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Mi'kmaq

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Míkmaq
Grand Council Flag of the Mi'kmaq Nation.[1] Although the flag is meant to be displayed hanging vertically as shown here, it is quite commonly flown horizontally, with the star near the upper hoist.
Regions with significant populations
Canada (New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Quebec), United States (Maine)
Languages
English, Míkmaw, French
Religion
Christianity, Míkmaq Traditionalism and Spirituality, others
Related ethnic groups
other Algonquian peoples
Mi'kma'ki: Divided into seven districts

The Míkmaq (English: /ˈmɪkˌmæk/; Mi'kmaq: [miːɡmax]) are a First Nations people, indigenous to Canada's Maritime Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec. They call this region Mi'kma'ki. Others today live in Newfoundland and the northeastern region of Maine. The nation has a population of about 40,000 (plus about 25,000 in the Qalipu First Nation[2][3]), of whom nearly 11,000 speak the Míkmaq language.[4][5] Once written in Míkmaq hieroglyphic writing, it is now written using most letters of the standard Latin alphabet.

The Grand Council (also known as Santé Mawiómi) was the traditional senior level of government for the Mi'kmaq people until the Indian Act was created (1876). After implementation of the Indian Act, the Grand Council adopted a more spiritual function. The Grand Council was made up of representatives from the seven district councils in Mi'kma'ki.

On September 26, 2011 the Government of Canada announced the recognition of Canada's newest Mi'kmaq First Nations Band, the Qalipu First Nations in Newfoundland and Labrador. The new landless band has accepted 25,000 applications to become part of the band.[6] The number of applications received by the application deadline on November 30, 2012 exceeded 100,000. The majority of these have yet to be processed.[7] Its members are recognized as Status Indians, joining other organized Mi'kmaq bands recognized in southeast Canada.[8][9]

Etymology

The ethnonym has traditionally been spelled Micmac in English, but natives have used different spellings: Mi’kmaq (singular Mi’kmaw) by the Míkmaq of Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, Miigmaq (Miigmao) by the Míkmaq of New Brunswick, Mi’gmaq by the Listuguj Council in Quebec, or Mìgmaq (Mìgmaw) in some native literature.[10] Until the 1980s, "Micmac" remained the most common spelling in English.

Although still used, for example, in Ethnologue, this spelling has fallen out of favour in recent years. Most scholarly publications use the preferred native spelling of Mi'kmaq,[11] as the spelling Micmac is now considered to be "colonially tainted".[10] The Míkmaq prefer to use one of the three current Míkmaq orthographies when writing the language.[12]

Lnu (the adjectival and singular noun, previously spelled "L'nu"; the plural is Lnúk, Lnu’k, Lnu’g, or Lnùg) is the self-recognized term for the Míkmaq of New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Maine, meaning "human being" or "the people".[13]

Various explanations exist for the origin of the term Míkmaq. The Mi'kmaw Resource Guide states that "Míkmaq" means "the family":

The definite article "the" suggests that "Mi'kmaq" is the undeclined form indicated by the initial letter "m". When declined in the singular it reduces to the following forms: nikmaq - my family; kikmaq - your family; wikma - his/her family. The variant form Mi'kmaw plays two grammatical roles: 1) It is the singular of Mi'kmaq and 2) it is an adjective in circumstances where it precedes a noun (e.g. mi'kmaw[sic?] people, mi'kmaw treaties, mi'kmaw person, etc.)[14]

However, there are other hypotheses:

The name "Micmac" was first recorded in a memoir by de La Chesnaye in 1676. Professor Ganong in a footnote to the word megamingo (earth), as used by Marc Lescarbot, remarked "that it is altogether probable that in this word lies the origin of the name Micmac." As suggested in this paper on the customs and beliefs of the Micmacs, it would seem that megumaagee the name used by the Micmacs, or the Megumawaach, as they called themselves, for their land, is from the words megwaak, "red", and magumegek, "on the earth", or as Rand recorded, "red on the earth," megakumegek, "red ground," "red earth." The Micmacs, then, must have thought of themselves as the Red Earth People, or the People of the Red Earth. Others seeking a meaning for the word Micmac have suggested that it is from nigumaach, my brother, my friend, a word that was also used as a term of endearment by a husband for his wife... Still another explanation for the word Micmac suggested by Stansbury Hagar in "Micmac Magic and Medicine" is that the word megumawaach is from megumoowesoo, the name of the Micmacs' legendary master magicians, from whom the earliest Micmac wizards are said to have received their power.[15]

Members of the Mi'kmaq First Nation historically referred to themselves as Lnu, but used the term níkmaq (my kin) as a greeting.[16] The French initially referred to the Míkmaq as Souriquois"[17] and later as Gaspesiens or (through English) "Mickmakis". The British originally referred to them as Tarrantines.[18]

History

Míkmaq hieroglyphic writing, 1866

===Pre-contact culture=== hello my name is cameron maclennan im 13 and i live in ns it is awesome

Geography

The Mi'kmaq territory was divided into seven traditional "districts". Each district had its own independent government and boundaries. The independent governments had a district chief and a council. The council members were band chiefs, elders, and other worthy community leaders. The district council was charged with performing all the duties of any independent and free government by enacting laws, justice, apportioning fishing and hunting grounds, making war, suing for peace, etc.

The Seven Mi'kmaq Districts are :

  • Epekwitk aq Piktuk (Epegwitg aq Pigtug)
  • Eskikewa'kik (Esge'gewa'gi)
  • Kespek (Gespe'gewa'gi)
  • Kespukwitk (Gespugwitg)
  • Siknikt (Signigtewa'gi)
  • Sipekni'katik (Sugapune'gati)
  • Unama'kik (Unama'gi)

Note : The orthography between parentheses is the one use in the Gespe'gewa'gi area.

In addition to the district councils, there was also a Grand Council or Santé Mawiómi. The Grand Council was composed of "Keptinaq", or captains in English, who were the district chiefs. There were also Elders, the Putús (Wampum belt readers and historians, who also dealt with the treaties with the non-natives and other Native tribes), the women council, and the Grand Chief. The Grand Chief was a title given to one of the district chiefs, which was usually from the Mi'kmaq district of Unamáki or Cape Breton Island. This title was hereditary and usually went to the Grand Chief's eldest son. The Grand Council met on a little island on the Bras d'Or lake in Cape Breton called "Mniku", on a reserve today called Chapel Island or Potlotek. To this day, the Grand Council still meets at the Mniku to discuss current issues within the Mi'kmaq Nation.

Housing

Mi'kmaq encampment, Sydney, Cape Breton Island
Mi'kmaq at Turtle Grove (Tufts Cove) settlement, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, ca. 1871.

Mi'kmaq people lived in structures called wigwams. Saplings, which were usually spruce, were cut down and bent over a circle drawn on the ground. These saplings were lashed together at the top, and then covered with birch bark. The Mi'kmaq had two different sizes of wigwams. The smaller size could hold 10-15 people and the larger size 15-20 people. Wigwams could be either conical or domed in shape.

Food and hunting

The Mi'kmaq were semi-nomadic. During the summer they spent most of their time on the shores harvesting seafood; during the winter they would move inland to the woods to hunt. The most important animal hunted by the Mi'kmaq was the moose which provided food, clothing, cordage, and other things. Other animals hunted/trapped included deer, caribou, bear, rabbit, beaver, and others. The weapon used most for hunting was the bow and arrow. The Mi'kmaq made their bows from maple. The Mi'kmaq people would store lobsters in the ground for later consumption.[citation needed]The Mi’kmaq ate fish of all kinds, like salmon, sturgeon, porpoises, whales, walrus, seals, lobster, squid, shellfish, and eels, as well as seabirds and their eggs. The Mi'kmaq also ate moose, caribou, beaver, porcupine and small animals, like squirrels. [19]

Hunting a moose

The moose was the most important animal to the Mi'kmaq. It was their second main source of meat, clothing and cordage, which were all crucial commodities. The Mi'kmaq usually hunted moose in groups of 3 to 5 men. Before the moose hunt, the Mi'kmaq would starve their dogs for 2 days to make them fierce in helping to finish off the moose. To kill the moose, they would injure it first, by using a bow and arrow or other weapons, and after it was down, they would move in on it and finish it off with spears and their dogs. The guts would then be fed to the dogs. During this whole process, the men would try to direct the moose in the direction of the camp, so that the women would not have to go as far to drag the moose back. A boy became a man in the eyes of the community after he had killed his first moose. It was only then that he had earned the right to marry.

On June 24, 1610, Grand Chief Membertou converted to Catholicism and was baptised. He concluded an alliance with the French Jesuits which affirmed the right of Mi'kmaq to choose Catholicism and\or Mi'kmaw tradition. The Mi'kmaq, as allies with the French, were amenable to limited French settlement in their midst.

17th and 18th centuries

Colonial wars

Mi'kmaq People (1865)

In the wake of King Phillips War, the Mi'kmaq became members of the Wapnáki (Wabanaki Confederacy), an alliance with four other Algonquian-language nations: the Abenaki, Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Maliseet.[20]

The Wabanaki Confederacy were allied with Acadia. Over a period of seventy-five years, there were six wars in Mi'kma'ki (Acadia and Nova Scotia) in which the Mi'kmaq fought to keep the British from taking over the region (See the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War). While France lost military control of Acadia in 1710, and political claim by the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht (apart from Cape Breton), the Mí'kmaq on the other hand never conceded any land to the British.

In 1715 the Mi'kmaq were to learn that the British now claimed their ancient territory as their own, by the Treaty of Utrecht that the Mi'kmaq were no party to. They formally complained to the French commander at Louisbourg for the French king transferring the sovereignty of their nation when he did not possess it. They were only then informed that the French had claimed legal possession of their country for a century, on account of laws decreed by kings in Europe, that no land could be legally owned by any non-Christian, and that such land was therefore freely available to any Christian prince who claimed it. Mi'kmaw historian Daniel Paul observes that

If this warped law were ever to be accorded recognition by modern legalists they would have to take into consideration that, after Grand Chief Membertou and his family converted to Christianity in 1610, the land of the Mi'kmaq had become exempt from being seized because the people were Christians. However, it's hard to imagine that a modern government would fall back and try to use such uncivilized garbage as justification for non-recognition of aboriginal title.[21]

Along with Acadians, the Mi'kmaq used military force to resist the founding of British (Protestant) settlements by making numerous raids on Halifax, Dartmouth, Lawrencetown and Lunenburg. During the French and Indian War, the Mi'kmaq assisted the Acadians in resisting the British during the Expulsion of the Acadians. The military resistance significantly was reduced with the French defeat at the Siege of Louisbourg (1758) in Cape Breton.

Treaties

The Mí'kmaq signed a series of peace and friendship treaties with Great Britain. The first was after Father Rale's War (1725). The nation historically consisted of seven districts, which was later expanded to eight with the ceremonial addition of Great Britain at the time of the 1749 treaty. Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope signed a Peace Treaty in 1752 on behalf of the Shubenacadie Mi'kmaq.[22] With the signing of various treaties, the 75 years of regular warfare ended with the Burying the Hatchet ceremony (1761).

According to historian John G. Reid, the treaties of 1760-61, while they contain statements of Mi'kmaw submission to the British crown, what is known of the surrounding discussions, combined with the strong evidence of later Mi'kmaw statements, indicates that a friendly and reciprocal relationship was the real intent. The Mi'kmaw leaders who came initially to Halifax in 1760 had clear goals that centred on the making of peace, the establishment of a secure and well-regulated trade in commodities such as furs, and an ongoing friendship with the British crown. In return, they offered their own friendship and a tolerance of limited British settlement, although without any formal land surrender.[23] To fulfill the friendly and reciprocal intent of the treaties, further British settlement of land would need to be negotiated and, in exchange for accommodating the existing British settlements, presents would be given to the Mi'kmaq. (There was a long history of Europeans giving Mi'kmaq people presents to be accommodated on their land, starting with the first colonial contact.) The documents summarizing the peace agreements failed to establish specific territorial limits on the expansion of British settlements, but they assured the Mi’kmaq access to the natural resources that had long sustained them along the regions’ coasts and in the woods.[24]

Mi'kmaq People (1873)

The intent of the treaties began to erode with the arrival of the New England Planters and United Empire Loyalists. This migration into the region created significant economic, environmental and cultural pressures on the Mi'kmaq. The Mi'kmaq tried to enforce the treaties through threat of force. At the beginning of the American Revolution, many Mi’kmaq and Maliseet tribes were supportive of the Americans against the British. They participated in the Maugerville Rebellion and the Battle of Fort Cumberland in 1776. (Mí'kmaq delegates concluded the first international treaty, the Treaty of Watertown, with the United States soon after it declared its independence in July 1776. These delegates did not officially represent the Mi'kmaq government, although many individual Mi'kmaq did privately join the Continental army as a result.) In June 1779, Mi’kmaq in the Miramichi attacked and plundered some of the British in the area. The following month, British Captain Augustus Harvey, in command of the HMS Viper, arrived in the area and battled with the Mi’kmaq. One Mi’kmaq was killed and 16 were taken prisoner to Quebec. The prisoners were eventually brought to Halifax, where they were later released upon signing the Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown on 28 July 1779.[25][26]

As their military power waned in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Mi'kmaq people made explicit appeals to the British to honour the reciprocal intent of the treaties and the duty of the British to give "presents" to the Mi'kmaq for occupying Mi'kma'ki. In response, the British offered charity or, the word most often used by government officials, "relief". And relief always came with strings attached: the Mi'kmaq must give up their way of life and begin to settle on farms and their children were to be sent for education to British schools.[27]

The Treaties did not gain legal status until they were enshrined into the Canadian Constitution in 1982. Every October 1, "Treaty Day" is now celebrated by Nova Scotians.

Burials

During this time period two colonial figures were honoured by the Mi'kmaq at their deaths. Two hundred Mi'kmaq chanted their death song at the burial of Governor Michael Francklin.[28] They also celebrated the life of Pierre Maillard.[29]

19th and 20th centuries

Mic-Mac hockey sticks

Mi'kmaq making hockey sticks from hornbeam trees (Carpinus caroliniana) in Nova Scotia about 1890.

There are numerous references to the Mi'kmaq playing hockey from as early as the 18th century. There are claims from the nineteenth century that the Mi'kmaq inventing the ice hockey stick.[30] The oldest known hockey stick was made between 1852 and 1856. Recently, it was appraised at $4 million US and sold for $2.2 million US. The stick was carved by the Mi’kmaq natives from Nova Scotia and was made with Hornbeam or also known as ironwood.[31]

In the mid-nineteenth century, the Starr Manufacturing Company began to sell the Mic-Mac hockey sticks nationally and internationally.[32] Hockey became a popular sport in Canada in the 1890s.[33] Throughout the first decade of the twentieth century, the Mic-Mac Hockey Stick was the best selling hockey stick in Canada. By 1903, apart from farming, the principal occupation of the Mi'kmaq on reserves throughout Nova Scotia, and particularly Shubenacadie, Indian Brook and Millbrook Reserves, were producing the Mic-Mac Hockey Stick.[32] The department of Indian Affairs for Nova Scotia identified in 1927, that the Mi'kmaq remained the "experts" at making hockey sticks.[34] Mi'kmaq continued to make hockey sticks until the 1930s.[35]

21st century

On August 31, 2010, the governments of Canada and Nova Scotia signed an historic agreement with the Mi'kmaq Nation, establishing a process whereby they must consult with the Mi'kmaq Grand Council before engaging in any activities or projects that affect the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia — which covers most, if not all, actions these governments might take within that jurisdiction. This is the first such collaborative agreement in Canadian history including all the First Nations within an entire province.[36]

First Nation subdivisions

Míkmaw names in the table are spelled according to several orthographies. The Míkmaw orthographies in use are Míkmaw pictographs, the orthography of Silas Tertius Rand, the Pacifique orthography, and the most recent Smith-Francis orthography, which has been adopted throughout Nova Scotia and in most Míkmaw communities.

Community Province/State Town/Reserve Est. Pop. Míkmaq name
Abegweit First Nation  Prince Edward Island Scotchfort, Rocky Point, Morell 396 Epekwitk
Acadia First Nation  Nova Scotia Yarmouth 996 Malikiaq
Annapolis Valley First Nation  Nova Scotia Cambridge Station 219 Kampalijek
Aroostook Band of Micmac  Maine Presque Isle 920 Ulustuk
Bear River First Nation  Nova Scotia Bear River 272 Lsetkuk
Buctouche First Nation  New Brunswick Buctouche 80 Puktusk
Burnt Church First Nation  New Brunswick Burnt Church 14 1,488 Eskinuopitijk
Chapel Island First Nation  Nova Scotia Chapel Island 576 Potlotek
Eel Ground First Nation  New Brunswick Eel Ground 844 Natuaqanek
Eel River Bar First Nation  New Brunswick Eel River Bar 589 Ugpi'gangij
Elsipogtog First Nation  New Brunswick Big Cove 3000+ Lsipuktuk
Eskasoni First Nation  Nova Scotia Eskasoni 3,800+ Wékistoqnik
Fort Folly First Nation  New Brunswick Dorchester 105 Amlamkuk Kwesawék
Micmacs of Gesgapegiag  Quebec Gesgapegiag 1,174 Keskapekiaq
Nation Micmac de Gespeg  Quebec Fontenelle 490 Kespék
Glooscap First Nation  Nova Scotia Hantsport 360 Pesikitk
Indian Island First Nation  New Brunswick Indian Island 145 Lnui Menikuk
Lennox Island First Nation  Prince Edward Island Lennox Island 700 Lnui Mnikuk
Listuguj Mi'gmaq First Nation  Quebec Listuguj Mi'gmaq First Nation 3,166 Listikujk
Membertou First Nation  Nova Scotia Sydney 1,051 Maupeltuk
Metepenagiag Mi'kmaq Nation  New Brunswick Red Bank 527 Metepnákiaq
Miawpukek First Nation  Newfoundland and Labrador Conne River 2,366 Miawpukwek
Qalipu First Nation  Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland and Labrador 21,429[2] Qalipu[37][38]
Millbrook First Nation  Nova Scotia Truro 1400 Wékopekwitk
Pabineau First Nation  New Brunswick Bathurst 214 Kékwapskuk
Paq'tnkek First Nation  Nova Scotia Afton 500 Paqtnkek
Pictou Landing First Nation  Nova Scotia Trenton 547 Puksaqtéknékatik
Indian Brook First Nation  Nova Scotia Indian Brook (Shubenacadie) 2,120 Sipekníkatik
Wagmatcook First Nation  Nova Scotia Wagmatcook 623 Waqmitkuk
Waycobah First Nation  Nova Scotia Whycocomagh 900 Wékoqmáq

Demographics

Year Population Verification
1500      4,500 Estimation
1600      3,000 Estimation
1700      2,000 Estimation
1750      3,000 Estimation
1800      3,100 Estimation
1900      4,000 Census
1940      5,000 Census
1960      6,000 Census
1972      10,000 Census
1998    15,000 SIL
2006    20,000 Census

The pre-contact population is estimated at 3,000-30,000.[39] In 1616, Father Biard believed the Míkmaq population to be in excess of 3,000, but he remarked that, because of European diseases, there had been large population losses during the 16th century. Smallpox, wars and alcoholism led to a further decline of the native population, which was probably at its lowest in the middle of the 17th century. Then the numbers grew slightly again, before becoming apparently stable during the 19th century. During the 20th century, the population was on the rise again. The average growth from 1965 to 1970 was about 2.5%.

Celebrations

In the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador, October is celebrated as Míkmaq History Month and the entire Nation celebrates Treaty Day annually on October 1. This was first signified in the year, 1752, with the Peace and Friendship Treaty (also called the Treaty of 1752) signed by Jean-Baptiste Cope of Shubenacadie and the king's representative. It was stated that the natives would be given gifts annually,"as long as they continued in Peace."[40]

Folklore

A dancer in the Míkmaq celebration

In Mi'kmaq mythology, evil and wickedness among men causes them to kill each other. This causes great sorrow to the creator-sun-god, who weeps tears that become rains sufficient to trigger a deluge. The people attempt to survive by traveling in bark canoes, but only a single old man and woman survive to populate the earth.[41] When looking at the Mi’kmaq people’s oral traditions there are three types: myths, legends, and folklore. Myths are used to tell the stories of the earliest possible time, that would include creation stories. Other myths account for the organization of the world and society, the myth of how men and women were created and why they are different from one another is a good example of this. Because of their power to describe how things should be, myths are very important to the Mi’kmaq. Legends are the second and they are oral traditions related to particular places. Legends can involve the recent or distant past, but are most important in linking people and the land. The last one is folktales, which are stories that all the people take part in it. Folktales are known to be fictional, they are useful for providing moral or social lessons to youth, or just for amusement. Folktales were also used by the Mi’kmaq people for long winter nights sitting around the fire and because of this a good storyteller was highly prized by the Mi'kmaq people.[42]

See also: Glooscap

Commemorations

The Mi'kmaq people have been commemorated in numerous ways, including the HMCS Micmac (R10), and place names such as Lake Micmac, and the Mic Mac Mall.[43]

Notable Míkmaq

Academics

Warriors

Activists

Artists

Athletes

Other

Spiritual sites

One spiritual capital of the Míkmaq nation is Mniku, the gathering place of the Míkmaq Grand Council or Santé Mawiómi, Chapel Island in Bras d'Or Lake of Nova Scotia. The island is also the site of the St. Anne Mission, an important pilgrimage site for the Míkmaq. The island has been declared a historic site.[45]

Maps

Maps showing the approximate locations of areas occupied by members of the Wabanaki Confederacy (from north to south):

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Flags of the World
  2. ^ a b Qalipu First Nations Official Website http://qalipu.ca/membership-programs-and-services/membership/
  3. ^ Http://www.thewesternstar.com/News/Local/2013-01-17/article-3158443/Protest-against-Qalipu-application-process-planned-for-Monday/1. Western Star, 13 Jan. 2013. Web. 3 Mar. 2013.
  4. ^ Indigenous Languages Spoken in the United States
  5. ^ Statistics Canada 2006
  6. ^ http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2012/10/04/nl-qalipu-mikmaq-membership-claims-1004.html
  7. ^ Sheppard, Brendan. "Update on Enrolment Process" Qalipu Mi'kmaq First Nation Band., 17 Jan. 2013. Web. <http://qalipu.ca/>.
  8. ^ Press Release, September 26, 2011 "Government of Canada announces creation of Qalipu Mi'kmaq First Nation Band", Market Watch, 26 September 2011
  9. ^ Qalipu First Nations Official Website http://www.qalipu.com/default.asp
  10. ^ a b Emmanuel Metallic et al., 2005, The Metallic Mìgmaq-English Reference Dictionary
  11. ^ Anne-Christine Hornborg, Mi'kmaq Landscapes (2008), p. 3
  12. ^ "It is now the preferred choice of our People." Daniel Paul, We Were Not the Savages, 2000, p. 10
  13. ^ The Nova Scotia Museum's Míkmaq Portraits database
  14. ^ Mi'kmaw Resource Guide, Eastern Woodlands Publishing (1997)
  15. ^ cited in Paul to Marion Robertson, Red Earth: Tales of the Micmac, with an introduction to their customs and beliefs (1965) p. 5.
  16. ^ Johnston, A. J. B. (2013). Ni'n na L'nu: The Mi'kmaq of Prince Edward Island. Acorn Press. p. 96.
  17. ^ Relations des Jésuites de la Nouvelle-France
  18. ^ Lydia Affleck and Simon White. "Our Language". Native Traditions. Retrieved 2006-11-08.
  19. ^ http://museum.gov.ns.ca/
  20. ^ The allied tribes occupied the boundaries the French named Acadia against the British. The tribes ranged from present-day New England in the United States to the Maritime Provinces of Canada. At the time of contact with the French (late 16th century), they were expanding from their maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula /St. Lawrence River at the expense of Iroquoian-speaking tribes, hence the Míkmaq name for this peninsula, Kespek ("last-acquired").
  21. ^ Daniel Paul, We Were Not the Savages pp 74-75.
  22. ^ Historian William Wicken notes that there is controversy about this assertion. While there are claims that Cope made the treaty on behalf of all the Mi'kmaq, there is no written documentation to support this assertion (See William Wicken. Mi'kmaq Treaties on Trial: History, Land, and Donald Marshall Jr. University of Toronto Press. 2002. p. 184).
  23. ^ John Reid. Nova Scotia: A Pocket History. Fernwood Press. 2009. p. 23
  24. ^ Plank, Unsettled Conquest. p. 163
  25. ^ http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?id_nbr=2486; Sessional papers, Volume 5 By Canada. Parliament July 2 - September 22, 1779; Wilfred Brenton Kerr. The Maritime Provinces of British North America and the American Revolution. p. 96
  26. ^ Among the annual festivals of the old times, now lost sight of, was the celebration of St. Aspinquid's Day, known as the Indian Saint. St. Aspinquid appeared in the Nova Scotia almanacks from 1774 to 1786. The festival was celebrated on or immediately after the last quarter of the moon in the month of May. The tide being low at that time, many of the principal inhabitants of the town, on these occasions, assembled on the shore of the North West Arm and partook of a dish of clam soup, the clams being collected on the spot at low water. There is a tradition that during the American troubles when agents of the revolted colonies were active to gain over the good people of Halifax, in the year 1786, were celebrating St. Aspinquid, the wine having been circulated freely, the Union Jack was suddenly hauled down and replaced by the Stars and Stripes. This was soon reversed, but all those persons who held public offices immediately left the grounds, and St. Aspinquid was never after celebrated at Halifax. (See Akins. History of Halifax, p. 218, note 94)
  27. ^ Reid. p. 26
  28. ^ http://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov16novauoft#page/n86/mode/1up p. 38
  29. ^ Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society. Vol. 1, p. 44
  30. ^ Brian Cutherbertson The Starr Manufacturing Company: Skate Exporter to the World. Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol. 8, 2005, p. 60
  31. ^ http://www.odec.ca/projects/2008/chon8n2/
  32. ^ a b Brian Cutherbertson The Starr Manufacturing Company: Skate Exporter to the World. Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol. 8, 2005, p. 61
  33. ^ Cutherbertson, p. 58
  34. ^ Brian Cutherbertson The Starr Manufacturing Company: Skate Exporter to the World. Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol. 8, 2005, p. 73
  35. ^ Brian Cutherbertson The Starr Manufacturing Company: Skate Exporter to the World. Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol. 8, 2005, p. 63
  36. ^ Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia, Province of Nova Scotia and Canada Sign Landmark Agreement
  37. ^ 'Government of Canada Announces the Creation of the Qalipu First Nation Band' by Marketwire http://www.marketwatch.com/story/government-of-canada-announces-the-creation-of-the-qalipu-mikmaq-first-nation-band-2011-09-26
  38. ^ Press Release September 26, 2011 http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/26/idUS146921+26-Sep-2011+MW20110926
  39. ^ Dickshovel - Micmac
  40. ^ Treaty of 1752|http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/al/hts/tgu/pubs/pft1752/pft1752-eng.asp
  41. ^ Canada's First Nations - Native Creation Myths
  42. ^ http://www.muiniskw.org/
  43. ^ Bates, George T. (1961). Megumaage: the home of the Micmacs or the True Men. A map of Nova Scotia.
  44. ^ See www.danielnpaul.com
  45. ^ CBCnews. Cape Breton Míkmaq site recognized

References

  • Bock, Philip K. 1978. "Micmac." pp. 109–122. In Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Bruce G. Trigger, editor. Smithsonian Institution Press.
  • Davis, Stephen A. 1998. Míkmaq: Peoples of the Maritimes, Nimbus Publishing.
  • Johnston, A.J.B.; Francis, Jesse (2013). Ni'n na L'nu: The Mi'kmaq of Prince Edward Island. Charlottetown: Acorn Press. ISBN 978-1-894838-93-1.
  • Magocsi, Paul Robert (ed.). Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1999.
  • Paul, Daniel N. 2000. We Were Not the Savages: A Míkmaq Perspective on the Collision Between European and Native American Civilizations, Fernwood Pub.
  • Prins, Harald E. L. 1996. The Míkmaq: Resistance, Accommodation, and Cultural Survival (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology), Wadsworth.
  • Rita Joe, Lesley Choyce. 2005. The Míkmaq Anthology, Nimbus Publishing (CN), 2005, ISBN 1-895900-04-2
  • Robinson, Angela 2005. Tán Teli-Ktlamsitasit (Ways of Believing): Míkmaw Religion in Eskasoni, Nova Scotia. Pearson Education, ISBN 0-13-177067-5.
  • Whitehead, Ruth Holmes. 2004. The Old Man Told Us: Excerpts from Míkmaq History 1500-1950, Nimbus Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-921054-83-1
  • Wicken, William C. 2002. Míkmaq Treaties on Trial: History, Land, and Donald Marshall Junior, University of Toronto Press.
  • http://www.cmmns.com/KekinamuekPdfs/Ch2screen.pdf

Documentary film

  • Our Lives in Our Hands (Míkmaq basketmakers and potato diggers in northern Maine, 1986) [1]
  • British Radio Documentary on the Mi'k Maq Community at Millbrook nr Truro Recorded by Terry Mechan June 2012 [2]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Micmac.

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