Manx language

Manx
Manx
[y Ghaelg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), [y Ghailck] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
Pronunciation	[əˈɣɪlk], [əˈɣɪlɡ]
Native to	Isle of Man
Ethnicity	Manx people
Extinct	Extinct as a first language by 1974 with the death of Ned Maddrell.
Revival	About a hundred competent Manx speakers and 50 children in immersion education (2011)
Language family	Indo-European Celtic Insular Goidelic Manx; ; ; ;
Official status
Official language in	Isle of Man
Regulated by	Coonseil ny Gaelgey (Manx Gaelic Council)
Language codes
ISO 639-1	gv
ISO 639-2	glv
ISO 639-3	glv
ISO 639-6	glvx (historical); rvmx (revived)
Glottolog	manx1243
ELP	Manx
Linguasphere	50-AAA-aj
	This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Manx (native name [Gaelg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) or [Gailck] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), pronounced [ɡilk] or [ɡilɡ]),^[4] also known as Manx Gaelic, and also historically spelt Manks,^[5] is a Goidelic Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, historically spoken by the Manx people. Only a small minority of the Isle of Man's population is fluent in the language, but a larger minority has some knowledge of it. Manx is widely considered to be an important part of the island's culture and heritage. Although the last surviving native speaker of the Manx language, Ned Maddrell, died in 1974, the language has never fallen completely out of use. Manx has been the subject of language revival efforts, so that despite the small number of speakers, Manx has become more visible on the island, with increased signage, radio broadcasts and a bilingual primary school. The revival of Manx has been made easier because the language was well recorded: for example, the Bible was translated into Manx, and audio recordings were made of native speakers.

Names of the language

In Manx

In Manx the language is called Gaelg or Gailck, a word which shares the same etymology as the word "Gaelic", borrowed into English from Northern Irish Gaelic. The sister languages of Irish and Scottish Gaelic use Gaeilge (dialect variants Gaoluinn, Gaedhlag, Gaelge and Gaelic) and Gàidhlig respectively for their languages. As with Irish and Scottish, the form with the definite article is frequently used in Manx, e.g. y Ghaelg or y Ghailck (Irish an Ghaeilge, Scottish a' Ghàidhlig).

To distinguish it from the other two forms of Gaelic, the phrases Gaelg/Gailck Vannin (Gaelic of Mann) and Gaelg/Gailck Vanninnagh (Manx Gaelic) may also be used.

In addition, the nickname "Çhengey ny Mayrey" (the mother tongue/tongue of the mother) is occasionally used.

In English

The language is usually referred to in English as Manx. The term Manx Gaelic is often used, for example when discussing the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) or to avoid confusion with Anglo-Manx, the form of English spoken on the island. Scottish Gaelic is often referred to in English as simply Gaelic, but this is less common with Manx and Irish.

A calque in Anglo-Manx is the use of the definite article, e.g. the Manx, the Gaelic, in ways not generally seen in standard English.

The word Manx is frequently spelled as Manks in historical sources, particularly those written by natives of the island; the word means Mannish, and originates from the Norse Mannisk. The name of the island, Man, is frequently spelled as Mann. It is sometimes accompanied by a footnote explaining that it is a two-syllable word, with the stress on the first syllable, "MAN-en". It is after the island that the Irish god Manannán mac Lir derives his name.

History

Manx is a Goidelic language, closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. On the whole it is not mutually intelligible with these, though the speakers of the three languages find it easy to gain passive competency in each other's languages and even spoken competency.^{[citation needed]}

The earliest known language of the Isle of Man was a form of Brythonic (the language which developed into Welsh, Cornish and Breton); however, like Scottish Gaelic and modern Irish, Manx is descended from Primitive Irish, which is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish transitioned into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin script and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts, but there are no extant examples from the Isle of Man. By the 10th century Old Irish had evolved into Middle Irish, which was spoken throughout Ireland, in Scotland and the Isle of Man. Like the coastal areas of Scotland and Ireland, the Isle of Man was colonised by the Norse, who left their legacy in certain loanwords, personal names, and place names such as Laxey (Laksaa) and Ramsey (Rhumsaa). However, they made very little impact on the language overall due to the prevalence of Gaelic-Norse bilingualism among the settlers, as many had previously acquired Gaelic in Scotland.^[7]

During the later Middle Ages, the Isle of Man fell increasingly under the influence of England, and from then on the English language has been the chief external factor in the development of Manx. Beginning in 1405, Manx experienced even more English influence under the rule of Sir John Stanley. As contact between Manx speakers and Gaelic speakers from Scotland and Ireland declined, the language diverged further from its related neighbors.^[7]

In the 17th century, some university students left the Isle of Man to attend school in England. At the same time, teaching in English was required in schools created by governor Isaac Barrow. Barrow also promoted the use of English in churches; he considered that it was a superior language for reading the Bible; however, because the majority of ministers were monolingual Manx speakers, his views had little practical impact.^[7]

Thomas Wilson began his tenure as Bishop of Mann in 1698 and was succeeded by Mark Hildesley. Both men held positive views of Manx; Wilson was the first person to publish a book in Manx, a translation of The Principles and Duties of Christianity (Coyrie Sodjey), and Hildesley successfully promoted the use of Manx as the language of instruction in schools. However, these effects were not lasting; in the late 18th century, nearly every school was teaching in English. This decline continued into the 19th century, as English gradually became the primary language spoken in the Isle of Man.^[7]

In 1848, J. G. Cumming wrote that "there are ... few persons (perhaps none of the young) who speak no English." Henry Jenner estimated in 1874 that about 30% of the population habitually spoke Manx (12,340 out of a population of 41,084). According to official census figures, 9.1% of the population claimed to speak Manx in 1901; in 1921 the percentage was only 1.1%.^[8] Since the language had fallen to a status of low prestige, parents tended not to teach the language to their children, thinking that Manx would be useless to them compared with English.

Revival

Following the decline in the use of Manx during the 19th century, [Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (The Manx Language Society) was founded in 1899. By the middle of the 20th century only a few elderly native speakers remained (the last of them, Ned Maddrell, died on 27 December 1974), but by then a scholarly revival had begun and a few individuals had started teaching it in schools. In 1992 the Manx Language Unit was formed, consisting of three members and headed by Manx Language Officer Brian Stowell, "which was put in charge of all aspects of Manx language teaching and accreditation in schools."^[7] This led to an increased interest in studying the Manx language and encouraged a sense of ethnic identity along with it. The revival of Manx has been aided by the recording work done in the 20th century by researchers. Most notably, the Irish Folklore Commission was sent in with recording equipment in 1948 by Éamon de Valera. There is also the work conducted by language enthusiast and fluent speaker Brian Stowell, who is considered personally responsible for the current revival of the Manx language.^[9]

In 2009 Unesco's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger declared Manx as an extinct language, despite the presence of hundreds of speakers on the Isle of Man.^[10] Since then Unesco's classification of the language has changed to "critically endangered".^[9]

In the 2011 census, 1,823 out of 80,398, or 2.27% of the population, claimed to have knowledge of Manx.^[11] This is an increase of 134 people from the 2001 census.^[12] The largest concentration of speakers was in Douglas, with 566 people professing an ability to speak, read or write in Manx. Peel had the second largest number of speakers, with 179 people professing an ability to speak, read or write in Manx. Other large concentrations included Onchan (146), and Ramsey (149).

Manx given names are once again becoming common on the Isle of Man, especially Moirrey and Voirrey (Mary, properly pronounced similar to the Scottish Moira, but often mispronounced as Moiree/Voiree when used as a given name by non-Manx speakers), Illiam (William), Orry (from the Manx King of Norse origin), Breeshey (also Breesha) (Bridget), Aalish (also Ealish) (Alice), Juan (Jack), Ean (John), Joney, Fenella (Fionnuala), Pherick (Patrick) and Freya (from the Norse Goddess) remain popular.

Speakership by year

Year	Manx speakers		Manx population
Year	Total	Of Manx population	Manx population
1874	16,200	30%	54,000 (1871)
1901	4,419^[13]	8.1%	55,000
1911	2,382^[13]	4.8%	52,000
1921	896^[13]	1.5%	60,000
1931	529^[13]	1%	49,000
1951	275^[13]	0.5%	55,000
1974	Last native speaker dies
1991	650^[14]	0.9%	71,000
2001	1,500^[15]	1.9%	78,000
2011	1,650^[16]	1.9%	86,000
2015	1,800^[9]	2%	88,000

Literature

Because Manx has never had a large number of speakers, it has never been practical to produce large amounts of written literature. A body of oral literature, on the other hand, did exist. It is known that the "Fianna" tales and the like were known, with the Manx ballad Fin as Oshin commemorating Finn MacCool and Ossian.^[17] With the coming of Protestantism, this slowly disappeared, while a tradition of carvals, religious songs or carols, developed with religious sanction.^[when?]

As far as is known, there was no distinctively Manx written literature before the Reformation. By this time, any presumed literary link with Ireland and Scotland, such as through Irish-trained priests, had been lost. The first published literature in Manx was The Principles and Duties of Christianity (Coyrie Sodjey), translated by Bishop of Man Thomas Wilson.^[7]

The Book of Common Prayer was translated by John Phillips, the Welsh-born Bishop of Sodor and Man (1605–33). The early Manx script does have some similarities with orthographical systems found occasionally in Scotland and in Ireland for the transliteration of Gaelic, such as the Book of the Dean of Lismore, as well as in some cases extensive texts based on English and Scottish English orthographical practices of the time. Little secular Manx literature has been preserved.

When the Anglican church authorities commenced the production of written literature in the language in the 18th century, the system developed by John Philips was further "anglicized", the one Welsh-retention being the use of ⟨y⟩ to represent schwa (e.g. [cabbyl] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [kaːβəl] "horse" and [cooney] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [kuːnə] "help" as well as /ɪ/ (e.g. [fys] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [fɪz] "knowledge"), though it is also used to represent [j], as in English (e.g. [y Yuan] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ə juːan] "John" (vocative), [yeeast] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [jiːəst] "fish").

Later pieces included short stories and poetry. Translations were made, notably of Paradise Lost in 1796.

In 2006, the first full-length novel in Manx, Dunveryssyn yn Tooder-Folley (The Vampire Murders) was published by Brian Stowell, after being serialised in the press. There is an increasing amount of literature available in the language and recent publications include Manx versions of the Gruffalo and Gruffalo's Child.^[18]

The Railway Series

Although the books of The Railway Series by the Reverend W. Awdry were written in English, Manx had a significant influence on the world in which they were set. Thomas the Tank Engine and his fellow locomotive characters live on the fictional Island of Sodor, which is to the east of the Isle of Man, but loosely based on it. It has its own language, "Sudric", which "is fast dying out and is akin to Manx and Gaelic"^[19] – but the difference between Manx and Sudric is not enough to prevent the two communities understanding one another.^[20]

Many of the names are clearly based on Manx forms, but often the nouns are inverted to match English word order. Some of the locations have quasi-Manx names, e.g., Killdane, which comes from "Keeill-y-Deighan" (Church of the Devil),^[21] hills are called Knock and Cronk,^[19] while "Nagh Beurla", means "I speak no English",^[20] a distortion of the Manx. The names of some of the 'historical' characters – used in the background but not appearing in the stories – were taken from locations on the Isle of Man, such as Sir Crosby Marown (Crosby being a small village in the parish of Marown) and Harold Regaby.^[22]

Loanwords

Foreign loan words are primarily Norse and English with a smaller number coming from French. Examples of Norse loanwords include garey ("garden", from garðr, "enclosure") and sker meaning a sea rock. Examples of French loanwords include danjeyr ("danger", from danger) and vondeish ("advantage", from avantage).

English loanwords were common in late (pre-revival) Manx, e.g. boy ("boy"), badjer ("badger"), rather than the more usual Gaelic guilley and brock. Henry Jenner, on asking someone what he was doing, was told Ta mee smokal pipe ("I am smoking a pipe"), and that "[he] certainly considered that he was talking Manx, and not English, in saying it." In more recent years, there has been a reaction against such borrowing, resulting in coinages for technical vocabulary. Despite this, calques exist in Manx, not necessarily obvious to its speakers.

Some religious terms come ultimately from Latin, Greek and Hebrew, e.g., casherick (holy), from the Latin consecrātus; mooinjer (people) from the Latin monasterium (originally a monastery; agglish (church) from the Greek ἐκκλησία (ekklesia, literally meaning assembly) and abb (abbot) from the Hebrew "אבא" (abba, meaning "father"). These did not necessarily come directly into Manx, but from Old Irish. In more recent times, ulpan has been borrowed from modern Hebrew. Many Irish and English loanwords also have a classical origin, e.g., çhellveeish (Irish teilefís) and çhellvane meaning television and telephone respectively. Foreign language words (usually known via English) are used occasionally especially for ethnic food, e.g., chorizo and spaghetti.

To make up for deficiencies in recorded Manx vocabulary, revivalists have referred to modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic for words and inspiration.

Going in the other direction, Manx Gaelic has influenced Manx English (Anglo-Manx). Common words and phrases in Anglo-Manx originating in the language include tholtan (the "th" is pronounced as a "t") meaning a ruined farmhouse, qualtagh meaning a first-foot, keeil meaning a church (especially an old one), cammag, traa-dy-liooar meaning "time enough", and tynwald (tinvaal), which is ultimately of Norse origin, but comes via Manx. It is suggested that the House of Keys takes its name from Kiare as Feed (four and twenty), which is the number of its sitting members.

Official recognition

Parliament and politics

Although Manx is commonly used for written slogans by local businesses and appears on department letterheads and promotional materials within the Isle of Man government, it is not used as a spoken language within the business community, or spoken within the government.^{[citation needed]}

Manx is used in the annual Tynwald ceremony, with new laws being read out by [Yn Lhaihder] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ('the Reader') in Manx and English.

Manx is recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. It is one of the regional languages recognised in the framework of the British-Irish Council.

Political parties have not generally been prominent in Manx politics. Notably two of them, Mec Vannin and Liberal Vannin, bear Manx names, although the former no longer stands in elections.

Education

Manx is taught as a second language at all of the island's primary and secondary schools. The lessons are optional and instruction is provided by the Department of Education's Manx Language Team who teach up to A Level standard. At present roughly about 1000 children receive some Manx Language Provision each year in island schools.

The Bunscoill Ghaelgagh which is based in St Johns has, of September 2014, 71 children who receive nearly all of their education through the medium of the language. Children who have attended the school have the opportunity to receive some of their secondary education through the language at QE2 which is based in Peel.

The playgroup organisation, Mooinjer Veggey which operates the [Bunscoill Ghaelgagh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) runs a series of preschool groups for children that introduce the language.

The first native speakers of Manx (bilingual with English) in many years have now appeared: children brought up by Manx-speaking parents.

Learning the language

There are an increasing number of resources available for those wanting to learn the language. The Manx Language Development Officer for Culture Vannin manages the Learnmanx.com website which has a wide variety of resources. These include mobile apps a new podcast in Manx, the 1000 words-in-Manx challenge and the Video-a-day in Manx series.

Media

Two weekly programmes in Manx are available on MW on Manx Radio: Traa dy liooar on Monday Jamys Jeheiney on Friday. The news in Manx is available on-line from Manx Radio who have three other weekly programmes that use the language. Clare ny Gael; Shiaght Laa and Moghrey Jedoonee.

The Isle of Man Examiner has a monthly bilingual column in Manx.

The first film to be made in Manx – the 22-minute-long Ny Kiree fo Niaghtey (The Sheep Under the Snow) – premiered in 1983 and was entered for the 5th Celtic Film and Television Festival in Cardiff in 1984. It was directed by Shorys Y Creayrie (George Broderick) for Foillan Films of Laxey, and is about the background to an early 18th-century folk song. Recently a new short film, Solace, was produced with financial assistance of Culture Vannin.^[23] A series of short cartoons about the life of Cuchulain which were produced by BBC Northern Ireland are available^[24] as are a series of cartoons on Manx mythology.^[25] Most significant is a 13-part DVD series Manx translation of the award-winning series Friends and Heroes.^[26]

Signage

Use of Manx on the national museum, underneath the English

Bilingual road, street, village and town boundary signs are common throughout the Isle of Man. All other road signs are in English only.

Business signage in Manx is gradually being introduced but is not mandated by law.

The Manx Bible

In the time of Bishop Wilson it had been a constant source of complaint among the Manx clergy that they were the only church in Christendom that had no version of the Bible in the vulgar tongue. Wilson set to work to remedy the defect, and, with the assistance of some of his clergy, managed to get some of the Bible translated, and the Gospel of St. Matthew printed. Bishop Hildesley, his successor, with the help of the whole body of Manx clergy, completed the work, and in 1775 the whole Bible was printed.^[27]

The Bible was first produced in Manx by a group of Anglican clergymen on the island. The Gospel of Matthew was printed in 1748. The four Gospels were produced in 1763 and Conaant Noa nyn Jiarn as Saualtagh Yeesey Creest (the New Testament) in 1767 by SPCK. In 1772 the Old Testament was translated from Hebrew and printed, with the Books of Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) from the Apocrypha. Yn Vible Casherick (The Holy Bible) of the Old and New Testaments was published as one book by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) in 1775.

The bicentenary was celebrated on the Isle of Man in 1975 and included a set of stamps from the Isle of Man post office. This 1775 edition effectively fixed the modern orthography of Manx Gaelic, which has changed little since. Jenner claims that some bowdlerisation had occurred in the translation, e.g., the occupation of Rahab the prostitute is rendered as ben-oast,^[1] a hostess or female inn-keeper.^[27]

There was a translation of the Psalmyn Ghavid (Psalms of David) in metre in Manx by the Rev John Clague, vicar of Rushden, which was printed with the Book of Common Prayer of 1768. Bishop Hildesley required that these Metrical Psalms were to be sung in churches. These were reprinted by the Manx Language Society in 1905.

The British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) published the Conaant Noa (New Testament) in 1810 and reprinted it in 1824. Yn Vible Casherick (the Holy Bible) of the Old Testament and New Testament (excluding the two books of the Apocrypha) was first printed as a whole in 1819. BFBS last printed anything on paper in Manx in 1936 when it reprinted Noo Ean (the Gospel of St John); this was reprinted by Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh (The Manx Gaelic Society) in 1968. The Manx Bible was republished by Shearwater Press in July 1979 as Bible Chasherick yn Lught Thie (Manx Family Bible), which was a reproduction of the BFBS 1819 Bible.

Since 2014 the BFBS 1936 Manx Gospel of John is now available online on YouVersion and Bibles.org

Church

Manx was used in some churches into the late 19th century.^[27] Although church services in Manx were once fairly common, they occur infrequently now. Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh, the Manx Language Society, hold an annual Christmas Service at locations around the island.

Classification and dialects

Manx is one of the three descendants of Old Irish (via Middle Irish and early Modern Gaelic), and is closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. It shares a number of developments in phonology, vocabulary and grammar with Irish and Scottish Gaelic (in some cases only with dialects of these) and shows a number of unique changes. There are two dialects of Manx, Northern Manx and Southern Manx.^[28]

Manx shares with Scottish Gaelic the partial loss of contrastive palatalisation of labial consonants; thus while in Irish the velarised consonants /pˠ bˠ fˠ w mˠ/ contrast phonemically with palatalised /pʲ bʲ fʲ vʲ mʲ/, in Scottish Gaelic and Manx, the phonemic contrast has been lost to some extent.^[29] A consequence of this phonemic merger is that Middle Irish unstressed word-final [əβʲ] (spelled -(a)ibh, -(a)imh in Irish and Gaelic) has merged with [əβ] (-(e)abh, -(e)amh) in Manx; both have become [u], spelled -oo or -u(e). Examples include [shassoo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("to stand"; Irish [seasamh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)), [credjue] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("religion"; Irish [creideamh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)), [nealloo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("fainting"; Early Modern Irish [(i) néalaibh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), lit. in clouds), and [erriu] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("on you (plural)"; Irish [oraibh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)).^[30] However, Manx is further advanced in this than is Scottish, where the verb ending -ibh second person plural is consistently [-iv], as it is in the second plural pronoun sibh (shiu in Manx).

Like western and northern dialects of Irish (cf. Irish phonology) and most dialects of Scottish Gaelic, Manx has changed the historical consonant clusters /kn ɡn mn tn/ to /kr ɡr mr tr/. For example, Middle Irish [cnáid] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("mockery") and [mná] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("women") have become [craid] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and [mraane] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) respectively in Manx.^[31] The affrication of [t̪ʲ d̪ʲ] to [tʃ dʒ] is also common to Manx, northern Irish, and Scottish Gaelic.^[32]

Also like northern and western dialects of Irish, as well as like southern dialects of Scottish Gaelic (e.g. Arran, Kintyre), the unstressed word-final syllable [iʝ] of Middle Irish (spelled -(a)idh and -(a)igh) has developed to [iː] in Manx, where it is spelled -ee, as in [kionnee] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("buy"; cf. Irish [ceannaigh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) and [cullee] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("apparatus"; cf. Gaelic [culaidh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)).^[33]

Another property Manx shares with Ulster Irish and some dialects of Scottish Gaelic is that /a/ rather than /ə/ appears in unstressed syllables before /x/ (in Manx spelling, agh), for example [jeeragh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("straight") [ˈdʒiːrax] (Irish [díreach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)), [cooinaghtyn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("to remember") [ˈkuːnʲaxt̪ən] (Gaelic [cuimhneachd] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)).^[34]

Similarly to Munster Irish, historical bh [βʲ] and mh (nasalised [βʲ]) have been lost in the middle or at the end of a word in Manx either with compensatory lengthening or vocalisation as u resulting in diphthongisation with the preceding vowel. For example, Manx [geurey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("winter") [ˈɡʲeurə], [ˈɡʲuːrə] and [sleityn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("mountains") [ˈsleːdʒən] correspond to Irish [geimhreadh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and [sléibhte] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (Southern Irish dialect spelling and pronunciation gíre ([ˈɟiːɾʲə]) and sléte ([ˈʃlʲeːtʲə])).^[35] Another similarity to Munster Irish is the development of the Old Irish diphthongs [oi ai] before velarised consonants (spelled ao in Irish and Scottish Gaelic) to [eː] in many words, as in [seyr] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("carpenter") [seːr] and [keyl] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("narrow") [keːl] (spelled [saor] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and [caol] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in Irish and Scottish, and pronounced virtually the same in Munster).^[36]

Like southern and western varieties of Irish and northern varieties of Scottish Gaelic, but unlike the geographically closer varieties of Ulster Irish and Arran and Kintyre Gaelic, Manx shows vowel lengthening or diphthongisation before the Old Irish fortis and lenis sonorants. For example, [cloan] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("children") [klɔːn], [dhone] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("brown") [d̪ɔːn], [eeym] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("butter") [iːᵇm] correspond to Irish/Scottish Gaelic [clann] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), [donn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), and [im] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) respectively, which have long vowels or diphthongs in western and southern Irish and in the Scottish Gaelic dialects of the Outer Hebrides and Skye, thus western Irish [klˠɑːn̪ˠ], Southern Irish/Northern Scottish [kl̪ˠaun̪ˠ], [d̪ˠaun̪ˠ]/[d̪ˠoun̪ˠ], [iːm]/[ɤim]), but short vowels and 'long' consonants in northern Irish, Arran, and Kintyre, [kl̪ˠan̪ːˠ], [d̪ˠon̪ːˠ] and [imʲː].^[37]

Another similarity with southern Irish is the treatment of Middle Irish word-final unstressed [əð], spelled -(e)adh in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. In nouns (including verbal nouns), this became [ə] in Manx, as it did in southern Irish, e.g. [caggey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("war") [ˈkaːɣə], [moylley] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("to praise") [ˈmɔlə]; cf. Irish [cogadh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and [moladh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), pronounced [ˈkˠɔɡˠə] and [ˈmˠɔl̪ˠə] in southern Irish.^[38] In finite verb forms before full nouns (as opposed to pronouns) [əð] became [ax] in Manx, as in southern Irish, e.g. [voyllagh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈvɔlax] ("would praise"), cf. Irish [mholfadh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), pronounced [ˈvˠɔl̪ˠhəx] in southern Irish.^[39]

Linguistic analysis of the last few dozen native speakers reveals a number of dialectal differences between the northern and the southern parts of the island. Northern Manx is reflected by speakers from towns and villages from Maughold in the northeast of the island to Peel on the west coast. Southern Manx is used by speakers from the Sheading of Rushen.

In Southern Manx, older á and in some cases ó have become [eː]. In Northern Manx the same happens, but á sometimes remains [aː] as well. For example, [laa] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("day", cf. Irish [lá] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) is [leː] in the south but [leː] or [laː] in the north. Old ó is always [eː] in both dialects, e.g. [aeg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("young", cf. Irish [óg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) is [eːɡ] in both dialects.^[40]

In Northern Manx, older (e)a before nn in the same syllable is diphthongised, while in Southern Manx it is lengthened but remains a monophthong. For example, [kione] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("head", cf. Irish [ceann] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) is [kʲaun] in the north but [kʲoːn] in the south.^[41]

In both dialects of Manx, words with ua and in some cases ao in Irish and Scottish are spelled with eay in Manx. In Northern Manx, this sound is [iː], while in Southern Manx it is [ɯː], [uː], or [yː]. For example, [geay] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("wind", cf. Irish [gaoth] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) is [ɡiː] in the north and [ɡɯː] in the south, while [geayl] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("coal", cf. Irish [gual] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) is [ɡiːl] in the north and [ɡyːl], [ɡɯːl], or [ɡuːl] in the south.^[42]

In both the north and the south, there is a tendency to insert a short [d] sound before a word-final [n] in monosyllabic words, as in [sleᵈn] for [slane] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("whole") and [beᵈn] for [ben] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("woman"). This phenomenon is known as pre-occlusion. In Southern Manx, however, there is pre-occlusion of [d] before [l] and of [ɡ] before [ŋ], as in [ʃuːᵈl] for [shooyl] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("walking") and [lɔᶢŋ] for [lhong] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("ship"). These forms are generally pronounced without pre-occlusion in the north. Preocclusion of [b] before [m], on the other hand, is more common in the north, as in [trome] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("heavy"), which is [t̪roᵇm] in the north but [t̪roːm] or [t̪roːᵇm] in the south.^[43] This feature is also found in Cornish.

Southern Manx tends to lose word-initial [ɡ] before [lʲ], while Northern Manx usually preserves it, e.g. [glion] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("glen") is [ɡlʲɔᵈn] in the north and [lʲɔᵈn] in the south, and [glioon] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("knee") is [ɡlʲuːn] in the north and [lʲuːᵈn] in the south.^[44]

Phrases

The following are some simple words and phrases in Manx that might be used in conversation between two people :

English (Baarle)	Manx (Gaelg)
Good day	Laa Mie
How are you?	Kys t'ou?
Very well	Feer vie
Thank you	Gura mie ayd
And yourself?	As oo hene?
Goodbye	Slane Lhiat
Isle of Man	Ellan Vannin

Orthography

The Manx orthography is unlike that of Irish and Scottish Gaelic, both of which use closely related modernised variants of the orthography of Early Modern Irish, the language of the educated Gaelic elite of both Ireland and Scotland (where it is called Classical Gaelic) until the mid-19th century. These orthographies in general show both word pronunciation and word derivation from the Gaelic past, though not in a one-to-one system, there being only 18 letters to represent around 50 phonemes. While Manx in effect uses the English alphabet, except for ⟨x⟩ and ⟨z⟩, the 24 letters of its alphabet likewise do not cover a similar range of phonemes, and therefore many digraphs and trigraphs are used.

The orthography was developed by people who were unaware of traditional Gaelic orthography, as they had learned literacy in Welsh and English (the initial development in the 16th century), then only English (later developments). Therefore, the orthography shows the pronunciation of words mainly from the point of view of early Modern English "phonetics", and to a small extent Welsh, rather than from the Gaelic point of view.^[45] The result is an inconsistent and only partially phonetic spelling system, in the same way that English orthographic practices are inconsistent and only partially phonetic. T. F. O'Rahilly expressed the opinion that Gaelic in the Isle of Man was saddled with a corrupt spelling which is neither traditional nor phonetic; if the traditional Gaelic orthography had been preserved, the close kinship that exists between Manx Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic would be obvious to all at first sight.^[46]

There is no evidence of Gaelic script having been used on the island.

Cedilla

Manx uses relatively few diacritics, but a cedilla is often (but not exclusively) used to differentiate between the two pronunciations of ch:

Çhiarn (/ˈt͡ʃaːrn/), meaning lord, is pronounced with the palato-alveolar affricate /t͡ʃ/, as in the English "church"
Chamoo (/xaˈmu), meaning nor or neither, is pronounced with the velar fricative /x/, as in the Scottish pronunciation of the word "loch" (/ˈlɒx/), a sound which is commonly represented by gh at the ends of words in Manx.

Examples

The following examples are taken from Broderick 1984–86, 1:178–79 and 1:350–53. The first example is from a speaker of Northern Manx, the second from Ned Maddrell, a speaker of Southern Manx.

Orthography	Phonetic transcription	Gloss
V'ad smooinaghtyn dy beagh cabbyl jeeaghyn skee as deinagh ayns y voghree dy beagh eh er ve ec ny ferrishyn fud ny h-oie as beagh ad cur lesh yn saggyrt dy cur e vannaght er.	vod̪ ˈsmuːnʲaxt̪ən d̪ə biəx ˈkaːbəl dʒiːən skiː as ˈd̪øinʲax uns ə ˈvoːxəri d̪ə biəx e er vi ek nə ˈferiʃən fod̪ nə høi as biəx əd̪ kør leʃ ən ˈsaːɡərt̪ d̪ə kør ə ˈvanax er	They used to think if a horse was looking tired and weary in the morning then it had been with the fairies all night and they would bring the priest to put his blessing on it.
Va ben aynshoh yn çhiaghtin chaie as v'ee laccal mish dy ynsagh ee dy gra yn Padjer yn Çhiarn. Dooyrt ee dy row ee gra eh tra v'ee inneen veg, agh t'eh ooilley jarroodit eck, as v'ee laccal gynsagh eh reesht son dy gra eh ec vrastyl ny red ennagh. As dooyrt mish dy jinnagh mee jannoo my share son dy cooney lhee as ren ee çheet aynshoh son dy clashtyn eh, as vel oo laccal dy clashtyn mee dy gra eh?	və ˈbɛn əˈsoː ən ˈtʃaːn ˈkai as vai ˈlaːl ˈmiʃ ði ˈjinðax i ðə ˈɡreː in ˈpaːdʒər ən ˈtʃaːrn ‖ d̪ot̪ i ðə ˈrau i ɡreː a ˈt̪reː vai iˈnʲin ˈveːɡ ‖ ax t̪e ˈolʲu dʒaˈrud̪ətʃ ek ‖ as vei ˈlaːl ˈɡʲinðax a ˈriːʃ san ðə ˈɡreː ə əɡ ˈvraːst̪əl nə ˈrið ənax ‖ as ˈd̪ut̪ miʃ ðə ˈdʒinax mi ˈdʒinu mə ˈʃeː san ðə ˈkunə lʲei as ˈrenʲ i ˈtʃit̪ oˈsoː san ðə ˈklaːʃtʲən a ‖ as vel u ˈlaːl ðə ˈklaːʃtʲən mi ðə ˈɡreː a ‖	There was a woman here last week and she wanted me to teach her to say the Lord's Prayer. She said that she used to say it when she was a little girl, but she has forgotten it all, and she wanted to learn it again to say it at a class or something. And I said I would do my best to help her and she came here to hear it, and do you want to hear me say it?

Gaelic versions of the Lord's Prayer

The Lord's Prayer has been translated into all the Goidelic tongues. Although the wording is not completely cognate, they demonstrate the different orthographies.

The standard version of the Lord's Prayer in Manx

Ayr ain t'ayns niau,

Casherick dy row dt'ennym.

Dy jig dty reeriaght.

Dt'aigney dy row jeant er y thalloo,

myr t'ayns niau.

Cur dooin nyn arran jiu as gagh laa,

as leih dooin nyn loghtyn,

myr ta shin leih dauesyn ta jannoo loghtyn nyn 'oi.

As ny leeid shin ayns miolagh,

agh livrey shin veih olk:

Son lhiats y reeriaght, as y phooar, as y ghloyr, son dy bragh as dy bragh.

Amen.

Manx version of 1713^[47]

Ayr Ain, t'ayns Niau;

Caſherick dy rou dt'ennym;

Di jig dty Reereeaght;

Dt'aigney dy rou jeant er y Talloo

myr t'ayns Niau;

Cur dooin nyn Arran jiu as gagh laa;

As leih dooin nyn Loghtyn,

myr ta ſhin leih daueſyn ta janoo loghtyn ny noi ſhin;

As ny leeid ſhin ayns Miolagh;

Agh livrey ſhin veih olk;

Son liats y Reeriaght y Phooar as y Ghloyr, ſon dy bragh as dy bragh.

Amen

The prayer in Old Irish^[48]

A athair fil hi nimib,

Noemthar thainm.

Tost do flaithius.

Did do toil i talmain

amail ata in nim.

Tabair dun indiu ar sasad lathi.

Ocus log dun ar fiachu

amail logmaitne diar fhechemnaib.

Ocus nis lecea sind i n-amus n-dofulachtai.

Acht ron soer o cech ulc.

Amen ropfir.

The Prayer in modern Irish

Ár n-Athair, atá ar neamh:

go naofar d'ainm (alt. go naomhaíthear t'ainm).

Go dtaga do ríocht (alt.go dtagaidh do ríocht).

Go ndéantar do thoil ar an talamh (alt. ar an dtalamh),

mar dhéantar ar neamh.

Ár n-arán laethúil tabhair dúinn inniu,

agus maith dúinn ár bhfiacha (alt. ár gcionta),

mar mhaithimid dár bhféichiúna féin (alt. mar a mhaithimíd dóibh a chiontaíonn inár n-aghaidh).

Agus ná lig sinn i gcathú (alt. i gcathaíbh),

ach saor sinn ó olc (alt. ón olc).

Óir is leatsa an Ríocht agus an Chumhacht agus an Ghlóir, trí shaol na saol (alt. le saol na saol / go síoraí).

Amen (alt. Áiméan).

The Prayer in Scottish Gaelic

Ar n-Athair a tha air nèamh,

Gu naomhaichear d' ainm.

Thigeadh do rìoghachd.

Dèanar do thoil air an talamh,

mar a nithear air nèamh.

Tabhair dhuinn an-diugh ar n-aran làitheil.

Agus maith dhuinn ar fiachan,

amhail a mhaitheas sinne dar luchd-fiach.

Agus na leig ann am buaireadh sinn;

ach saor sinn o olc:

oir is leatsa an rìoghachd, agus a' chumhachd, agus a' ghlòir, gu sìorraidh.

Amen.

Spelling to sound correspondences

Vowels

Letter(s)		Phoneme(s)	Examples
a	stressed	/a/ /aː/	Ghaelgagh, cooinaghtyn padjer, cabbyl
a	unstressed	/ə/ /i/ /a/	ardnieu, bodjal collaneyn duillag
a…e, ia…e		/eː/	slane, buggane, kiare
aa, aa…e		/ɛː/ /øː/ /eːa/ /eː/ /aː/ (north)	baatey, aashagh faarkey jaagh blaa, aane
aai		/ɛi/
ae		/i/ /ɪ/ /eː/	Gaelg Ghaelgagh aeg, aer
aew		/au/
ah		/ə/	peccah
ai, ai…e		/aː/ /ai/ /e/	maidjey aile paitçhey
aiy		/eː/	faiyr
aue		/eːw/	craue, fraue
ay		/eː/	ayr, kay
e	stressed	/e/ /eː/ /ɛ/ /i/	ben, veggey mess peccah, eddin chengey
e	unstressed	/ə/	padjer
ea		/ɛː/	beaghey
eai		/eː/	eairk
eau, ieau		/uː/	slieau
eay		/eː/ /iː/ (north) /ɯː/, /uː/ or /yː/ (south)	eayst, cleaysh geay, keayn
ee		/iː/	kionnee, jees
eea		/iːə/ /iː/ /jiː/	yeeast, keead feeackle, keeagh eeast
eei, eey		/iː/	feeid, dreeym, meeyl
ei		/eː/ /e/ /a/	sleityn, ein queig geinnagh
eih		/ɛː/	jeih
eoie		/øi/	leoie
eu, ieu		/uː/ /eu/	geurey ardnieu
ey	stressed	/eː/	seyr, keyl
ey	unstressed	/ə/	veggey, collaneyn
unstressed i		/ə/ /i/	eddin, ruggit poosit
ia		/aː/ /a/ /iː/ /iːə/	çhiarn, shiaght toshiaght, sniaghtey grian skian
ie		/aɪ/
io		/ɔ/	glion
io…e		/au/ (north) /oː/ (south)	kione
o, oi		/ɔ/ or /a/ /ɔː/ or /aː/ /o/ /oː/ /u/	lhong, toshiaght bodjal, logh, moir vondeish, bolg, bunscoill hoght, reeoil stroin
o…e		/ɔː/ /oː/	dhone trome
oa		/ɔː/ /au/	cloan joan
oh		/ɔ/
oie		/ei/ or /iː/	oie
oo, ioo, ooh		/uː/	shassoo, cooney, glioon, ooh
ooa, iooa		/uː/	mooar
ooi		/u/	mooinjer, cooinaghtyn
ooy		/uː/	shooyl
oy		/ɔ/	moylley, voyllagh
u, ui, iu	stressed	/ʊ/ /o/ /ø/	bunscoill ruggit, ushag, duillag, fuill lurgey
u, ui, iu	unstressed	/ə/	buggane
ua		/uːa/	y Yuan
ue		/u/	credjue
uy		/ɛi/ or /iː/	nuy
wa		/o/	mwannal
y		/ə/ /i/ /ɪ/ /j/	cabbyl, sleityn yngyn fys y Yuan, yeeast

Consonants

Letter(s)		Phoneme(s)	Examples
b, bb	usually	/b/	bunscoill, ben
b, bb	between vowels	/β/ or /v/	cabbyl
c, cc, ck	usually	/k/	bunscoill, cloan
c, cc, ck	between vowels	/ɡ/ /ɣ/	peccah, gaccan feeackle, crackan
ch		/x/	cha
çh, tçh		/tʃ/	çhiarn, çhengey, paitçhey
d, dd, dh	broad	/d̪/	keead, ardnieu, tedd, dhone
	slender	/dʲ/ or /dʒ/	feeid
	broad, between vowels	/ð/	eddin, moddey
f		/f/	fys, feeackle
g, gg	broad	/ɡ/	Gaelg, Ghaelgagh
	slender	/ɡʲ/	geurey, geinnagh
	between vowels	/ɣ/	veggey, ruggit
gh	usually	/ɣ/ ∅	Ghaelgagh, beaghey shaghey
gh	finally or before t	/x/	jeeragh, clagh, cooinaghtyn
-ght		/x/	toshiaght, hoght
h		/h/	hoght
j, dj	usually	/dʒ/	mooinjer, jeeragh
j, dj	between vowels	/ʒ/ /j/	padjer maidjey, fedjag
k	broad	/k/	keyl, eairk
k	slender	/kʲ/	kione, kiare
l, ll	broad	/l/	Gaelg, sleityn, moylley
	slender	/lʲ/	glion, blein, feill, billey
	finally, in monosyllabic words (S only)	/ᵈl/	shooyl
-le		/əl/	feeackle
lh		/l/	lhong
m, mm	normally	/m/	mooinjer, dreeym, famman
m, mm	finally, in monosyllabic words (N only)	/ᵇm/	eeym, trome
n	broad	/n/	bunscoill, cooinaghtyn, ennym
	slender	/nʲ/	ardnieu, collaneyn, dooinney, geinnagh
	finally, in monosyllabic words	/ᵈn/	slane, ben
	slender, finally, in monosyllabic words	/ᵈnʲ/	ein
ng	usually	/ŋ/ /nʲ/	yngyn chengey
ng	finally, in monosyllabic words (S only)	/ᶢŋ/	lhong
p, pp	usually	/p/	peccah, padjer
p, pp	between vowels	/v/	cappan
qu		/kw/	queig
r, rr	usually	/r/	geurey, jeeragh, ferrishyn
r, rr	finally	[ɹ̝] or [ə̯]	aer, faiyr
s, ss	usually	/s/ /z/	bunscoill, sleityn, cass fys
	initially before n	/ʃ/	sniaghtey
	between vowels	/ð/ /z/	shassoo poosit
sh	usually	/ʃ/	shooyl, vondeish
sh	between vowels	/ʒ/ /j/	aashagh, ushag toshiaght
-st		/s/	eayst, eeast
t, tt, th	broad	/t̪/	trome, cooinaghtyn, thalloo
	slender	/tʲ/ or /tʃ/	poosit, ushtey, tuittym
	broad, between vowels	/d̪/ /ð/	brattag baatey
	slender, between vowels	/dʲ/ or /dʒ/	sleityn
v		/v/	veggey, voyllagh
w		/w/	awin

Phonology

Consonants

The consonant phonemes of Manx are as follows:^[49]

**Manx consonant phonemes**
	Bilabial		Labio- dental		Dental		Alveolar		Post- alveolar			Palato- velar		Velar			Glottal
Plosive	p	b			t̪	d̪			tʲ	dʲ		kʲ	ɡʲ	k	ɡ
Fricative			f	v			s		ʃ			xʲ	ɣʲ	x	ɣ		h
Nasal		m				n				nʲ					ŋ
Trill								r
Approximant											j					w
Lateral						l				lʲ

The voiceless plosives are pronounced with aspiration. The dental, postalveolar and palato-velar plosives /t̪ d̪ tʲ dʲ kʲ/ are affricated to [t̪͡θ d̪͡ð t͡ʃ d͡ʒ k͡xʲ] in many contexts.

Manx has an optional process of lenition of plosives between vowels, whereby voiced plosives and voiceless fricatives become voiced fricatives and voiceless plosives become either voiced plosives or voiced fricatives. This process introduces the allophones [β ð z ʒ] to the series of voiced fricatives in Manx. The voiced fricative [ʒ] may be further lenited to [j], and [ɣ] may disappear altogether. Examples include:^[50]

Voiceless plosive to voiced plosive

/t̪/ > [d̪]: [brattag] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈbrad̪aɡ] "flag, rag"
/k/ > [ɡ]: [peccah] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈpɛɡə] "sin"

Voiceless plosive to voiced fricative

/p/ > [v]: [cappan] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈkavan] "cup"
/t̪/ > [ð]: [baatey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈbɛːðə] "boat"
/k/ > [ɣ]: [feeackle] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈfiːɣəl] "tooth"

Voiced plosive to voiced fricative

/b/ > [v]: [cabbyl] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈkaːvəl] "horse"
/d̪/ > [ð]: [eddin] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈɛðənʲ] "face"
/dʲ/ > [ʒ]: [padjer] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈpaːʒər] "prayer"
/dʲ/ > [ʒ] > [j]: [maidjey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈmaːʒə], [ˈmaːjə] "stick"
/ɡ/ > [ɣ]: [ruggit] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈroɣət] "born"

Voiceless fricative to voiced fricative

/s/ > [ð] or [z]: [poosit] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈpuːðitʲ] or [ˈpuːzitʲ] "married"
/s/ > [ð]: [shassoo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈʃaːðu] "stand"
/ʃ/ > [ʒ]: [aashagh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈɛːʒax] "easy"
/ʃ/ > [ʒ] > [j]: [toshiaght] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈt̪ɔʒax], [ˈt̪ɔjax] "beginning"
/x/ > [ɣ]: [beaghey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ˈbɛːɣə] "live"
/x/ > [ɣ] > ∅: [shaghey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ʃaː] "past"

Another optional process of Manx phonology is pre-occlusion, the insertion of a very short plosive consonant before a sonorant consonant. In Manx, this applies to stressed monosyllabic words (i.e. words one syllable long). The inserted consonant is homorganic with the following sonorant, which means it has the same place of articulation. Long vowels are often shortened before pre-occluded sounds. Examples include:^[51]

/m/ > [ᵇm]: [trome] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /t̪roːm/ > [t̪roᵇm] "heavy"
/n/ > [ᵈn]: [kione] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /kʲoːn/ > [kʲoᵈn] "head"
/nʲ/ > [ᵈnʲ]: [ein] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /eːnʲ/ > [eːᵈnʲ], [eᵈnʲ] "birds"
/ŋ/ > [ᶢŋ]: [lhong] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /loŋ/ > [loᶢŋ] "ship"
/l/ > [ᵈl]: [shooyll] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /ʃuːl/ > [ʃuːᵈl] "walking"

The trill /r/ is realised as a one- or two-contact flap [ɾ] at the beginning of syllable, and as a stronger trill [r] when preceded by another consonant in the same syllable. At the end of a syllable, /r/ can be pronounced either as a strong trill [r] or, more frequently, as a weak fricative [ɹ̝], which may vocalise to a nonsyllabic [ə̯] or disappear altogether.^[52] This vocalisation may be due to the influence of Manx English, which is itself a non-rhotic accent.^[53] Examples of the pronunciation of /r/ include:

[ribbey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "snare" [ˈɾibə]
[arran] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "bread" [ˈaɾan]
[mooar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "big" [muːr], [muːɹ̝], [muːə̯], [muː]

Vowels

The vowel phonemes of Manx are as follows:^[54]

Manx vowel phonemes
	Short			Long
	Front	Central	Back	Front	Central	Back
Close	i		u	iː		uː
Mid	e	ə	o	eː		oː
Open	(æ)	a		(æː)	aː

The status of [æ] and [æː] as separate phonemes is debatable, but is suggested by the allophony of certain words such as [ta] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "is", [mraane] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "women", and so on. An alternative analysis is that Manx has the following system, where the vowels /a/ and /aː/ have allophones ranging from [ɛ]/[ɛː] through [æ]/[æː] to [a]/[aː]. As with Irish and Scottish Gaelic, there is a large amount of vowel allophony, such as that of /a/, /aː/. This depends mainly on the 'broad' and 'slender' status of the neighbouring consonants:

Manx vowel phonemes and their allophonic variation
Phoneme	"Slender"	"Broad"
/i/, /iː/	[i], [iː]	[ɪ], [ɪː]
/e/, /eː/	[e]/[eː]	[ɛ]/[ɛː]
/a/, /aː/	[ɛ~æ]/[ɛː~æː]	[a]/[aː]
/ə/	[ɨ]	[ə]
/əi/ (Middle Gaelic)	[iː]	[ɛː], [ɯː], [ɪː]
/o/, /oː/	[o], [oː]	[ɔ], [ɔː]
/u/, /uː/	[u], [uː]	[ø~ʊ], [uː]
/uə/ (Middle Gaelic)	[iː], [yː]	[ɪː], [ɯː], [uː]

When stressed, /ə/ is realised as [ø].^[55]

Manx has a relatively large number of diphthongs, all of them falling:

Manx diphthongs
		Second element
		/i/	/u/	/ə/
First element	Close	ui		iə • uə
	Mid	ei • əi • oi	eu • əu
	Open	ai	au

Stress

Stress generally falls on the first syllable of a word in Manx, but in many cases, stress is attracted to a long vowel in the second syllable.^[56] Examples include:

[buggane] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /bəˈɣeːn/ "sprite"
[tarroogh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /t̪aˈruːx/ "busy"
[reeoil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /riːˈoːl/ "royal"
[vondeish] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) /vonˈd̪eːʃ/ "advantage"

Morphology

Initial consonant mutations

Like all modern Celtic languages, Manx shows initial consonant mutations, which are processes by which the initial consonant of a word is altered according to its morphological and/or syntactic environment.^[57] Manx has two mutations: lenition and nasalisation, found on nouns and verbs in a variety of environments; adjectives can undergo lenition but not nasalisation. In the late spoken language of the 20th century the system was breaking down, with speakers frequently failing to use mutation in environments where it was called for, and occasionally using it in environments where it was not called for.

Initial consonant mutation in Manx
Unmutated	IPA	Lenition	IPA	Nasalisation	IPA
p	/p/	ph	/f/	b	/b/^{[* 1]}
t(h)	/t̪/	h	/h/, /x/	d(h)	/d̪/
çh	/tʲ/	h	/h/, /xʲ/	j	/dʲ/^{[* 1]}
c, k	/kʲ/	ch	/xʲ/	g	/ɡʲ/^{[* 1]}
c, k qu	/k/ /kw/	ch wh	/x/, /h/ /hw/	g gu	/ɡ/
b bw	/b/ /bw/	b w	/v/ /w/	m mw	/m/^{[* 1]} /mw/^{[* 1]}
d(h)	/d̪/	gh	/ɣ/, /w/	n	/n/^{[* 1]}
j	/dʲ/	gh, y	/ɣʲ/, /j/	n	/nʲ/
g	/ɡʲ/	gh, y	/ɣʲ/, /j/	ng	/ŋ/?^{[* 1]}
m mw	/m/ /mw/	v w	/v/ /w/		(no change)
f fw	/f/ /fw/	f	zero /hw/	v w	/v/^{[* 1]} /w/^{[* 1]}
s sl sn	/s/ /sl/ /snʲ/	s sl sn	/h/ /l/ /nʲ/		(no change)
sh	/ʃ/	h	/h/ , /xʲ/		(no change)

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Not attested in the late spoken language (Broderick 1984–86, 3:66)

In the corpus of the late spoken language, there is also one example of the nasalisation of /ɡ/: the sentence [Ta mee er ngeddyn yn eayn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("I have found the lamb"), where ng is pronounced /n/. However, it is possible that the verbal noun in this case is not [geddyn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), which usually means "get", but rather [feddyn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), which is the more usual word for "find".^[58]

Nouns

Manx nouns fall into one of two genders, masculine or feminine. Nouns are inflected for number. The plural is formed in a variety of ways, most commonly by addition of the suffix [-yn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ən], but also by vowel change, changing [-agh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [ax] to [-ee] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [iː] or [-eeagh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [iːən] or by adding other endings. There is usually no inflection for case, except in a minority of nouns that have a distinct genitive singular form, which is formed in various ways. (Most common is the addition of the suffix -ey [ə] to feminine nouns.) Historical genitive singulars are often encountered in compounds even when they are no longer productive forms; for example [thie-ollee] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "cowhouse" uses the old genitive of [ollagh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "cattle".^[59] There are also traces of a dative singular in set phrases such as [ry-chosh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "on foot", contrasting with nominative [cass] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and genitive [coshey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (cf. [cullee choshey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "footwear", [bluckan coshey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "football, soccer, rugby").^[60]

Adjectives

Certain adjectives have plural as well as singular forms (through the addition -ey [ə]), although the use of the singular adjective with a plural noun is usual. Most adjectives end in -agh [ax] and form their comparative/superlative form by replacing this with -ee [iː], e.g. atçhimagh "terrible" becomes atçhimee, giving ny s'atçhimee "more terrible" and s'atçhimee "most terrible".^[61] A number of adjectives form their comparative/superlative irregularly:

Irregular comparative/superlative forms of Manx adjectives
Positive	English	Comparative/Superlative
aalin	beautiful	(ny) s'aaley
aashag	easy	(ny) sassey
aeg	young	(ny) s'aa
ard	high	(ny) s'yrjey
beg	small	(ny) smoo
bog	soft, moist	(ny) s'buiggey
bwaagh	poor	(ny) s'bwaaie
çheh	hot	(ny) s'çhoe
çhionn	tight, fast	(ny) s'çhenney
çhiu	thick	(ny) s'çhee
faggys	near	(ny) sniessey
foddey	far, long	(ny) sodjey
garroo	rough	(ny) s'girroo
gial	bright, white	(ny) s'gilley
giare	short	(ny) s'girrey
lajer	strong	(ny) s'troshey
leah	soon	(ny) s'leaie
lheann	wide	(ny) shlea
liauyr	long, tall	(ny) s'lhuirey
mie	good	(ny) share
moal	slow	(ny) smelley
mooar	large, big	(ny) smoo
olk	bad, evil	(ny) smessey
reagh	merry, lively	(ny) s'reaie
roauyr	fat, broad	(ny) s'riurey
shenn	old	(ny) shinney
thanney	thin	(ny) s'theinney
trome	heavy	(ny) s'thrimmey
ymmodee	many	(ny) shlee

The comparative/superlative can also be formed using [smoo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "more" with the positive form e.g. [s'thrimmey] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) = [smoo trome] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help).

Pronouns

In common with Irish and Scottish Gaelic, in addition to its regular personal pronouns, Manx has also a series used for emphasis. Under certain phonological circumstances, these can be used as unemphatic pronouns, e.g. "you were not" is [cha row uss] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [xa ˈrau ʊs] as [cha row oo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [xa ˈrau u(ː)] sounds too similar to [cha row] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) [xa ˈrau] "there/he/she was not".

Notice the only difference between the masculine and feminine third person singular possessive pronouns is the initial letter change they cause, e.g. [e glioonag] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "her laptop", [e ghlioonag] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "his laptop", [e raad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "her/his road".

An alternative to using the possessive pronouns is to precede a noun with the definite article and follow it with the inflected form of [ec] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "at" to show the person, e.g. [yn thie aym] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "my house" (literally "the house at me") instead of [my hie] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "my house". This is especially useful in the plural, where all persons share one possessive pronoun, e.g. [yn thie oc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "their house", as opposed to [nyn dhie] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "our/your/their house".

**Manx personal pronouns**
Person		Regular	Emphatic	Possessive
First singular		mee	mish	my^[1]
Second singular		ou	uss	dty^[1]
Third singular	masculine	eh	eshyn	e^[1]
Third singular	feminine	ee	ish	e
First plural		shin	shinyn	nyn^[2]
Second plural		shiu	shiuish	nyn^[2]
Third plural		ad	adsyn	nyn^[2]

1.^ Causes lention.

2.^ Causes eclipsis.

Verbs

Manx verbs generally form their finite forms by means of periphrasis: inflected forms of the auxiliary verbs [ve] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "to be" or [jannoo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "to do" are combined with the verbal noun of the main verb. Only the future, conditional, preterite, and imperative can be formed directly by inflecting the main verb, but even in these tenses, the periphrastic formation is more common in Late Spoken Manx.^[62] Examples:

**Manx finite verb forms**
Tense	Periphrastic form (literal translation)	Inflected form	Gloss
Present	ta mee tilgey (I am throwing)	–	I throw
Imperfect	va mee tilgey (I was throwing)	–	I was throwing
Perfect	ta mee er tilgey (I am after throwing)^[63]	–	I have thrown
Pluperfect	va mee er tilgey (I was after throwing)^[63]	–	I had thrown
Preterite	ren mee tilgey (I did throwing)	hilg mee	I threw
Future	neeym tilgey (I will do throwing)	tilgym	I will throw
Conditional	yinnin tilgey (I would do throwing)	hilgin	I would throw
Imperative	jean tilgey (Do throwing!)	tilg	Throw!
Past participle	–	tilgit	thrown

The future and conditional tenses (and in some irregular verbs, the preterite) make a distinction between "independent" and "dependent" forms. Independent forms are used when the verb is not preceded by any particle; dependent forms are used when a particle (e.g. [cha] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "not") does precede the verb. For example, "you will lose" is [caillee oo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) with the independent form [caillee] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("will lose"), while "you will not lose" is [cha gaill oo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) with the dependent form [caill] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (which has undergone eclipsis to [gaill] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) after [cha] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)). Similarly "they went" is [hie ad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) with the independent form [hie] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("went"), while "they did not go" is [cha jagh ad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) with the dependent form [jagh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help).^[64] This contrast is inherited from Old Irish, which shows such pairs as [beirid] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("(s)he carries") vs. [ní beir] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("(s)he does not carry"), and is found in Scottish Gaelic as well, e.g. [gabhaidh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("will take") vs. [cha ghabh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("will not take"). In Modern Irish, the distinction is found only in irregular verbs (e.g. [chonaic] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("saw") vs. [ní fhaca] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("did not see").

The fully inflected forms of the regular verb tilgey "to throw" are as follows. In addition to the forms below, a past participle may be formed using -it: tilgit "thrown".

**Inflection of a regular Manx verb**
Tense	Independent	Dependent	Relative
Preterite	hilg	(same as independent)
Future	tilgym^[1], tilgmayd^[2], tilgee^[3]	dilgym^[1], dilgmayd^[2], dilgee^[3]	tilgys
Conditional	tilgin^[1], tilgagh^[3]	dilgin^[1], dilgagh^[3]
Imperative	tilg	(same as independent)

1.^ First person singular, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant

2.^ First person plural, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant

3.^ Used with all other persons, meaning an accompanying subject must be stated, e.g. tilgee eh "he will throw", tilgee ad "they will throw"

There are a few peculiarities when a verb begins with a vowel, i.e. the addition of d' in the preterite and n' in the future and conditional dependent. Below is the conjugation of aase "to grow".

**Inflection of a regular Manx verb beginning with a vowel**
Tense	Independent	Dependent	Relative
Preterite	d'aase^[1]	(same as independent)
Future	aasym, aasmayd, aasee	n'aasym, n'aasmayd, n'aasee	aasys
Conditional	aasin, aasagh	n'aasin, n'aasagh
Imperative	aase	(same as independent)

1.^ d' may also be spelt j when pronounced /dʲ/ [dʒ] i.e. before a slender vowel, e.g. "ate" can be either d'ee or jee.

These peculiarties extend to verbs begins with f, e.g. faagail "to leave".

**Inflection of a regular Manx verb beginning with f**
Tense	Independent	Dependent	Relative
Preterite	d'aag^[1]	(same as independent)
Future	faagym, faagmayd, faagee	vaagym, vaagmayd, vaagee, n'aagym, n'aagmayd, n'aagee	aagys
Conditional	aagin, aagagh	vaagin, vaagagh, n'aagin, n'aagagh
Imperative	faag	(same as independent)

1.^ Again, d' may also be spelt j where appropriate.

A number of verbs are irregular in their inflection.

Inflected forms of irregular Manx verbs
Form	Preterite indep.	Preterite dep.	Future indep.	Future dep.	Conditional indep.	Conditional dep.	Imperative	Past participle
çheet (come)	haink	daink	higgym, higmayd, hig	jiggym, jigmayd, jig	harrin, harragh	darrin, darragh	tar
clashtyn (hear)	cheayll	geayll	cluinnyn, cluinnee, cluinmayd^[1]	gluinnyn, gluinnee, gluinmayd	chluinnin, chluinnagh	gluinnin, gluinnagh	clasht	cluinit
cur (put, give)	hug	dug	verrym, vermayd, ver	derrym, dermayd, der	verrin, verragh	derrin, derragh	cur	currit
fakin (see)	honnick	vaik	hee'm, hemayd, hee	vaikym, vaikmyd, vaik	heein, heeagh	vaikin, vaikagh	jeeagh, cur-my-ner	faikinit
feddyn (find), geddyn (get),	hooar	dooar	yioym, yiowmayd, yiow	voym, vowmayd, vow	yioin, yioghe	voin, voghe	fow	feddinynt (found), geddinynt (given)
goll (go)	hie	jagh	hem, hemmayd, hed	jem, jemmayd, jed	raghin, ragh	(same as indep.)	gow, immee
gra (say)	dooyrt	(same as indep.)	jirrym, jirmayd, jir, abbyrym, abbyrmyd, abbyr	jirrym, jirmayd, jir, niarrym, niarmayd, niar, n'abbyrym, n'abbyrmyd, n'abbyr	yiarrin, yiarragh	niarrin, niarragh	abbyr	grait
goaill (take)	ghow	(same as indep.)	goym, gowmayd, gowee^[2]	goym, gowmayd, gow	ghoin, ghoghe	goin, goghe	gow	goit
jean (do)	ren	(same as indep.)	nee'm, neemayd, nee	jeanym, jeanmayd, jean	yinnin, yinnagh	jinnin, jinnagh	jean	jeant

1.^ Future relative: clinnys 2.^ Future relative: gowee

The most common and most irregular verb in Manx is ve "to be", often used as an auxiliary verb. In addition to the usual inflected tenses, ve also has a present tense. The full conjugation of [ve] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "to be" is as follows.

Forms of verb ve "to be"
Form	Independent	Dependent	Relative
Present	ta	vel, nel	–
Preterite	va	row	–
Future	bee'm, beemayd, bee	(same as independent)	vees
Conditional	veign, veagh	beign, beagh	–
Imperative	bee	(same as independent)	–

Adverbs

Manx adverbs can be formed from adjectives by means of the word dy, e.g. mie "good", dy mie "well"; gennal "cheerful", dy gennal "cheerfully". This dy is omitted when preceded by such words as dy "too" and feer "very" or followed by dy liooar "enough", e.g. feer vie "very good, very well", gennal dy liooar "cheerful(ly) enough". The adverb for "home(wards)" is formed with dy and the noun balley "place, town, homestead" to give dy valley, whereas the noun thie "house, home" can be used unchanged to convey the same meaning.

The language has a number of adverbs corresponding to English "up" and "down", the meaning of which depend upon such things as motion or lack thereof and starting point in relation to the speaker.

Manx adverbs expressing "up" and "down"
	above the speaker	below the speaker
Stationary	heose /hoːs/	heese /hiːs/
Movement towards the speaker from	neose /noːs/	neese /niːs/
Movement away from the speaker to	seose /soːs/	sheese /ʃiːs/

Examples of practical usage are Ta dooinney heese y traid "There's a man down the street" and Ta mee goll sheese y traid "I'm going down the street", Jean drappal neese "Climb up (towards me)" and Jean drappal seose "Climb up (away from me)".

Prepositions

Like the other Insular Celtic languages, Manx has so-called inflected prepositions, contractions of a preposition with a pronominal direct object, as the following common prepositions show. Note the sometimes identical form of the uninflected preposition and its third person singular masculine inflected form.

Conjugation of Manx prepositons using pronomial ending
Person		ass "out of"	ayns "in"	da "to"	ec "at"	er "on"	fo "under"	gys "to"	jeh "of"	lesh "with"	marish "with"	rish "to"	roish "before"	veih, voish "from"
First singular		assym	aynym	dou	aym	orrym	foym	hym	jeem	lhiam	marym	rhym	roym	voym
Second singular		assyd	aynyd	dhyt	ayd	ort	foyd	hood	jeed	lhiat	marrym	rhyt	royd	voyd
Third singular	Masculine	ass	ayn	da	echey	er	fo	huggey	jeh	lesh	rish	roish	marrish	voish, veih
Third singular	Feminine	assjee	aynjee	jee	eck	urree	foee	huic(k)	j'ee	lhee	maree	r'ee	roee, rhymbee	voee
First plural		assdooin	ayn(dooin)	dooin	ain	orrin	foin	hooin	jin	lhien	marin	rooin	roin	voin
Second plural		assdiu	ayndiu	diu	eu	erriu	feue	hiu	jiu	lhiu	meriu	riu	reue	veue
Third plural		assdoo, assdaue	ayndoo, ayndaue	daue	oc	orroo	foue	huc	jeu	lhieu	maroo	roo	roue, rhymboo	voue

In addition to the above "simple" prepositions, Manx has a number of prepositions which conjugate using the possessive personal pronouns, examples of which are given below.

Conjugation of Manx prepositons using possessive pronouns
Person		erskyn "above"	mychione "concerning"	son "for the sake of"	lurg "after"	noi "against"	trooid "through"
First singular		er-my-skyn	my-my-chione	er-my-hon	my lurg	m'oi	my hrooid
Second singular		er-dty-skyn	my-dty-chione	er-dty-hon	dty lurg	dt'oi	dty hrooid
Third singular	Masculine	er-e-skyn	my-e-chione	er-e-hon	e lurg	n'oi	e hrooid
Third singular	Feminine	er-e-skyn	my-e-kione	er-e-son	e lurg	ny hoi	e trooid
Plural		er-nyn-skyn	my-nyn-gione	er-nyn-hon	nyn lurg	nyn oi	nyn drooid

Alternative conjugation patterns are sometimes found with these more complex prepositions using inflected prepositions, e.g. mychione aym for my-my-chione "concerning me", son ain "for our sake" instead of er-nyn-son "for our/your/their sake".

Numbers

Syntax

Like most Insular Celtic languages, Manx uses verb–subject–object word order: the inflected verb of a sentence precedes the subject, which itself precedes the direct object.^[66] However, as noted above, most finite verbs are formed periphrastically, using an auxiliary verb in conjunction with the verbal noun. In this case, only the auxiliary verb precedes the subject, while the verbal noun comes after the subject. The auxiliary verb may be a modal verb rather than a form of [bee] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("be") or [jannoo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("do"). Particles like the negative [cha] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("not") precede the inflected verb. Examples:

main verb	subject		direct object
Hug	yn	saggyrt	e	laue	urree.
put-PRET	the	priest	his	hand	on her
"The priest put his hand on her."^[67]

aux. verb	subject		main verb	direct object
Va	ny	eayin	gee	yn	conney.
were	the	lambs	eat-V.N.	the	gorse
"The lambs used to eat the gorse."^[68]

	modal verb	subject	main verb	direct object
Cha	jarg	shiu	fakin	red erbee.
not	can	you-PL	see-V.N.	anything
"You can't see anything."^[69]

When the auxiliary verb is a form of [jannoo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("do"), the direct object precedes the verbal noun and is connected to it with the particle [y] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help):

aux. verb	subject	direct object			main verb
Ren	ad	my	choraa	y	chlashtyn.
did	they	my	voice	PARTICLE	hear-V.N.
"They heard my voice."^[70]

As in Irish (cf. Irish syntax#The forms meaning "to be"), there are two ways of expressing "to be" in Manx: with the substantive verb [bee] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), and with the copula. The substantive verb is used when the predicate is an adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase.^[71] Examples:

t'	eh	agglagh
is	it	awful/frightening
"It is awful/frightening."

t'	eh	dy mie
is	he	well
"He is well"

t'	eh	ayns	y	thie-oast
is	he	in	the	house-ale (pub)
"He is in the ale-house (pub)."

Where the predicate is a noun, it must be converted to a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition [in] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("in") + possessive pronoun (agreeing with the subject) in order for the substantive verb to be grammatical:

t'	eh	ny	wooinney	mie
is	he	in-his	man	good
"He is a good man" (lit. "He is in his good man")^[72]

Otherwise, the copula is used when the predicate is a noun. The copula itself takes the form [is] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) or [she] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in the present tense, but it is often omitted in affirmative statements:

She	Manninagh	mish
COPULA	Manxman	me
"I am a Manxman."^[73]

Shoh	'n	dooinney
this	the	man	"This is the man."^[70]

In questions and negative sentences, the present tense of the copula is [nee] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help):

Cha	nee	mish	eh
not	COPULA	me	him
"I am not him."^[70]

Nee	shoh	'n	lioar?
COPULA	this	the	book
"Is this the book?"^[70]

Vocabulary

Manx vocabulary is predominantly of Goidelic origin, derived from Old Irish and closely related to words in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. However, Manx itself, as well as the languages from which it is derived, borrowed words from other languages as well, especially Latin, Old Norse, French (particularly Anglo-Norman), and English (both Middle English and Modern English).^[74]

The following table shows a selection of nouns from the Swadesh list and indicates their pronunciations and etymologies.

Manx	IPA^[65]	English	Etymology^[75]
aane	[eːn]	liver	Goidelic; from Mid.Ir. [ae] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) < O.Ir. [óa] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [ae] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [adha] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
aer	[eːə]	sky	Latin; from O.Ir. [aer] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) < L. [aër] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Sc.G. [adhar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
aile	[ail]	fire	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [aingel] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "very bright"; cf. Ir., Sc.G. [aingeal] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
ardnieu	[ərd̪ˈnʲeu]	snake	Apparently "highly poisonous" (cf. [ard] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "high", [nieu] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "poison")
awin	[aunʲ], [ˈawənʲ]	river	Goidelic; from the M.Ir. dative form abainn of [aba] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) < O.Ir. abaind [aba] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. abha/abhainn, dative abhainn, Sc.G. [abhainn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (literary nominative abha).
ayr	[ˈeːar]	father	Goidelic; from M.Ir. athair, O.Ir. [athir] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [athair] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
beeal	[biəl]	mouth	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [bél] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [béal] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [beul/bial] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
beishteig	[beˈʃtʲeːɡ], [prəˈʃtʲeːɡ]	worm	Latin; from M.Ir. [péist] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) < O.Ir. [bíast] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) < L. [bēstia] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
ben	[beᵈn]	woman	Goidelic; from M.Ir and O.Ir. [ben] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [bean] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
billey	[ˈbilʲə]	tree	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [bile] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
blaa	[bleː]	flower	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [bláth] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir. bláth, Sc.G. blàth
blein	[blʲeːnʲ], [blʲiᵈn]	year	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [bliadain] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [bliain] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [bliadhna] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
bodjal	[ˈbaːdʒəl]	cloud	English/French; shortened from [bodjal niaul] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "pillar of cloud" (cf. Sc.G. [baideal neòil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)); [bodjal] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) originally meant "pillar" or "battlement" < E. battle < Fr. [bataille] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
bolg	[bolɡ]	belly	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [bolg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir., Sc.G bolg
cass	[kaːs]	foot	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [cos] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), cf. Sc.G. [cas] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir.dialect cas, Ir. cos
çhengey	[ˈtʃinʲə]	tongue	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [tengae] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [teanga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
clagh	[klaːx]	stone	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [cloch] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Sc.G. [clach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir. cloch
cleaysh	[kleːʃ]	ear	Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative [clúais] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "hearing"; cf. Ir., Sc.G. [cluas] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir. dialect cluais "ear", dative cluais
collaneyn	[ˈkalinʲən]	guts	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [cáelán] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [caolán] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [caolan] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), derived from caol "thin, slender"
crackan	[ˈkraːɣən]	skin	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [croiccenn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [craiceann] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dialect croiceann
craue	[kreːw]	bone	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [cnám] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [cnámh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [cnàimh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
cree	[kriː]	heart	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [cride] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [croí] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [cridhe] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
dooinney	[ˈd̪unʲə]	person	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [duine] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
dreeym	[d̪riːm], [d̪riᵇm]	back	Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative [druimm] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), nominative dromm; cf. Ir. drom, dialect [droim] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dative droim, Sc.G. drom, dialect [druim] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dative druim
duillag	[ˈd̪olʲaɡ]	leaf	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [duilleóg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Sc.G. [duilleag] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
eairk	[eːak]	horn	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [adarc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [adharc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir. dialect aidhearc
eayst	[eːs]	moon	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [ésca] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. archaic Ir. [éasca] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [easga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
eeast	[jiːs]	fish	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [íasc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [iasc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [iasg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
ennym	[ˈenəm]	name	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [ainmm] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [ainm] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
faarkey	[ˈføːɹkə]	sea	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [fairrge] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [farraige] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [fairge] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
faiyr	[feːə]	grass	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [fér] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [féar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [feur,fiar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
famman	[ˈfaman]	tail	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [femm] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [feam] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [feaman] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
fedjag	[ˈfaiaɡ]	feather	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [eteóc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [eiteog] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "wing", Sc.G. [iteag] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
feeackle	[ˈfiːɣəl]	tooth	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [fíacail] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [fiacail] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
feill	[feːlʲ]	meat	Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative [feóil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [feoil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [feòil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
fer	[fer]	man	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [fer] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [fear] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
fliaghey	[flʲaːɣə]	rain	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [flechud] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [fleachadh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "rainwater; a drenching", related to fliuch "wet"
folt	[folt̪]	hair	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [folt] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir.folt, Sc.G. falt
fraue	[freːw]	root	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [frém] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [fréamh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), préamh, Sc.G. [freumh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
fuill	[folʲ]	blood	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [fuil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir.,Sc.G. fuil
geay	[ɡiː]	wind	Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative [gáith] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [gaoth] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dative gaoith
geinnagh	[ˈɡʲanʲax]	sand	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [gainmech] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Sc.G. [gainmheach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir. gaineamh
glioon	[ɡlʲuːnʲ]	knee	Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative [glúin] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [glúin] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [glùn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dative glùin
grian	[ɡriːn], [ɡriᵈn]	sun	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [grían] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [grian] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
jaagh	[ˈdʒeːax]	smoke	Goidelic, from M.Ir. [deathach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) < O.Ir. [dé] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Sc.G. [deathach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
joan	[dʒaun]	dust	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [dend] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [deannach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
kay	[kʲeː]	fog	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [ceó] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [ceo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [ceò] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
keayn	[kiᵈn]	sea	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [cúan] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [cuan] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "harbor", Sc.G. [cuan] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "ocean"
keeagh	[kiːx]	breast	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [cíoch] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [cíoch] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [cìoch] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
keyll	[kiːlʲ], [kelʲ]	forest	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [caill] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [coill] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [coille] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
kione	[kʲaun], [kʲoːn]	head	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [cend] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dative ciond; cf. Ir., Sc.G. [ceann] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dative cionn
laa	[leː]	day	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [láa] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Sc.G. [latha,là] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
laue	[leːw]	hand	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [lám] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [lámh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [làmh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
leoie	[løi]	ashes	Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative [lúaith] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [luaith] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [luath] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
logh	[laːx]	lake	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [loch] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
lurgey	[løɹɡə]	leg	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [lurga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "shin bone"; cf. Ir. [lorga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
maidjey	[ˈmaːʒə]	stick	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [maide] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Ir.,Sc.G. maide
meeyl	[miːl]	louse	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [míol] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [míol] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [mial] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
mess	[meːs]	fruit	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [mes] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [meas] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
moddey	[ˈmaːðə]	dog	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [matrad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. madra, N.Ir. mada,madadh [madu], Sc.G. [madadh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
moir	[maːɹ]	mother	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [máthir] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. máthair, Sc.G. [màthair] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
mwannal	[ˈmonal]	neck	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [muinél] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [muineál] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), muinéal, Sc.G. [muineal] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
oie	[ei], [iː]	night	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [adaig] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (accusative [aidchi] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)); cf. Ir. [oíche] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [oidhche] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
ooh	[au], [uː]	egg	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [og] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [ubh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [ugh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
paitçhey	[ˈpetʃə]	child	French; from E.M.Ir. [páitse] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "page, attendant" < O.Fr. [page] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [páiste] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [pàiste] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
raad	[reːd̪], [raːd̪]	road	English; from Cl.Ir. [rót,róat] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) < M.E. [road] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [ród] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [ rathad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
rass	[raːs]	seed	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [ros] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
rollage	[roˈleːɡ]	star	Goidelic; from M.Ir. [rétlu] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) < O.Ir. [rétglu] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) + feminine diminutive suffix -óg; cf. Ir. [réaltóg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [reultag] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
roost	[ruːs]	bark	Brythonic; from O.Ir. [rúsc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Brythonic (cf. Welsh [rhisg(l))] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [rúsc] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [rùsg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
skian	[ˈskiːən]	wing	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [scíathán] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [sciathán] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [sgiathan] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
slieau	[slʲuː], [ʃlʲuː]	mountain	Goidelic, from O.Ir. [slíab] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [sliabh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
sniaghtey	[ˈʃnʲaxt̪ə]	snow	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [snechta] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [sneachta] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [sneachd] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
sollan	[ˈsolan]	salt	Goidelic; from O.Ir.,Ir.,Sc.G. [salann] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
sooill	[suːlʲ]	eye	Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative [súil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. súil, Sc.G. [sùil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
stroin	[st̪ruᵈnʲ], [st̪raiᵈnʲ]	nose	Goidelic; from O.Ir. dative [sróin] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. srón, dialect sróin, dative sróin, Sc.G. [sròn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dative sròin
tedd	[t̪ed̪]	rope	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [tét] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. [téad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [teud,tiad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
thalloo	[ˈtalu]	earth	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [talam] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [talamh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
ushag	[ˈoʒaɡ]	bird	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [uiseóg] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "lark"; cf. Ir. [fuiseog] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Sc.G. [uiseag] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
ushtey	[ˈuʃtʲə]	water	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [uisce] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir. uisce, Sc.G. [uisge] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
yngyn	[ˈiŋən]	fingernail	Goidelic; from O.Ir. [ingen] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); cf. Ir., Sc.G. [ionga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), dative iongain, plural Ir. iongna, Sc.G. iongnan, etc.

See Celtic Swadesh lists for the complete list in all the Celtic languages.

Notes

^ Manx at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
^ "Anyone here speak Jersey?". Independent.co.uk.
^ "Fockle ny ghaa: schoolchildren take charge". Iomtoday.co.im. 20 March 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
^ Jackson 1955, 49
^ "Full text of "A dictionary of the Manks language, with the corresponding words or explanations in English : interspersed with many Gaelic proverbs, the parts of speech, the genders, and the accents of the Manks words are carefully marked : with some etymological observations, never before published"". Archive.org. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
^ "The Ogham Stones of the Isle of Man". BabelStone. 30 June 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Ager, Simon. "A Study of Language Death and Revival with a Particular Focus on Manx Gaelic." Master's Dissertation University of Wales, Lampeter, 2009. PDF.
^ Gunther 1990, 59–60
^ ^a ^b ^c Whitehead, Sarah (2 April 2015). "How the Manx language came back from the dead". theguardian.com. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
^ "UN declares Manx Gaelic 'extinct'". bbc.co.uk. 20 February 2009. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
^ Isle of Man Census Report 2011. Retrieved 2012-10-19.
^ "Manx Gaelic Revival 'Impressive'". BBC News. 22 September 2005.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Censuses of Manx Speakers". www.isle-of-man.com. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
^ Belchem, John (1 January 2000). A New History of the Isle of Man: The modern period 1830-1999. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9780853237266.
^ "2001 Isle of Man Census: Volume 2" (PDF).
^ "2011 Isle of Man Census" (PDF).
^ "pp2/5 Manx Ballads - Fin as Oshin". Isle-of-man.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
^ http://www.culturevannin.im/cms/publication_type_index_1475.html
^ ^a ^b "The History of Sodor and its Railways". The Real Lives of Thomas the Tank Engine. Retrieved 12 January 2011.
^ ^a ^b The Rev. W. Awdry; G Awdry (1987). The Island of Sodor: Its People, History and Railways. Kaye & Ward. p. 5. ISBN 0-434-92762-7.
^ The Rev. W. Awdry; G. Awdry (1987). The Island of Sodor: Its People, History and Railways. Kaye & Ward. p. 12. ISBN 0-434-92762-7.
^ Sibley, Brian (1995). The Thomas the Tank Engine Man. Heinemann. p. 159. ISBN 0-434-96909-5.
^ "Solace: A Film in Manx Gaelic". Youtube. 17 February 2014.
^ "Cuchulainn Part One". Youtube. 17 February 2013.
^ "Manannan Episode 4 (part two) Come Dine With Us". Youtube. 3 March 2014.
^ http://www.friendsandheroes.com/uk/manx
^ ^a ^b ^c "Henry Jenner - The Manx Language, 1875". Isle-of-man.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:xxvii–xxviii, 160
^ Jackson 1955, 66. Jackson claims that northern Irish has also lost the contrast between velarised and palatalised labials, but this seems to be a mistake on his part, as both Mayo Irish and Ulster Irish are consistently described as having the contrast (cf. Mhac an Fhailigh 1968, 27; Hughes 1994, 621; see also Ó Baoill 1978, 87)
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 77–82; Broderick 1984–86, 2:152
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 22
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 203
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 57
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 110; Jackson 1955, 55
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 24; Broderick 1984–86 3:80–83; Ó Sé 2000:15, 120
^ Jackson 1955, 47–50; Ó Cuív 1944, 38, 91
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 51; Jackson 1955, 57–58; Holmer 1957, 87, 88, 106; 1962, 41
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 68; Broderick 1984–86, 2:56, 308
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 75
^ Broderick 1984–8,6 1:160
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:161
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:161–62
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:162–63
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:164–65
^ Kelly 1870:xiii footnote in Spoken Sound as a Rule for Orthography, credited to W. Mackenzie.
^ O'Rahilly 1932, 128
^ MANX GAELIC ( Gaelig, Gaelg ) ec www.christusrex.org. Va'n teks ayn feddynit magh ass "ORATIO DOMINICA – Polyglottos, Polymorphos – Nimirum, Plus Centum Linguis, Versionibus, aut Characteribus Reddita & Expressa", Daniel Brown, Lunnin, 1713.
^ Ta'n lhieggan shoh jeh'n Phadjer aascreeuit 'sy chlou Romanagh veih'n çhenn chlou Yernagh. Son d'akin er y lhieggan shen jeh'n phadjer gow dys y duillag shoh ec www.christusrex.org
^ Thomson 1992, 128–29; Broderick 1993, 234
^ Broderick 1984–86, 3:3–13; Thomson 1992, 129
^ Broderick 1984–86, 3:28–34; 1993, 236
^ Broderick 1984–86; 3:17–18
^ Jackson 1955, 118; Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1998, Isle of Man, retrieved 2008-09-28
^ Broderick 1993, 230–33
^ Broderick 1993, 232–33
^ Broderick 1993, 236
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:7–21; 1993, 236–39; Thomson 1992, 132–35
^ (Broderick 1984–86 2:190, 3:66).
^ Thomson 1992, 118–19; Broderick 1993, 239–40
^ Goodwin, Edmund; Thomson, Robert (1966). First Lessons in Manx. Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh. p. 50.
^ Gell, John (1989). Conversational Manx. St. Judes: Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh. p. 34. ISBN 1870029100.
^ Broderick 1984–86, 75–82; 1993, 250, 271; Thomson 1992, 122
^ ^a ^b The particle [er] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) is identical in form to the preposition [er] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "on"; however, it is etymologically distinct, coming from Old Irish [íar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "after" (Williams 1994, 725).
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:92; 1992, 250; Thomson 1992, 122
^ ^a ^b Broderick 1984–86, vol. 2
^ Broderick 1993, 276
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:181
^ Broderick 1984–86, 1:179
^ Broderick 1993, 274
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Thomson 1992, 105
^ Broderick 1993, 276–77
^ Broderick 1993, 277
^ Broderick 1993, 278
^ Broderick 1993, 282–83
^ Macbain 1911; Dictionary of the Irish Language; Broderick 1984–86, vol. 2

References

Broderick, George (1984–86). A Handbook of Late Spoken Manx (3 volumes ed.). Tübingen: Niemeyer. ISBN 3-484-42903-8. (vol. 1), ISBN 3-484-42904-6 (vol. 2), ISBN 3-484-42905-4 (vol. 3).
Broderick, George (1993). "Manx". In M. J. Ball; J. Fife (eds.). The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 228–85. ISBN 0-415-01035-7.
Cumming, Joseph George (1848). "The Isle of Man". London: John Van Voorst. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Dictionary of the Irish Language based mainly on Old and Middle Irish materials. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. ISBN 0-901714-29-1.
Gunther, Wilf (1990). "Language conservancy or: Can the anciently established British minority languages survive?". In D. Gorter; J. F. Hoekstra; L. G. Jansma; J. Ytsma (eds.). Fourth International Conference on Minority Languages (Vol. II: Western and Eastern European Papers ed.). Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters. pp. 53–67. ISBN 1-85359-111-4. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Holmer, Nils M. (1957). The Gaelic of Arran. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 0-901282-44-8.
Holmer, Nils M. (1962). The Gaelic of Kintyre. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 0-901282-43-X.
Hughes, Art (1994). "Gaeilge Uladh". In K. McCone; D. McManus; C. Ó Háinle; N. Williams; L. Breatnach (eds.). Stair na Gaeilge in ómós do Pádraig Ó Fiannachta (in Irish). Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, St. Patrick's College. pp. 611–60. ISBN 0-901519-90-1.
Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone (1955). Contributions to the Study of Manx Phonology. Edinburgh: Nelson.
Kelly, John (1870). Gill, William (ed.). A Practical Grammar of the Antient Gaelic, or Language of the Isle of Man, Usually Called Manks. Douglas: The Manx Society. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Kewley-Draskau, Jennifer (2008). Practical Manx. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 1-84631-131-4.
Kneen, John J. (1911). A Grammar of the Manx Language. Edinburgh: Ams Pr Inc. ISBN 978-0-404-17564-1.
Macbain, Alexander (1911). An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language (2nd ed.). Stirling: E. Mackay. Reprinted 1998, New York: Hippocrene. ISBN 0-7818-0632-1.
Mhac an Fhailigh, Éamonn (1968). The Irish of Erris, Co. Mayo. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 0-901282-02-2.
Ó Baoill, Colm (1978). Contributions to a Comparative Study of Ulster Irish and Scottish Gaelic. Institute of Irish Studies, Queen's University of Belfast.
O'Rahilly, Thomas F. (1932). Irish Dialects Past and Present. Dublin: Browne and Nolan. Reprinted 1976, 1988 by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 0-901282-55-3.
Ó Cuív, Brian (1944). The Irish of West Muskerry, Co. Cork. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 0-901282-52-9.
Ó Sé, Diarmuid (2000). Gaeilge Chorca Dhuibhne (in Irish). Dublin: Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann. ISBN 0-946452-97-0.
Thomson, Robert L. (1992). "The Manx language". In Donald MacAulay (ed.) (ed.). The Celtic Languages. Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–36. ISBN 0-521-23127-2. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Williams, Nicholas (1994). "An Mhanainnis". In K. McCone; D. McManus; C. Ó Háinle; N. Williams; L. Breatnach (eds.). Stair na Gaeilge in ómós do Pádraig Ó Fiannachta (in Irish). Maynooth: Department of Old Irish, St. Patrick's College. pp. 703–44. ISBN 0-901519-90-1.

External links

Template:Celtic nations

[unatt-58] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Not attested in the late spoken language (Broderick 1984–86, 3:66)

[e18-1] Manx at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)

[2] "Anyone here speak Jersey?". Independent.co.uk.

[3] "Fockle ny ghaa: schoolchildren take charge". Iomtoday.co.im. 20 March 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2014.

[4] Jackson 1955, 49

[5] "Full text of "A dictionary of the Manks language, with the corresponding words or explanations in English : interspersed with many Gaelic proverbs, the parts of speech, the genders, and the accents of the Manks words are carefully marked : with some etymological observations, never before published"". Archive.org. Retrieved 15 November 2013.

[6] "The Ogham Stones of the Isle of Man". BabelStone. 30 June 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2013.

[:1-7] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Ager, Simon. "A Study of Language Death and Revival with a Particular Focus on Manx Gaelic." Master's Dissertation University of Wales, Lampeter, 2009. PDF.

[8] Gunther 1990, 59–60

[graun-9] Whitehead, Sarah (2 April 2015). "How the Manx language came back from the dead". theguardian.com. Retrieved 4 April 2015.

[10] "UN declares Manx Gaelic 'extinct'". bbc.co.uk. 20 February 2009. Retrieved 4 April 2015.

[Gov.im-11] Isle of Man Census Report 2011. Retrieved 2012-10-19.

[12] "Manx Gaelic Revival 'Impressive'". BBC News. 22 September 2005.

[:0-13] "Censuses of Manx Speakers". www.isle-of-man.com. Retrieved 27 October 2015.

[14] Belchem, John (1 January 2000). A New History of the Isle of Man: The modern period 1830-1999. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9780853237266.

[15] "2001 Isle of Man Census: Volume 2" (PDF).

[16] "2011 Isle of Man Census" (PDF).

[17] "pp2/5 Manx Ballads - Fin as Oshin". Isle-of-man.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.

[18] ttp://www.culturevannin.im/cms/publication_type_index_1475.html

[RLoTtTE-19] "The History of Sodor and its Railways". The Real Lives of Thomas the Tank Engine. Retrieved 12 January 2011.

[IoSPHR-20] The Rev. W. Awdry; G Awdry (1987). The Island of Sodor: Its People, History and Railways. Kaye & Ward. p. 5. ISBN 0-434-92762-7.

[IoSPHR-2-21] The Rev. W. Awdry; G. Awdry (1987). The Island of Sodor: Its People, History and Railways. Kaye & Ward. p. 12. ISBN 0-434-92762-7.

[TTtTEM-22] Sibley, Brian (1995). The Thomas the Tank Engine Man. Heinemann. p. 159. ISBN 0-434-96909-5.

[23] "Solace: A Film in Manx Gaelic". Youtube. 17 February 2014.

[24] "Cuchulainn Part One". Youtube. 17 February 2013.

[25] "Manannan Episode 4 (part two) Come Dine With Us". Youtube. 3 March 2014.

[26] ttp://www.friendsandheroes.com/uk/manx

[isle-of-man.com-27] "Henry Jenner - The Manx Language, 1875". Isle-of-man.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.

[28] Broderick 1984–86, 1:xxvii–xxviii, 160

[29] Jackson 1955, 66. Jackson claims that northern Irish has also lost the contrast between velarised and palatalised labials, but this seems to be a mistake on his part, as both Mayo Irish and Ulster Irish are consistently described as having the contrast (cf. Mhac an Fhailigh 1968, 27; Hughes 1994, 621; see also Ó Baoill 1978, 87)

[30] O'Rahilly 1932, 77–82; Broderick 1984–86, 2:152

[31] O'Rahilly 1932, 22

[32] O'Rahilly 1932, 203

[33] O'Rahilly 1932, 57

[34] O'Rahilly 1932, 110; Jackson 1955, 55

[35] O'Rahilly 1932, 24; Broderick 1984–86 3:80–83; Ó Sé 2000:15, 120

[36] Jackson 1955, 47–50; Ó Cuív 1944, 38, 91

[37] O'Rahilly 1932, 51; Jackson 1955, 57–58; Holmer 1957, 87, 88, 106; 1962, 41

[38] O'Rahilly 1932, 68; Broderick 1984–86, 2:56, 308

[39] O'Rahilly 1932, 75

[40] Broderick 1984–8,6 1:160

[41] Broderick 1984–86, 1:161

[42] Broderick 1984–86, 1:161–62

[43] Broderick 1984–86, 1:162–63

[44] Broderick 1984–86, 1:164–65

[45] Kelly 1870:xiii footnote in Spoken Sound as a Rule for Orthography, credited to W. Mackenzie.

[46] O'Rahilly 1932, 128

[47] MANX GAELIC ( Gaelig, Gaelg ) ec www.christusrex.org. Va'n teks ayn feddynit magh ass "ORATIO DOMINICA – Polyglottos, Polymorphos – Nimirum, Plus Centum Linguis, Versionibus, aut Characteribus Reddita & Expressa", Daniel Brown, Lunnin, 1713.

[48] Ta'n lhieggan shoh jeh'n Phadjer aascreeuit 'sy chlou Romanagh veih'n çhenn chlou Yernagh. Son d'akin er y lhieggan shen jeh'n phadjer gow dys y duillag shoh ec www.christusrex.org

[49] Thomson 1992, 128–29; Broderick 1993, 234

[50] Broderick 1984–86, 3:3–13; Thomson 1992, 129

[51] Broderick 1984–86, 3:28–34; 1993, 236

[52] Broderick 1984–86; 3:17–18

[53] Jackson 1955, 118; Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1998, Isle of Man, retrieved 2008-09-28

[54] Broderick 1993, 230–33

[55] Broderick 1993, 232–33

[56] Broderick 1993, 236

[57] Broderick 1984–86, 1:7–21; 1993, 236–39; Thomson 1992, 132–35

[59] (Broderick 1984–86 2:190, 3:66).

[60] Thomson 1992, 118–19; Broderick 1993, 239–40

[61] Goodwin, Edmund; Thomson, Robert (1966). First Lessons in Manx. Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh. p. 50.

[62] Gell, John (1989). Conversational Manx. St. Judes: Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh. p. 34. ISBN 1870029100.

[63] Broderick 1984–86, 75–82; 1993, 250, 271; Thomson 1992, 122

[er-64] The particle [er] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) is identical in form to the preposition [er] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "on"; however, it is etymologically distinct, coming from Old Irish [íar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "after" (Williams 1994, 725).

[65] Broderick 1984–86, 1:92; 1992, 250; Thomson 1992, 122

[Brodvol2-66] Broderick 1984–86, vol. 2

[67] Broderick 1993, 276

[68] Broderick 1984–86, 1:181

[69] Broderick 1984–86, 1:179

[70] Broderick 1993, 274

[Thoms105-71] Thomson 1992, 105

[72] Broderick 1993, 276–77

[73] Broderick 1993, 277

[74] Broderick 1993, 278

[75] Broderick 1993, 282–83

[76] Macbain 1911; Dictionary of the Irish Language; Broderick 1984–86, vol. 2

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v t e Manx language
History	Proto-Indo-European Proto-Celtic Insular Celtic Proto-Goidelic Primitive Irish Old Irish Middle Irish Early Modern Irish Manx language
Grammar	Manx grammar

v t e Languages of the United Kingdom
Languages	Cornish English (de facto official) Irish Manx Norman Auregnais Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Scots Ulster Scots Scottish Gaelic Welsh
Other languages	Angloromani Beurla Reagaird Cumbric Llanito Norn Pictish Scottish Cant Shelta
Sign languages	British Irish Northern Irish Old Kentish
Languages by region	Cornwall Northern Ireland Scotland Wales

Names of the language

In Manx

In English

History

Revival

Speakership by year

Literature

The Railway Series

Loanwords

Official recognition

Parliament and politics

Education

Learning the language

Media

Signage

The Manx Bible

Church

Classification and dialects

Phrases

Orthography

Cedilla

Examples

Gaelic versions of the Lord's Prayer

Spelling to sound correspondences

Vowels

Consonants

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Stress

Morphology

Initial consonant mutations

Nouns

Adjectives

Pronouns

Verbs

Adverbs

Prepositions

Numbers

Syntax

Vocabulary

See also

Notes

References

External links