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Water supply and sanitation in Uganda

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Uganda: Water and Sanitation
The flag of Uganda
Data
Water coverage (broad definition) 60%[1]
Sanitation coverage (broad definition) 43%[1]
Continuity of supply (%) 20–24 hours per day in large towns[2]
Average urban water use (l/c/d) 44[3]
Average urban water tariff (US$/m³) 0.64[4]
Share of household metering 99% in large towns (2006)[5]
Annual investment in WSS US$2.37 per capita[6][7][8]
Share of self-financing by utilities Low
Share of tax-financing Low
Share of external financing High
Institutions
Decentralization to municipalities Since 1997:
To districts, towns and sub-counties[9]
National water and sanitation company National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), in large towns
Water and sanitation regulator None
Responsibility for policy setting Ministry of Water and Environment
Sector law None
Number of urban service providers n/a
Number of rural service providers n/a

The Ugandan water supply and sanitation sector has made spectacular progress in urban areas since the mid-1990s, with substantial increases in coverage as well as in operational and commercial performance.[10] Sector reforms in the period 1998-2003 included the commercialization and modernization of the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) operating in cities and larger towns, as well as decentralization and private sector participation in small towns. [11] These reforms have attracted significant international attention. However, 40% of the population still had no access to an improved water source and 57% had no improved sanitation in 2004. Low access to urban sanitation and wastewater treatment, compared to the progress achieved on urban water supply, is an area of concern.

The water and sanitation sector has been recognized as a key area under the 2004 Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), Uganda's main strategy paper to fight poverty.[12] A comprehensive expenditure framework has been introduced to coordinate financial support by external donors, the national government, and NGOs.[13] The PEAP estimates that from 2001 to 2015, about US$1.4 billion, or US$92 million per year, are needed to increase water supply coverage up to 95%.[14]

Access

Access to an improved water source increased from 44% in 1990 to 60% in 2004. At the same time, sanitation coverage has increased slightly from 42% to 43%. Generally, coverage in rural areas, where 88% of the population lives, is lower than in urban areas.[1] The most common technology options for rural water supply are protected springs, boreholes, protected wells, and gravity flow schemes.[15] Those who do not have access to an improved source of water supply have to rely on unsafe sources such as rivers, lakes, and unprotected wells. One indicator of poor access and/or quality is that water-borne diseases have been identified as the main cause of infant mortality.[16]

Access to Water and Sanitation in Uganda (2004)[1]
Urban
(12% of the population) 		Rural
(88% of the population) 		Total
Water[1] Broad definition 87% 56% 60%
House connections 7% 0% 1%
Sanitation[1] Broad definition 54% 41% 43%
Sewerage 41% 0% 5%

According to the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE), access to functioning water sources varies considerably among districts, from 12% to 95%.[6] The national government aims to reach universal water supply and sanitation coverage in urban areas and 77% water supply and 95% sanitation coverage by 2015.[17] The latter definition is different from that of the Joint Monitoring Program for Water and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF, used above, which complicates the monitoring of targets for access.

The number of people defecating in the open has fallen substantially between 2000 and 2008, although the government provides no subsidies for the construction of latrines.[18]

Service quality

Continuity of supply

According to Maxwell Stamp PLC, in Kampala, the capital, those who receive piped water supply were usually supplied continuously for 24 hours per day in 2003. In other towns, most customers were supplied on more than five days per week.[19] The MWE indicated in 2006 that piped water in large towns is usually available for 20–24 hours per day.[2]

Drinking water quality

Under the fourth Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Assessment, based on analyses by several subsectors and NGOs carried out in 2006, it was found that 90% and 95% of the water samples taken from protected and treated water supplies, respectively, met national standards for drinking water quality. This assessment comprised both rural and urban water supply.[20]

Wastewater treatment

According to the official website of the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), which is responsible for water supply and sanitation in 23 urban towns, the utility operates two conventional sewage treatment plants, one for Kampala and another in Masaka, which both carry out primary and secondary treatment. If its quality complies with the national environmental standards, the treated sewage effluent is then discharged into an artificial or constructed wetland or directly into the environment.[21] Wetlands contribute substantially to wastewater treatment. For example, the Nakivubo wetland in Kampala is estimated to contribute about US$1.7 million per year to the Ugandan economy, serving as a tertiary wastewater treatment plant.[22]

In smaller towns NWSC operates 21 sewage stabilization ponds.[21] According to the MWE, an analysis of municipal effluents carried out in July 2008 revealed that NWSC's wastewater treatment facilities mostly do not meet national standards. Out of 223 data sets, 12% complied with Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) standards, 26% with Phosphorus standards and 40% with total suspended solids standards. This leads to the pollution of water bodies from which in turn raw water is extracted.[6] In a few cases sewage is disposed directly into the environment without any treatment.[23] The lack of functioning wastewater treatment poses a threat on the environment and human health.

Water resources

Rivers and lakes of Uganda

As a whole, Uganda has more than enough freshwater. Estimates indicate 66 km³ of renewable water resources per year, which correspond to approximately 2,800 m³ per person and year. However, the distribution of the resource is uneven both in spatial and temporal terms. Furthermore, freshwater is increasingly exploited through population growth, urbanization, agriculture, and industrialization.

The rivers, lakes and wetlands cover about 18% of Uganda's total surface, including Lake Victoria, Africa's largest lake and one of the major sources of the Nile River, the longest river of the world. Almost the entire country lies within the Nile basin. Rainfall contributes most to the country's surface and groundwater. The average annual rainfall ranges from 900 mm in the semi-arid areas of Kotido to 2000 mm on the Sese Islands in Lake Victoria. There is a lack of groundwater recharge assessments in Uganda, which is why the potential of groundwater is not known. However, regional assessments in Ugandan towns have indicated that groundwater recharge meets the current abstraction volumes. In order to monitor the quantity and quality of groundwater and surface water, the National Water Resources network has been established under the responsibility of the Water Resources Management Department (WRMD).[24]

The water level in Lake Victoria has been receding with manifold consequences, including the need for additional investments to extend the water intakes supplying the cities of Kampala, Entebbe and Jinja. Between 2003 and 2006 the lake has lost 75 billion cubic meters, about 3% of its volume. The causes of the decline are disputed. According to some reports it is due to a 10-15% decline in rainfall in the lake's basin. However, according to Daniel Kull, a hydrologist with the UN's International Strategy for Disaster Reduction in Nairobi, the drought would have caused only half the water loss actually seen if two hydroelectric dams at the outlet of the Lake into the White Nile had been operated during the past two years according to an agreement from the 1950s on the Nile flows between Uganda and Egypt.[25]

Water use

According to the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), water use in rural areas ranges between 12 and 14 liters per capita and day (l/p/d). In urban towns and centers with a population of more than 5,000 people, the PEAP estimates an average of less than 17 l/p/d. The national target is to reach an average consumption of 20 l/p/d.[26] According to the NWSC's annual report, the utilities' total water production from July 2007 to June 2008 (fiscal year 2007/2008) for 23 towns was 63.6 million m³, of which more than three quarters or 79% were produced in Kampala. 46.9% or 29.8 million m³ of NWSC's total water was used by domestic customers. Divided by the 1,944,741 people whom NWSC served at the end of June 2008, this corresponds to 15.3 m³ per capita and year or 44 l/p/d.[3]

History and recent developments

The first piped water systems were completed during the colonial period in the 1930s. Water-borne sewerage was introduced after 1937. The construction of new facilities increased from 1950 to 1965 under the framework of large national development programs.[27] Later, the existing systems were partly maintained and no new facilities were constructed until 1990. According to a UN-Water document, by 1990 the urban water infrastructure served less than 10% of the population in large towns.[28] Around the end of the 1980s, international donors began to invest substantial financial resources to rehabilitate and renew the water network in Kampala.[29] For example, the World Bank contributed US$60 million under the Water Supply Project, which was active from 1990 to 1998 (see below).[30] Although the financial support helped to rehabilitate the infrastructure, the commercial performance of NWSC was still unsatisfactory.[29]

The reform of the National Water and Sewerage Corporation

Description of the reform process The National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) was created as a government-owned parastatal organization in 1972 under the national administration of Idi Amin Dada, serving only the capital Kampala as well as Entebbe and Jinja.[31] Subsequently its service area gradually grew to incorporate large and mid-sized towns all over Uganda, reaching a total of 23 cities and towns in 2008.

In 1995 and 2000, it was reorganized under the NWSC Statute and NWSC Act, giving it substantial operational autonomy and the mandate to operate and provide water and sewerage in areas entrusted to it, on a sound, commercial, and viable basis.[32] Internal reforms at NWSC started in 1998, beginning with a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis initiated by a new management team. At that time, the utility benefitted from a recently rehabilitated water and sewerage infrastructure including abundant water production capacity and a high level of metering, a competent senior management team, and a good and enabling water legislative framework providing NWSC with relative autonomy. On the other hand, NWSC was in bad condition with regard to operational and financial aspects. For example, non-revenue water, water which is produced but not billed for several reasons such as leakage and illegal connections, stood at 60%. The utility was heavily overstaffed and staff costs accounted for 64% of the total operating costs.[33]

In late 1998, the national government appointed Dr. William Tsimwa Muhairwe as the Managing Director of NWSC. He had been managing public companies in Uganda and elsewhere. Under a new board, more emphasis was placed on commercial viability. At the same time, political interference within the utility was reduced. The new management soon drew up several programs to implement the principles, the first of which was the 100-days program, aiming to adjust operational and financial inefficiencies.[10]

Programs to improve financial and operational efficiency of NWSC[34]
Program Objective(s) Measures Time of implementation
100-days program Reverse of operational and financial inefficiencies Improved revenue collection and cost-cutting measures February 1999-May 1999
Service and revenue enhancement program Restoring customer confidence Introduction of service centers and help desks, customer surveys August 1999-August 2000
Area and service performance contracts Commercial sustainability Managers were given more autonomy and liability through performance contracts 2000–2003
Stretch-out program Improving team work More staff involvement, flatter hierarchical structure 2002–2003
One-minute management program Individual performance accountability Incentives for achievements of individual goals 2003
Internally-delegated area management contracts (IDAMCs) Increasing autonomy and liability of area managers Internal contracts including explicit targets and incentives Since 2003

Since 2000, NWSC has worked under performance contracts with the national government, each covering three years. The contracts contain precise performance indicators, which the NWSC is expected to achieve. For example, the 2003-2006 contract required NWSC to reduce NRW from 39% in 2003 to 36% in 2006. Simultaneously, inactive connections should be reduced from 21% to 13%. In order to encourage management to achieve the targets, an incentive element of 25% of the annual basic salary depended on the fulfillment of the contract. Each year the NWSC board decides the appropriate bonus rate that the NWSC management receives.[35]

Results and analysis The improvement of the utility concerning access and operational performance is indisputable. Some of the achievements are:

Performance indicators for NWSC (1998–2007)[36]
1998
 2000
 2004
 2007
 2008
Operating profit
before depreciation
(EBDIT) (USh bn)[37] 		1.5 3.0 11.0 18.0
Non-revenue water [38] 51% 43% 38% 33% 33.5%
Collection efficiency 60% 76% 98% 92% 92%
Connections [39] 51,000 59,000 100,000 181,000 202,000
Employees 1784 1454 949 1388
Labor productivity
(Employees/1,000 connections) 		35 25 9 8

Interestingly, the utility has been turned around without a tariff increase, except for inflation adjustments and a 10% increase to compensate the utility for a reduction in connection fees. Instead, the reform focused on increasing the number of connections, an effective computerized billing system, improving customer relations and communications, as well as better incentives and training for staff.[40]

One factor that partially explains the drastically improved collection rates is a new government policy of paying the unpaid water bills of public entities, beginning in 1999. The significant increase in new connections is partially explained by a drastic reduction of connection charges, also in 1999, from 400,000 Shillings (US$ 274) to 25,000 Shillings (US$ 17).[29] Flexibility in technical requirements (waiving of land title requirements, easing construction standards, post-processing of new connection forms) was also key to increasing water service coverage in the urban poor communities.[41] Schwartz points out that the success of NWSC since 1998 was favored by a high level of support by international donors and lending agencies as well as national ministries,[42] the leadership of top management, a highly professional staff, and strong institutional cultures.[43]

NWSC has received ISO 9001:2000 certification for fourteen of its service areas, including Kampala, by June 2008. The company also provides training to utilities in Tanzania, Zambia and soon in Nigeria. Building on its success, NWSC has set itself the vision "to be one of the leading water utilities in the world".[44]

Towards the end of 2008, NWSC management introduced another management initiative codenamed, the "Raving Water Fans" aimed at improving customer service and, in the long run, willingness to pay and revenues. The initiative is based on a concept developed Raving Fans by the management expert Ken Blanchard and Sheldon Bowles that emphasizes "the 3Ds": Deciding what you want, Discovering what the customer wants and Delivering plus 1% of what the customer expects.[45]

The current institutional sector framework is based on several policy reforms in the water sector since the mid-1990s. Water supply and sanitation are recognized as key issues under the national Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), prepared first in 1997 and revised in 2001 and 2004. The PEAP is the key government document for fighting poverty through rapid economic development and social transformation.[12]

The 1995 Constitution of the Republic of Uganda instructs the Ugandan State to take all practical measures to promote a good water management system at all levels and defines clean and safe water as one of its 29 objectives.[46] The current legislative water sector framework was introduced with the 1995 Water Statute, which has the following objectives:[47]

  • Promotion of rational water use and management
  • Promotion of the provision of a clean, safe, and sufficient domestic water supply to all people
  • Promotion of the orderly development of water and its use for other purposes, such as irrigation and industrial use, among others, in ways that minimize harmful effects to the environment
  • Pollution control and promotion of safe storage, treatment, discharge, and disposal of waste that may cause water pollution or other threats to the environment and human health.

In accordance with the national constitution, chapter eleven,[46] the Local Government Act of 1997 provides for the decentralization of services, including the operation and maintenance of water facilities for local governments in liaison with the ministries responsible for the sector.[48]

Finally, the National Water Policy (NWP), adopted in 1999, promotes the principles of Integrated Water Resources Management, a comprehensive approach to water supply. In addition, the NWP recognizes the economic value of water, promotes the participation of all stakeholders, including women and the poor, in all stages of water supply and sanitation, and confirms the right of all Ugandans to safe water.[49]

Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

Policy and regulation

The lead agency for formulating national water and sanitation policies, coordinating and regulating the sector is the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE).[50] The Directorate of Water Development (DWD) under the MWE acts as the executive arm and provides support to local governments and other service providers.[51]

Economic and performance regulation. There is no independent economic regulatory body for water supply. Tariffs are proposed by NWSC and need to be approved by MWE. NWSC is regulated by contract according to a performance contract with the national government. The Performance Review Committee (PRC) under the MWE reviews the performance of NWSC according to the contract. However, the PRC is partly financed by the NWSC, which may hinder the full independence of the committee.[52]

NWSC regulates its local branch offices through internal contracts that are monitored by its internal monitoring and regulation department.

Environmental regulation. Environmental regulation is carried out by the DWD and the National Environment Management Authority.

Drinking water quality regulation. According to Schwartz, the Directorate of Water Development (DWD) is expected to monitor the quality of drinking water provided by NWRC. However, in practice NWRC monitors its drinking water quality internally without any complementary external monitoring.[53]

NWSC's internal Quality Control Department examines whether the supplied water complies with the national standards for drinking water, which in turn follow the World Health Organization guidelines. There are a central laboratory in Kampala and satellite laboratories in the other NWSC operation areas. At several sampling points, water is controlled for pH, color, turbidity, residue chlorine and E. coli. The results are available at the official NWSC website and mostly comply with the national standards.[54]

Where NWSC does not provide the service, districts are responsible for water quality monitoring. According to the MWE, this is done insufficiently and data are scarce.[6]

Service provision

A Ugandan girl at a well

Cities and towns. In 22 cities and large towns water supply and sewerage - where it exists - is provided by the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), a public utility working on a commercial basis. In 2007 it provided services to 1.8 million people out of 2.5 million in Kampala, Jinja/Lugazi, Entebbe, Tororo, Mbale, Lira, Gulu, Masaka, Mbarara, Kabale, Kasese and Fort Portal, Bushenyi/Ishaka, Soroti Arua, Masindi, Malaba, Iganga, Hoima, and Mubende. The smallest town served, Hoima, has a population of only 9,000. The NWSC operates under the MWE.[55]

Small towns. In small towns with a population between 5,000 and 30,000, facilities are owned and managed by local governments, supported by the MWE. Many have created Water Authorities, which contract out water services under 3-year contracts to local private operators since about 2000. By 2010, these operators number 80 and serve 35,000 connections. The Association of Private Water Operators (APWO) says that the contracts are too short to compensate the small, local private operators for their initial efforts in setting up their operations. Nevertheless, the small operators have been fairly successful and the government plans to give them a chance to bid for larger urban centers that are served by the NWSC, as well as to extend the contract duration to 5 years.[56]

In rural areas, local governments at district levels are responsible for the adequate operation and maintenance of water systems. Responsibility for sanitation promotion and hygiene education in communities and schools is vested in the MWE, the Ministry of Health, and the Ministry of Education and Sports.[57]

Private sector participation

Cities and large towns Besides its performance contracts with the national government and its internal contracts beginning in 2000, NWSC also had two consecutive service contracts for billing and collection (called "management contracts") with foreign companies in Kampala. The first management contract between NWSC and the German company H.P. Gauff Ingenieure started in July 1998 and ended in June 2001. The second contract with the French company OSUL (Ondeo Services Uganda Limited) ran from February 2002 and February 2004. Under both contracts, NWSC's financial and operational indicators continued to improve. However, a study by the Boston Institute for Developing Economies concludes that the improvements were not due to private sector participation, but to overall reforms of NWSC initiated before the service contracts were signed and continued while they were being implemented.[29]

Small towns UN-Water indicates management contracts with private operators in 50 small Ugandan towns. Since the sector still receives subsidies from the national government, the service improved notably without being accompanied by major tariff increases.[58]

In rural areas, mostly local private operators focus on construction, supply of parts and materials, capacity building, and consultancy. Danert et al. concluded in 2003 that private participation in the rural Ugandan water sector still faces major challenges such as inexperienced local governments and private operators, limited public spending, and poor user participation. However, he saw an improvement in the performance of private sector participation compared to three years before, which may give rise to optimism.[59]

Other functions

Besides the MWE, several other national ministries play a role in the sector. The Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development coordinates funding and donor support. The Ministry of Local Government is expected to support decentralized government systems, which manage their own water facilities. The Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development is responsible for the promotion of gender-responsive development and community mobilization. The Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industries and Fisheries oversees water use for irrigation.

Concerning sanitation, the Environmental Health Division (EHD) under the Ministry of Health is in charge of an integrated sanitation strategy for the country, and the Ministry of Education and Sports is responsible for health, sanitation, and hygiene in schools. All the abovementioned ministries, together with the Ministry of Public Service, development partners, and civil society, form the Water and Sanitation Sector Working Group, which meets quarterly.[60]

Economic efficiency

As described above, the NWSC has substantially improved its operational and financial performance since it was reformed. Indicators show that economic efficiency is also improving in small towns, where the systems are owned by local governments. However, it is difficult to find data on the issue in rural areas.

Non-revenue water

According to the NWSC, the average share of NRW in all operating areas of NWSC was 32.5% as of June 2007. While in Kampala it was 38.5%, in the other 21 towns it averaged 18.2%. The NWSC explains the high share of NRW in Kampala with the poor condition of the existing infrastructure. To improve the network and thus reduce NRW in Kampala, the Kampala Network Rehabilitation Project was launched in 2002. Although NRW increased from fiscal years 2005/2006 to 2006/2007, in the longer term a remarkable reduction took place. In 2002-2003, the share was 44.5% in Kampala and 26.7% in the remaining areas.[61] Concerning small towns, the MWE in its 2006 sector performance report indicates that NRW decreased slightly from 24.4% in June 2004 to 22% in June 2006.[5]

There is no agreement on appropriate levels of NRW among professionals. However, Tynan and Kingdom propose a best practice target of 23% in developing countries.[62] Except for Kampala, NRW in large and small Ugandan towns, according to the available figures, complies with this target.

Labor productivity

In 1998, on average 36 NWSC employees worked per 1,000 connections.[63] This figure has been significantly reduced to 11 employees in 2003 and 7 in 2007.[64] The MWE indicates an improvement of labor productivity in small towns from 47 employees per 1,000 connections in June 2004 to 28 in June 2006.[5] Tynan and Kingdom propose a best practice target of 5 employees per 1,000 connections in developing countries.[62]

Financial aspects

Tariffs and cost recovery

Although Uganda's official policy is to promote tariffs that cover all costs, the NWSC tariff actually only covers operation and maintenance costs. The second performance contract between the Government of Uganda and NWSC provides for a tariff policy which in the long term covers operation, maintenance, and a part of the future investments.[65] Although the current tariff structure does recover operation and maintenance costs, the tariffs are not high enough to finance system expansion, leaving system improvement and extension investments to the national government and international donors. According to UN-Water, full cost recovery tariffs including investments would require a significant rise of tariffs.[66] Dr. Muhairwe in a presentation held in 2006 concludes that full cost recovery in least developed countries is a myth.[67] According to him, tariffs would have to increase by 90% to provide full cost recovery.[68]

In fiscal year 2006-2007, the NWSC tariff for domestic use was US$0.64 per m³. Taken from a public standpipe, the tariff was US$0.42 per m³ or less than US$0.01 per jerrycan. The average commercial tariff was US$1.00 per m³.[4][69] For commercial users, a rising block tariff structure is used. If a customer is connected to the sewerage system, an additional charge of 75-100% must be paid. Although water is cheapest at standpipes, UN-Water reports that in this case users usually have to pay the costs of operating a stand tap and thus in the end pay more.[70] A cross subsidy arrangement enables NWSC to keep in operation systems which do not even cover operation and maintenance costs.[6]

Investment and financing

File:1000ugx.JPG
1000 Uganda Shilling

Investment needs to reach 95% access to water supply in 2015 are estimated at US$100 million per year, only slightly more than the estimated actual investment of $85 million in 2006. About 75% of investments were financed through external assistance in 2000.

Current investments. According to the MWE, the total budget for Ugandan water supply and sanitation was 149 billion Uganda Shilling or US$90 million in fiscal year 2006-2007, of which US$73 million were actually spent. This corresponds to US$2.37 per inhabitant.[7] The NWSC received a budget of US$56 million. Out of the remaining funding of US$34 million, 54% was allocated to rural water and 29% to urban water.[69] In addition, NGOs and Community-based organizations (CBOs) reported investments of US$5 million in 2006,[8] and NGO and CBO members of the UNICEF-supported Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) cluster, which provide emergency water supply and sanitation in Northern Uganda, reported investments of US$15 million from January 2005 to August 2006.[6][69] Total sector investments in 2006 thus can be estimated at roughly US$85 million.

Investment needs. Since water supply and sanitation are recognized as key elements of the PEAP, the plan provides for long-term investments in the sector with priority to rural areas. The document indicates that in order to reach 95% coverage by 2015, from 2001 to 2015 investments of about US$956 million and US$417 million are needed for rural and urban areas, respectively, corresponding to a total of about US$100 million per year or only US$15 million more than current investment levels.[14]

Financing. According to UN-Water, around the year 2000 donor financing accounted for up to 75% of the total sector funding. The sector benefited significantly from the Poverty Action Fund (PAF) under the framework of the PEAP.[71] Uganda became the first country wthat qualified for debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative. Debt relief contributes about US$80 million per year to the PAF.[72]

Financing conditions differ between urban and rural areas. In the case of the NWSC, concessional debt contracted from international financial institutions had been passed on by the government to the utility in the form of debt. However, in February 2008 the government agreed to convert the NWSC's 153.5 billion Shilling debt into equity. This was done with the objective to increase the NWSC's ability to borrow from the local capital market. A week later the NWSC announced that it intends to borrow 30 billion Uganda Shilling on the bond market to finance, on a fast-track basis, the construction of water intakes and offshore pipelines for the towns of Kampala, Jinja, and Entebbe in order to mitigate the impact of Lake Victoria's receding levels on water supply. The NWSC expects to be able to borrow in local currency at lower interest rates and for longer maturities compared to borrowing from commercial banks. The World Bank is assisting the NWSC in structuring the bond issue.[68]

Concerning rural areas, investments are financed primarily by grants. According to the 2000-2015 Rural Water and Sanitation Strategy and Investment Plan, Uganda's principal investment document for rural water supply and sanitation, financing for the rural sector will continue to be provided by external donors, the national government, and NGOs.[73]

97% of investments in sanitation were funded by external aid. For the period 2010-2015 the government budgeted USD 0.4 million for sanitation, corresponding to 0.01% of GDP.[74] This compares to a commitment by African Water Ministers made at the Africasan conference in 2008 in the eThekwini declaration in which they aspired that budget allocations for sanitation and hygiene "should be a minimum of 0.5% of GDP".[75]

Overall, funding by the national government was expected to increase from 25% in 2000 to 75%.[71]

External cooperation

Uganda receives external support from several donor agencies. In 2002, a Sector-Wide Approach (SWAp) was adopted for the water and sanitation sector.[13] Under the SWAp most development partners have agreed to channel their financing through the national budget. According to a 2006 report by UN-Water, the SWAp has led to the increased confidence of development partners and has proved to be the most appropriate mechanism for resources mobilization and program implementation.[76]

Joint Water and Sanitation Sector Programme Support

The Joint Water and Sanitation Sector Programme Support, which follows a Sector-Wide Approach, is aligned with Uganda's 2004 Poverty Eradication Action Plan. Altogether, US$150 million are to be spent under the program, which started in 2008 and is expected to run for five years. The major development partner involved in the program is the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), which alone provides US$66 million. The other partners are the African Development Bank (US$27 million), the Austrian Development Agency (ADA) (US$19 million), the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) (US$14 million), the Department for International Development, United Kingdom (DFID) (US$10 million), the European Union (US$9 million) and the German Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit and KfW (US$6 million). The program aims to support the achievement of the sector targets. It intends to serve about 1,410,000 people in rural areas, 373,000 people in rural growth centers (RGCs) (communities with a population between 2,000 and 5,000 people[77]), and 155,000 in small towns directly with water and to give them access to basic sanitation and hygiene facilities. Besides the extension of water supply and sanitation in rural areas, RGCs, and small towns, the program includes components (i) water resources management, (ii) sector program support for capacity building, and (iii) sector reforms and water for production.[78]

African Development Fund

In 2005, the African Development Fund decided to contribute US$61 million to the rural water supply and sanitation program. Another US$118 million are provided by the Government of Uganda, and US$39 million are financed by NGOs, several other development partners, and directly by the communities. The program, which lasts for 4 years, aims to rehabilitate existing water supply schemes and provide new ones in rural areas. Furthermore, it seeks to provide new sanitation facilities in public places, schools, and health centers. These physical efforts are accompanied by environmental assessments, mitigation, and monitoring, as well as community development and capacity building. Finally, the program provides for institutional support for the central ministries in order to enable them to efficiently carry out their tasks.[79]

European Union

The European Union contributed €14.75 million to the Mid-Western Towns Water and Sanitation Project. Under the project, which was implemented between 2001 and 2007, water supply and sanitation facilities in the towns of Masindi, Hoima, and Mubende districts were rehabilitated and extended.[80]

World Bank

The World Bank has been active for decades in Uganda. For instance, the Bank approved its seventh Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC) in 2008, under which it will provide US$200 million from May 2008 to September 2009, supporting Uganda's third Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP).[81]

Uganda Water Small Towns and Rural Growth Centers. This Output-based aid (OBA) project is carried out in 6 selected small towns and 4 Rural Growth Centers, where new water connections and public water points for about 45,000 poor beneficiaries are planned. The connections will take the form of household yard taps and public standpoints. The private sector participates through management contracts in small towns and design-build-operate contracts in RGCs. In order to ensure sustainable access, a part of the subsidies will not be paid until the connections are constructed according to agreed standards. The World Bank approved the project in February 2007 and is financing the total project cost of US$3.2 million. The project is expected to end in February 2010.[82]

Water Supply Project. From 1990 to 1998, the Water Supply Project was carried out under the framework of an urban water program. Its objectives were to improve public health, enable increased production of goods and services, prevent environmental pollution, and ease women's burden through the expansion and improvement of water supply and sanitation facilities. In Kampala, Jinja, Masaka, Mbara and Mbare, the project supported physical and institutional components in order to expand the system and strengthen the NWSC. In addition, water meters were installed to prevent water waste. The World Bank contributed US$60 million to the project.[83]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f
    • World Health Organization. "Joint Monitoring Program". Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    • World Health Organization (2006). "Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Coverage Estimates Improved Drinking Water" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) [dead link]
    • World Health Organization (2006). "Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Coverage Estimates Improved Drinking Sanitation" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) [dead link]
    Data are based on Bureau of Statistics (Uganda) (2003). Uganda National Household Survey 2002/2003. Entebbe: UBOS. Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b Ministry of Water and Environment (Uganda) (September 2006). "Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Report 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 58
  3. ^ a b National Water and Sewerage Corporation (2007). "Annual report 2006 to 2007" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help) [dead link], p. 19; 23; 31
  4. ^ a b National Water and Sewerage Corporation (2007). "Annual report 2006 to 2007" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link], p. 28
  5. ^ a b c Ministry of Water and Environment (Uganda) (September 2006). "Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Report 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 23
  6. ^ a b c d e f Ministry of Water and Environment (Uganda) (2008-04-18). "Sector Performance Report 2007. Executive Summary". Retrieved 2008-05-09. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ a b Uganda's population in 2007 was about 30.9 million; source:United States Department of State (April 2008). "Uganda (04/08)". Retrieved 2008-05-09. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  8. ^ a b 1 Uganda Shilling = US$0.0005764 (2006-12-31); source: http://oanda.com
  9. ^ Ministry of Water and Environment (Uganda) (September 2006). "Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Report 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 8
  10. ^ a b Mugisha, Silver (November 2006). "Struggling State-Owned Enterprises: NWSC's Turnaround in Uganda" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 3-4
  11. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 15
  12. ^ a b Republic of Uganda, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development. "Poverty Eradication Action Plan (2004/5-2007/8)" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), p. 182-188
  13. ^ a b Ministry of Water and Environment (Uganda) (September 2006). "Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Report 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 5
  14. ^ a b Rural areas: US$956 million; Urban areas: large towns (US$281 million) and small towns (US$136 million). Republic of Uganda, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development. "Poverty Eradication Action Plan (2004/5-2007/8)" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), p. 182-183
  15. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 64
  16. ^ African Development Fund (March 2005). "Appraisal Report. Rural water supply and sanitation program, Uganda" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link], p. 1
  17. ^ The government defines access to improved water supply and sanitation as follows: improved water supply in urban areas is given through an improved water source within a walking distance of 1.5 km in rural areas and 0.2 km in urban areas. Sanitation coverage is given through sanitation facilities in the place of residence. UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 12
  18. ^ EU Water Initiative Africa (April 2011). "Update on EU Aid to Water and Sanitation in Africa Political Briefing Note EU Water Initiative Africa Working Group" (PDF). p. 5. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  19. ^ Maxwell Stamp PLC (2003-08-19). "Poverty Impact Assessment of Privatisation of the Urban Water Sector in Uganda". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 15
  20. ^ WaterAid (April 2006). "Uganda country strategy 2006 - 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 8; 29
  21. ^ a b National Water and Sewerage Corporation. "National Water & Sewerage Corporation - iContent". Archived from the original on 2008-03-30. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  22. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 106
  23. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 85
  24. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 38-57
  25. ^ New Scientist: Uganda pulls plug on Lake Victoria, 09 February 2006. Kull's findings have also been published by the California-based environmental lobby group International Rivers Network.
  26. ^ Republic of Uganda, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development. [www.unpei.org/PDF/UG-PEAP2005-2008.pdf "Poverty Eradication Action Plan (2004/5-2007/8)"] (PDF). Retrieved 2011-11-07. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), p. 168, 171.
  27. ^ Nilsson, David (2006). "A heritage of unsustainability? Reviewing the origin of the large-scale water and sanitation system in Kampala, Uganda" (PDF). Environment and Urbanization. 18 (2). International Institute for Environment and Development: 369–385. doi:10.1177/0956247806069618. Retrieved 2008-05-12. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  28. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 78
  29. ^ a b c d Jammal, Yahya (October 2006). "Impact of privatization in Africa: Uganda Water. One of Eight Papers from a Project Entitled: Assessing the Impact of Privatization in Africa" (PDF). Boston Institute for Developing Economies (BIDE). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 3 Cite error: The named reference "jammal 3" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  30. ^ World Bank. "Projects - Uganda : Water Supply Project (02)". Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  31. ^ Dr. Muhairwe, William Tsimwa (March 2003). "Improving performance through internal reforms by the public sector. A case of national water and sewerage corporation, Uganda. Presented for: Water Week, World Bank" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 3
  32. ^ Republic of Uganda (1995). "National Water and Sewerage Corporation". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. ^ Dr. Muhairwe, William Tsimwa (March 2003). "Improving performance through internal reforms by the public sector. A case of national water and sewerage corporation, Uganda. Presented for: Water Week, World Bank" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 5
  34. ^ Mugisha, Silver (November 2006). "Struggling State-Owned Enterprises: NWSC's Turnaround in Uganda" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 4
  35. ^ The Republic of Uganda (October 2003). "Performance contract between the government of the Republic of Uganda and National Water and Sewerage Corporation" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link], p. 4; 10; 23
  36. ^ Figures from 2004 and 2007 are from the NWSC Annual Report 2006-2007. Figures for 1998 and 2000 are from USAID/ARD as well as from Jammal and Jones, p. 17 (the latter for the number of employees).
  37. ^ The earnings after depreciation and interest show a different picture. They actually declined from 1998 to 2002 after a suspension to service debt was lifted in 1999 and remained negative for many years. In 2004 NWSC posted positive earnings after depreciation and interest for the first time since it began servicing its debt.
  38. ^ In areas outside Kampala NRW was only 18.5% in 2008.
  39. ^ A small portion of this increase can be accounted for by the fact that NWSC took over service in a number of additional towns in this period. 80% of NWSC water sales are in Kampala, Entebbe and Jinja.
  40. ^ USAID (2005). "Case Studies of Bankable Water and Sewerage Utilities" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-07-04. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 16 and Dr. Muhairwe, William Tsimwa (March 2003). "Improving performance through internal reforms by the public sector. A case of national water and sewerage corporation, Uganda. Presented for: Water Week, World Bank" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 14-15 and Jammal, Yahya (October 2006). "Impact of privatization in Africa: Uganda Water. One of Eight Papers from a Project Entitled: Assessing the Impact of Privatization in Africa " (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) p. 14 fo 1995 NRW value.
  41. ^ NWSC Annual Report 2006-2007, p. 27
  42. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 93
  43. ^ Schwartz, Klaas (2008). "The New Public Management: The future for reforms in the African water supply and sanitation sector?". Utilities Policy. 16 (1): 49–58. doi:10.1016/j.jup.2007.07.001. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  44. ^ NWSC Annual Report 2006-2007
  45. ^ Ken Blanchard&Sheldon Bowles:Raving Fans. A revolutionary Approach to Customer Service, 1993, ISBN 0688123163
  46. ^ a b Republic of Uganda (1995). "The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 2; 23
  47. ^ Republic of Uganda (1995-12-14). "Uganda: Water Statute, 1995 (Statute No. 9 of 1995)" (PDF). Uganda Gazette. 56. Retrieved 2008-05-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  48. ^ Republic of Uganda (1997). "Local Government Act". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  49. ^ Republic of Uganda, Directorate of Water Development (1999). "National Water Policy". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  50. ^ In some sources, mostly dated before 2006, the ministry is called the Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment (MWLE). It appears to have changed its name around that time.
  51. ^ African Development Fund (March 2005). "Appraisal Report. Rural water supply and sanitation program, Uganda" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link], p. 3
  52. ^ Mugisha, Silver (November 2006). "Struggling State-Owned Enterprises: NWSC's Turnaround in Uganda" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 22
  53. ^ Schwartz, Klaas (2006). "Managing Public Water Utilities. An assessment of bureaucratic and New Public Management models in the water supply and sanitation sectors in low- and middle-income countries" (PDF). UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. ISBN 13: 978-90-73445-15-4. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 133
  54. ^ National Water and Sewerage Corporation. "National Water & Sewerage Corporation - Home Page". Archived from the original on 2008-04-21. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help), Tab -> "Water Quality"
  55. ^ National Water & Sewerage Corporation - Home Page. "National Water & Sewerage Corporation - Home Page". Archived from the original on 2008-04-21. Retrieved 2008-05-06. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  56. ^ Global Water Intelligence:Taking Ugandan water PPPs to the next level, November 2010, p. 17
  57. ^ Ministry of Water and Environment (Uganda) (September 2006). "Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Report 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 7
  58. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 92
  59. ^ Danert, Kerstin (2003-11-06). "The private sector in rural water and sanitation services in Uganda: understanding the context and developing support strategies". Journal of International Development. 15 (8): 1099–1114. doi:10.1002/jid.1053. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  60. ^ African Development Fund (March 2005). "Appraisal Report. Rural water supply and sanitation program, Uganda" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link], p. 3-4
  61. ^ National Water and Sewerage Corporation (2007). "Annual report 2006 to 2007" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link], p. 3; 24-25
  62. ^ a b The study uses data from 246 water utilities, half of which are in 44 developing countries. The utilities range from small ones serving fewer than 125,000 people to large ones serving more than 500,000. All regions and within countries all income levels are included. In each of the five categories (NRW, labor productivity, service coverage, water prices, and connection costs and continuity of service), at least 30 utilities from developing countries and 30 from developed countries are included. The best practice targets for developing countries are based on the performance of the top 25 of developing country utilities. The study uses data from the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Utilities database and the Asian Development Bank. Tynan, Nicola (2002-04-01). "A Water Scorecard. Setting Performance Targets for Water Utilities" (PDF). Public Policy Journal (242). The World Bank Group. Retrieved 2008-05-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  63. ^ Mughisha, Silver (2007). "Using Internal Incentive Contracts to Improve Water Utility Performance: The Case of Uganda's NWSC". Water Policy. 9 (3): 271–284. doi:10.2166/wp.2007.010. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 6
  64. ^ National Water and Sewerage Corporation (2007). "Annual report 2006 to 2007" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link], p. 33
  65. ^ The Republic of Uganda (October 2003). "Performance contract between the Government of the Republic of Uganda and National Water and Sewerage Corporation" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link], p. 21
  66. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 82-83
  67. ^ Dr. Muhairwe, William T. (2006-12-01). "Cost Recovery Mechanisms: The Success of the NWSC-Uganda and its Relevancy for Other African Countries. Presentation at the Experts' meeting on "Access to Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa", Paris". Paris. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  68. ^ a b Mbatau wa Ngai (02-26). "NWSC turns to bond market for financing". Daily Monitor. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help) [dead link]
  69. ^ a b c 1 Uganda Shilling = US$0.0006061 (2007-06-30); source: oanda.com
  70. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 83
  71. ^ a b UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 26-28
  72. ^ WaterAid (May 2005). "National water sector assessment, Uganda". Retrieved 2008-05-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 1
  73. ^ "Rural Water and Sanitation Strategy and Investment Plan 2000-2015" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 29
  74. ^ EU Water Initiative Africa (April 2011). "Update on EU Aid to Water and Sanitation in Africa Political Briefing Note EU Water Initiative Africa Working Group" (PDF). p. 5. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  75. ^ African Minister's Council on Water (2008). "The eThekwini Declaration and AfricaSan Action Plan" (PDF). p. 1. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  76. ^ UN-Water (2006). "National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility"" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 25-27
  77. ^ "Rural Water and Sanitation Strategy and Investment Plan 2000-2015" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 17
  78. ^ Republic of Uganda (July 2007). "Joint Water and Sanitation Sector Programme Support (2008–2012). Programme Document". Retrieved 2008-05-14. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  79. ^ African Development Fund (March 2005). "Appraisal Report. Rural water supply and sanitation program, Uganda" (– Scholar search). Retrieved 2008-05-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help) [dead link] [dead link]
  80. ^ DFID:Clean water makes for good living in Uganda, 15 October 2009
  81. ^ World Bank. "Uganda - Overview". Retrieved 2008-05-14. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  82. ^ World Bank. "OBA in Water Supply in Uganda's Small Towns and Rural Growth Centers". Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. Retrieved 2008-07-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) and COWI:Output-based aid for water supply in Uganda and World Bank Project Information Document OBA
  83. ^ World Bank. "Projects - Uganda : Water Supply Project (02)". Retrieved 2008-05-14. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

Further reading

Adela Barungi (writer), Josephine Kasaija and Paito Obote (editors), Amsalu Negussie (supervisor): New Rules, New Roles: Does PSP Benefit the Poor? Contracts and Commerce in Water Services: The Impact of Private Sector Participation on the Rural Poor in Uganda, WaterAid and Tearfund, 2003

Institutions

Videos

YouTube:Sanitation for all - Uganda. The video describes the sanitary conditions in informal settlements in Kampala and efforts to improve them.

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