146d1, with incomplete 6d-subshell in neutral state

References

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Biblography

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