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The Clovis culture (sometimes referred to as the Llano culture^[1]) is a prehistoric Paleo-Indian culture that first appears 11,500 RCYBP (radiocarbon years before present^[2]), at the end of the last glacial period, characterized by the manufacture of "Clovis points" and distinctive bone and ivory tools. Archaeologists' most precise determinations at present suggest that this radiocarbon age is equal to roughly 13,500 to 13,000 calendar years ago.

The Clovis culture was replaced by several more localized regional cultures from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period onward. Post-Clovis cultures include the Folsom tradition, Gainey, Suwannee-Simpson, Plainview-Goshen, Cumberland, and Redstone. Each of these is commonly thought to derive directly from Clovis, in some cases apparently differing only in the length of the fluting on their projectile points. Although this is generally held to be the result of normal cultural change through time,^[3] numerous other reasons have been suggested to be the driving force for the observed changes in the archaeological record, such as an extraterrestrial impact event or post-glacial climate change with numerous faunal extinctions.

After the discovery of several Clovis sites in western North America in the 1930s, the Clovis people came to be regarded as the first human inhabitants of the New World. Clovis people were considered to be the ancestors of all the indigenous cultures of North and South America. However, this majority view has been contested over the last thirty years by several archaeological discoveries, including possible sites like Cactus Hill in Virginia, Paisley Caves in the Summer Lake Basin of Oregon, the Topper site in Allendale County, South Carolina, Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania, the Friedkin^[4] site in Texas, and the Monte Verde^[5] and Cueva Fell sites in Chile. The claim to the oldest human archaeological site known in the Americas belongs to the Pedra Furada human remains and hearths, a site that precedes the Clovis culture and the other sites already mentioned by 19,000 to 30,000 years, but this discovery has become an issue of contention between North American archaeologists and their South American and European counterparts.^[6]^[7]^[8] In American archaeology most dates older than 10,000 are controversial. They are under intense scrutiny and may change as new dating technologies are developed and existing ones refined.^[9]

Description

The culture was originally named for a small number of artifacts found between 1936 and 1938 at Blackwater Locality No. 1, an archaeological site near Clovis, New Mexico. People began collecting artifacts at this site in the late 1920s but artifacts and animal remains that had not moved since the Pleistocene were not recovered until 1936. The in situ finds of 1936 and 1937 included most of four stone Clovis points, two long bone points with impact damage, stone blades, a portion of a Clovis blade core, and several cutting tools made on stone flakes. Clovis sites have since been identified throughout much, but not all, of the contiguous United States, as well as Mexico and Central America, and even into Northern South America.^[10]

A hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively-shaped fluted stone spear point, known as the Clovis point. The Clovis point is bifacial and typically fluted on both sides. Archaeologists do not agree on whether the widespread presence of these artifacts indicates the proliferation of a single people, or the adoption of a superior technology by diverse population groups. It is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted mammoth as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains. Mammoth was only a small part of the Clovis diet; extinct bison, mastodon, sloths, tapir, palaeolama, horse (the association of Clovis with horse remains is in dispute as no actual Clovis artifacts have been found in direct association with fossil horse remains) and a host of smaller animals have also been found in Clovis sites where they were killed and eaten. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have been used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited.^{[citation needed]}

Disappearance of Clovis

The most commonly held perspective on the end of the Clovis culture is that a decline in the availability of megafauna, combined with an overall increase in a less mobile population, led to local differentiation of lithic and cultural traditions across the Americas.^[3]^[11] After this time, Clovis-style fluted points were replaced by other fluted-point traditions (such as the Folsom culture) with an essentially uninterrupted sequence across North and central America. An effectively continuous cultural adaptation proceeds from the Clovis period through the ensuing Middle and Late Paleoindian periods.^[12] It has also been argued that Clovis ended in a very abrupt fashion.

Whether the Clovis culture drove the mammoth, and other species, to extinction via overhunting – the so-called Pleistocene overkill hypothesis – is still an open, and controversial, question. Another possibility is that climate change^[13] coupled with human predation, disease, and additional pressures from newly arrived herbivores (competition) and carnivores (predation) and isolation made it impossible for many species to reproduce and survive. It has also been hypothesized that the Clovis culture saw its decline in the wake of the Younger Dryas cold phase. This 'cold shock', lasting roughly 1,500 years, affected many parts of the world, including North America. It appears to have been triggered by a vast meltwater lake – Lake Agassiz – emptying into the North Atlantic, disrupting the thermohaline circulation.

A recent hypothesis suggests that one or more extraterrestrial bodies caused the mass extinction and triggered a period of climatic cooling.^[14] This is known as the Clovis Comet or the Younger Dryas impact event and proposes that an extraterrestrial object such as a comet exploded in Earth's atmosphere above North America's Great Lakes region about 12,900 years ago,^[15] and significantly impacted the human Clovis culture. Research published in January 2009 argues that there was no extraterrestrial impact but fails to explain the high levels of metal and magnetic spherules found deep inside the tusks and skulls of mammoths.^[16] Additional evidence of comet impact is the widespread occurrence of microdiamonds and black mats in a layer of sedimentary rocks of that era,^[17] but is not reflected in the extinction record.

Discovery

A cowboy and former slave, George McJunkin, found an Ancient Bison (Bison antiquus, an extinct relative of the American Bison) skeleton in 1908 after a flash flood.^[18] It was first excavated in 1926, near Folsom, New Mexico under the direction of Harold Cook and Jesse Figgins. On August 29, 1927 they found the first in situ Folsom point with the extinct B. antiquus bones. This confirmation of a human presence in the Americas during the Pleistocene inspired many people to start looking for evidence of Early Man.^[19]

In 1929, 19-year-old part Native American Ridgely Whiteman, who had been closely following the excavations in nearby Folsom in the newspaper, discovered the Clovis Man Site in the Blackwater Draw in Eastern New Mexico.^[18] Despite earlier legitimate Paleoindian discoveries^{[citation needed]}, the best documented evidence of the Clovis tool complex was excavated between 1932 and 1937 near Clovis, New Mexico, by a crew under the direction of Edgar Billings Howard from the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences/University of Pennsylvania.^[18] Howard's crew left their excavation in Burnet Cave, New Mexico (truly the first professionally excavated Clovis site^{[citation needed]}) in August, 1932 and visited Whiteman and his Blackwater Draw site. In November, Howard was back at Blackwater Draw to investigate additional finds from a construction project.^[18]

The American Journal of Archaeology (January–March, 1932 V36 #1) in its Archaeological Notes mentions E. B. Howard's work in Burnet Cave, including the discovery of extinct fauna and a "Folsom type" point four feet below a Basketmaker burial. This brief mention of the Clovis point found in place predates any work at Dent, Colorado. Reference is made to a slightly earlier article on Burnet Cave in The University Museum Bulletin of November, 1931.^{[citation needed]}

The first report of professional work at the Blackwater Draw Clovis site is in the November 25, 1932 issue of Science News.^{[citation needed]} The publications on Burnet Cave and Blackwater Draw directly contradict statements by several authors (for example see Haynes 2002:56 The Early Settlement of North America) that Dent, Colorado was the first excavated Clovis site. The Dent Site, in Weld County, Colorado, was simply a fossil mammoth excavation in 1932. The first Dent Clovis point was found November 5, 1932 and the in situ point was found July 7, 1933. The in situ Clovis point from Burnet Cave was excavated in late August, 1931 (and reported early in 1932). E. B. Howard brought the Burnet Cave point to the 3rd Pecos Conference, September 1931, and showed it around to several archaeologists interested in Early Man (see Woodbury 1983)^{[citation needed]}.

Clovis First

The predominant hypothesis (known as "Clovis First") among archaeologists in the latter half of the 20th century had been that the people associated with the Clovis culture were the first inhabitants of the Americas. The primary support for this was that no solid evidence of pre-Clovis human inhabitation had been found. According to the standard accepted theory, the Clovis people crossed the Beringia land bridge over the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska during the period of lowered sea levels during the ice age, then made their way southward through an ice-free corridor east of the Rocky Mountains in present-day western Canada as the glaciers retreated. This hypothesis has been continuously challenged by studies that suggest a Pre-Clovis Human occupation of the Americas.^[20]

Evidence of human habitation before Clovis

Archaeological sites that predate Clovis that are well documented include the following:

Pedra Furada, Brazil (55,000 yr BP ABOX)^[21]^[22]^[23]
Topper, (50,000 yr BP) South Carolina, US^[24]^[25]
Meadowcroft, Pennsylvania, US (16,000 yr BP)^[26]
Buttermilk Creek Complex, Texas, US(15,500 ¹⁴C yr BP)^[27]
Salada, Texas, US. (15,500 yr BP) ^[4]^[28]
Cactus Hill, Virginia, US (15,000 yr BP) ^[29]
Saltville, Virginia, US (14,510 ¹⁴C yr BP)^[30]
Taima-Taima, Venezuela (14,000 yr BP)^[31]
Monte Verde, Chile (14,800 ¹⁴C yr BP)^[32]^[33]
Tanana Valley, Alaska, US (14,000 yr BP)^[34]
Taima-Taima, Venezuela (14,000 yr BP)^[35]
Paisley Caves, Oregon, US (14,300 yr BP)^[36]
Lapa do Boquete, Brazil (12,070 ±170 ¹⁴C yr BP)^[32]^[37]
Connley Caves, Oregon, US (13,000 yr BP)^[38]
Nenana valley, Alaska, US (12,000 yr BP)^[39]
Tibitó, Colombia (11,740 ±110 ¹⁴C yr BP)^[32]
Tagua-Tagua, Chile (11,380 ±380 ¹⁴C yr BP)^[40]

Predecessors of the Clovis people may have migrated south along the North American coastlines, although there are arguments for many migrations along several different routes.^[41] According to researchers Michael Waters and Thomas Stafford of Texas A&M University, new radiocarbon dates place Clovis remains from the continental United States in a shorter time window (11,050 to 10,900 years ago),^[42] while radiocarbon dating of the Monte Verde site in Chile place Clovis-like culture there as early as 13,500 years ago and remains found at the Channel Islands of California place coastal Paleoindians there 12,500 years ago. This suggests that the Paleoindian migration could have spread more quickly along the Pacific coastline, proceeding south, and that populations that settled along that route could have then begun migrations eastward into the continent.

In 2004, worked stone tools were found at Topper in South Carolina that have been dated by radiocarbon techniques possibly to 50,000 years ago,^[43] although there is significant dispute regarding these dates.^[44] Evidence of humans at the Topper Site definitely date back to 22,900 cal yr BP.^[45]

A more substantiated claim is that of Paisley Caves, where rigorous carbon-14 and genetic testing appears to indicate that humans related to modern Native Americans were present in the caves over 1000 ¹⁴C years before the earliest evidence of Clovis. A study published in Science presents strong evidence that humans occupied sites in Monte Verde, at the tip of South America, as early as 13,000 years ago.^[46] If this is true then humans must have entered North America long before the Clovis Culture – perhaps 16,000 years ago.

The Tlapacoya site is located along the base of a volcanic (remnant) hill on the shore of the former Lake Chalco. Seventeen excavations along the base of Tlapacoya hill between 1956 and 1973 uncovered piles of disarticulated bones of bear and deer that appeared to have been butchered, plus 2,500 flakes and blades presumably from the butchering activities, plus one non-fluted spear point. All were found in the same stratum containing three circular hearths filled with charcoal and ash. Bones of many other animal species were also present, including horses and migratory waterfowl. Two uncalibrated radiocarbon dates on carbon from the hearths came in at approximately 24,000 and 22,000 years ago (see Tl

Other sites

In approximate reverse chronological order:

Pedra Furada, Serra da Capivara National Park, in Piauí, Brazil. Site with evidence of non-Clovis human remains, a rock painting rupestre art drawings from at least 12,000-6,000 BP. Hearth samples C-14 dates of 48-32,000 BP were reported in a Nature article (Guidon and Delibrias 1986). New hearth samples with ABOX dates of 54,000 BP were reported in the Quaternary Science Reviews. ^[47] Paleoindian components found here, have been challenged by American researchers as Meltzer, Adovasio, and Dillehay. Niède Guidon is the head archaeologist at the Serra da Capivara National Park.

Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, is erroneously asserted to be Clovis age or even possibly Pre-Clovis in age. The recent discussion of this site (specifically Lapa Vermelha IV) and the Luzia skull, reportedly 11,500 years old by Neves and Hubb, makes it clear that this date is a chronological date in years Before Present and not a raw radiocarbon date ^[48] in eastern Brazil. Clovis sites mostly date between 11,500 and 11,000 radiocarbon years which means 13,000 years before present at a minimum. "Luzia" is at least 1,000 years younger than Clovis and Lapa Vermelha IV should not be considered a Pre-Clovis site.

Cueva del Milodon, in Patagonian Chile^[49] dates at least as early as 10,500 BP. This is a site found particularly early in the New World hunt for Early Man, circa 1896, and needs additional basic research, but 10,500 B. P. would be 1,500 years younger than Clovis, or if the dating is 10,500 RCYBP, it would still be roughly 500–700 years younger than Clovis. In either case this should not be considered a Pre-Clovis site.

Cueva Fell^[50] and Pali Aike Crater sites in Patagonia, with hearths, stone tools and other elements of human habitation dating to at least as early as 11,000 BP.

The Big Eddy Site in southwestern Missouri contains several claimed pre-Clovis artifacts or geofacts. In situ artifacts have been found in this well-stratified site in association with charcoal. Five different samples have been AMS dated to between 11,300 to 12,675 BP (Before Present).^{[citation needed]}

Monte Verde II, a site in Chile, was occupied from 11,800 to 12,000 years BP.^{[citation needed]}

Taima Taima, Venezuela has cultural material very similar to Monte Verde II, dating to 12,000 years BP.^{[citation needed]}

A cut mastodon tusk found at Page-Ladson, Jefferson County, Florida on the Aucilla River has been dated to 12,300 years BP near a few in situ artifacts of similar age.^[51]

The Schaefer and Hebior mammoth sites in Kenosha County, Wisconsin indicate exploitation of this animal by humans. The Schaefer Mammoth site has over 13 highly purified collagen AMS dates and 17 dates on associated wood, dating it to 12,300-12,500 radiocarbon years before the present. Hebior has two AMS dates in the same range. Both animals show conclusive butchering marks and associated non-diagnostic tools.^[52]

A site in Walker, Minnesota with stone tools, alleged to be from 13,000 to 15,000 years old based on surrounding geology, was discovered in 2006.^[53]

In a 2011 article ^[4] in Science, Waters et al. 2011 describe an assemblage of 15,528 lithic artifacts from the Debra L. Friedkin site west of Salado, Texas. These artifacts (including 56 tools, 2,268 macrodebitage and 13,204 microdebitage) define the Buttermilk Creek Complex formation, which stratigraphically underlies a Clovis assemblage. While carbon dating could not be used to directly date the artifacts, 49 samples from the 20 cm Buttermilk floodplain sedimentary clay layer in which the artifacts were embedded were dated using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL). Eighteen OSL ages, ranging from 14,000 to 17,500 ka were obtained from this layer. The authors report “the most conservative estimate” of the age of the Buttermilk clays range from 13,200 to 15,500 ka, based on the minimum age represented by each of the 18 OSL ages.

Human coprolites have been found in Paisley Caves in Oregon, carbon dated at 14,300 years ago. Genetic analysis revealed that the coprolites contained mtDNA haplogroups A2 and B2, two of the five major Native American mtDNA haplogroups.^[54]^[55]

The Mud Lake site, in Kenosha County, Wisconsin consists of the foreleg of a juvenile mammoth recovered in the 1930s. Over 100 stone tool butchering marks are found on the bones. Several purified collegen AMS dates show the animal to be 13,450 rcybp with a range of plus or minus 1,500 rcybp variance.^[56]

Meadowcroft Rockshelter in southwestern Pennsylvania, excavated 1973-78, with evidence of occupancy dating back from 16,000 to 19,000 years ago.^[57]

Cactus Hill in southern Virginia, with artifacts such as unfluted bifacial stone tools with dates ranging from c. 15,000 to 17,000 years ago.^[58]

Sixty-eight stone and bone tools discovered in an orchard in East Wenatchee, Washington in 1987, excavated in 1988 and 1990. Five of the Clovis points are on display at the Wenatchee Valley Museum & Cultural Center.^[59]

Notes

^ History of the Mark Twain National Forest from the website of the Mark Twain National Forest
^ The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.
^ ^a ^b Haynes, Gary (2002). The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 0521524636. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Waters, Michael. "The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas" (PDF). Science. 331 (25): 1599–1603. Retrieved 2011-03-24. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "Monte Verde Under Fire". Archaeology.org. 1999-10-18. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
^ "Pedra Furada, Brazil: Paleoindians, Paintings, and Paradoxes: An interview with Drs. Niède Guidon, Anne-Marie Pessis, Fabio Parenti, Claude Guérin, Evelyne Peyre, and Guaciara M. dos Santos"
^ "Brazilian Findings Spark Archeological Debate" by Alex Bellos
^ "Stones of contention" by David Meltzer
^ The oldest Americans Archaeological sites, George Weber. http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text54.htm
^ Pearson, Georges (2005). "Clovis on the Caribbean Coast of Venezuela". Current Research in the Pleistocene. 22: 28–31. ISSN 8755-898X. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "Southeastern Prehistory: Paleoindian Period". National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
^ Lepper, Bradley T. (1999). "Pleistocene Peoples of Midcontinental North America". In Bonnichsen, Robson; Turnmire, Karen (ed.). Ice Age People of North America. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. pp. 362–394.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
^ McLean, Dewey; Kainlauri, E., Johansson, A., Kurki-Suonio, I., and Geshwiler, M., eds. (1991). "A climate change mammalian population collapse mechanism" (Document). Atlanta, Georgia: ASHRAE. pp. 93–100. {{cite document}}: |last2= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |isbn= (help); Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Largent, Floyd. "THE CLOVIS COMET Part I: Evidence for a Cosmic Collision 12,900 Years Ago" (PDF). The Mammoth Trumpet. 23 (1). Retrieved 2011-02-06. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Firestone, R. B. (2007). "Evidence for an extraterrestrial impact 12,900 years ago that contributed to the megafaunal extinctions and the Younger Dryas cooling". PNAS. 104 (41): 16016–16021. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706977104. PMC 1994902. PMID 17901202. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Comet impact theory disproved
^ Semeniuk, Ivan (2009). "Ice Age Impact". Sky and Telescope: 20–25. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Mann, Charles C. (2005). "1491: new revelations of the Americas before Columbus". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "America's Stone Age Explorers". Nova. PBS TV. 2004. Retrieved 2006-06-01.
^ Fagundes, Nelson J.R. et al. (2008) "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas" The American Journal of Human Genetics 82(March): pp. 1-10, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013
^ "Ancient hearth tests carbon dating (Pedra Furada) - 17 November 2003". Sci.tech-archive.net. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
^ TL age-estimates of burnt quartz pebbles from the Toca do Boqueir o da Pedra Furada (Piaui, Northeastern Brazil), H. Valladas, N. Merciera, M. Michaba et al., http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-486G37P-1&_user=10&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3652ebac4124fdb4e6279451ad6bec32&searchtype=a
^ A revised chronology of the lowest occupation layer of Pedra Furada Rock Shelter, Piauí, Brazil: the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas, G. M. Santos, M. I. Bird, F. Parenti et al., http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-498TSWP-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1616903590&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=dedde5befeb198e96ce3086e2f2b74f5&searchtype=a
^ ]http://articles.cnn.com/2004-11-17/tech/carolina.dig_1_oldest-radiocarbon-topper-site-human-sites?_s=PM:TECH]
^ [1]
^ [2]
^ [3]
^ [4]
^ [5]
^ Madsen 152
^ [6]
^ ^a ^b ^c Madsen 157
^ [7]
^ [8]
^ [9]
^ [10]
^ [11]
^ [12]
^ [13]
^ [14]
^ Multiple Colonizations and Many Routes in the Peopling of the Americas
^ A&M University Press Article
^ New Evidence Puts Man In North America 50,000 Years Ago from the ScienceDaily website
^ Scientist: Man in Americas earlier than thought, a CNN article on the South Carolina discoveries
^ Madsen 153
^ Science, May 9, 2008, Ancient Algae Suggest Sea Rount for First Americans
^ A revised chronology of the lowest occupation layer of Pedra Furada Rock Shelter, Piauí, Brazil: the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas, G. M. Santos, M. I. Birdb, F. Parenti et al. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-498TSWP-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1616971028&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=c10b900c233616300d368c46eb830980&searchtype=a
^ Walter A. Neves and Mark Hubbe: Cranial morphology of early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil: Implications for the settlement of the New World. Laboratorio de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, Departamento de Genetica e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociencias, Universidade de Sao Paulo.
^ C. Michael Hogan, Cueva del Milodon, Megalithic Portal, 13 April 2008 [15]
^ Calvin J. Heusser (2003) Ice Age Southern Andes: A Chronicle of Paleoecological Events, Elsevier, 240 pages ISBN 0444514783
^ Webb et al. 2006 First Floridians and Last Mastodons, Springer
^ Schafer from the website of the "Friends of the Ice Age" in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
^ Ancient Stone "Tools" Found; May Be Among Americas' Oldest from the National Geographic website
^ DNA from Fossil Feces breaks Clovis Barrier
^ New Scientist 12/4/08 pg 15
^ Mud Lake Site from the website of the "Friends of the Ice Age" in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
^ "The Greatest Journey," James Shreeve, National Geographic, March 2006, pg. 64
^ Pre-Clovis Occupation on the Nottoway River in Virginia Pre-Clovis Occupation on the Nottoway River in Virginia from the website of the Athena Review, Vol.2, no.3
^ Lee, Mike (December 27, 1999). "Work on 1987 discovery on hold". Tri-City Herald. Kennewick, WA: The McClatchy Company. OCLC 17157840. Retrieved {{subst:today}}. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

References

Madsen, David B., ed. Entering America: Northeast Asia and Beringia Before the Last Glacial Maximum. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-87480-786-8.

External links

Blackwater Draw Site Weblog Current research at the Clovis type site
Stone Age Columbus BBC TV programme summary
Texas Beyond History
Carbon-rich layer fortifies theory on comet impact

[1] History of the Mark Twain National Forest from the website of the Mark Twain National Forest

[2] The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.

[Haynes2002-3] Haynes, Gary (2002). The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 0521524636. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Waters2011-4] Waters, Michael. "The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas" (PDF). Science. 331 (25): 1599–1603. Retrieved 2011-03-24. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[5] "Monte Verde Under Fire". Archaeology.org. 1999-10-18. Retrieved 2011-02-06.

[6] "Pedra Furada, Brazil: Paleoindians, Paintings, and Paradoxes: An interview with Drs. Niède Guidon, Anne-Marie Pessis, Fabio Parenti, Claude Guérin, Evelyne Peyre, and Guaciara M. dos Santos"

[7] "Brazilian Findings Spark Archeological Debate" by Alex Bellos

[8] "Stones of contention" by David Meltzer

[9] The oldest Americans Archaeological sites, George Weber. http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text54.htm

[Pearson&Ream-10] Pearson, Georges (2005). "Clovis on the Caribbean Coast of Venezuela". Current Research in the Pleistocene. 22: 28–31. ISSN 8755-898X. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[Anders-11] "Southeastern Prehistory: Paleoindian Period". National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-04-28.

[12] Lepper, Bradley T. (1999). "Pleistocene Peoples of Midcontinental North America". In Bonnichsen, Robson; Turnmire, Karen (ed.). Ice Age People of North America. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. pp. 362–394.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)

[13] McLean, Dewey; Kainlauri, E., Johansson, A., Kurki-Suonio, I., and Geshwiler, M., eds. (1991). "A climate change mammalian population collapse mechanism" (Document). Atlanta, Georgia: ASHRAE. pp. 93–100. {{cite document}}: |last2= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |isbn= (help); Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[14] Largent, Floyd. "THE CLOVIS COMET Part I: Evidence for a Cosmic Collision 12,900 Years Ago" (PDF). The Mammoth Trumpet. 23 (1). Retrieved 2011-02-06. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[Firestone2007-15] Firestone, R. B. (2007). "Evidence for an extraterrestrial impact 12,900 years ago that contributed to the megafaunal extinctions and the Younger Dryas cooling". PNAS. 104 (41): 16016–16021. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706977104. PMC 1994902. PMID 17901202. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[16] Comet impact theory disproved

[Semeniuk-17] Semeniuk, Ivan (2009). "Ice Age Impact". Sky and Telescope: 20–25. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[Mann2005-18] Mann, Charles C. (2005). "1491: new revelations of the Americas before Columbus". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[19] "America's Stone Age Explorers". Nova. PBS TV. 2004. Retrieved 2006-06-01.

[Fagundes,_Nelson_J_2008_pp._1-10-20] Fagundes, Nelson J.R. et al. (2008) "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas" The American Journal of Human Genetics 82(March): pp. 1-10, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013

[21] "Ancient hearth tests carbon dating (Pedra Furada) - 17 November 2003". Sci.tech-archive.net. Retrieved 2011-02-06.

[22] TL age-estimates of burnt quartz pebbles from the Toca do Boqueir o da Pedra Furada (Piaui, Northeastern Brazil), H. Valladas, N. Merciera, M. Michaba et al., http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-486G37P-1&_user=10&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3652ebac4124fdb4e6279451ad6bec32&searchtype=a

[23] A revised chronology of the lowest occupation layer of Pedra Furada Rock Shelter, Piauí, Brazil: the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas, G. M. Santos, M. I. Bird, F. Parenti et al., http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-498TSWP-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1616903590&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=dedde5befeb198e96ce3086e2f2b74f5&searchtype=a

[24] ]http://articles.cnn.com/2004-11-17/tech/carolina.dig_1_oldest-radiocarbon-topper-site-human-sites?_s=PM:TECH]

[25] [1]

[26] [2]

[27] [3]

[28] [4]

[29] [5]

[30] Madsen 152

[31] [6]

[mad157-32] Madsen 157

[33] [7]

[34] [8]

[35] [9]

[36] [10]

[37] [11]

[38] [12]

[39] [13]

[40] [14]

[41] Multiple Colonizations and Many Routes in the Peopling of the Americas

[42] A&M University Press Article

[43] New Evidence Puts Man In North America 50,000 Years Ago from the ScienceDaily website

[44] Scientist: Man in Americas earlier than thought, a CNN article on the South Carolina discoveries

[45] Madsen 153

[46] Science, May 9, 2008, Ancient Algae Suggest Sea Rount for First Americans

[47] A revised chronology of the lowest occupation layer of Pedra Furada Rock Shelter, Piauí, Brazil: the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas, G. M. Santos, M. I. Birdb, F. Parenti et al. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-498TSWP-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1616971028&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=c10b900c233616300d368c46eb830980&searchtype=a

[48] Walter A. Neves and Mark Hubbe: Cranial morphology of early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil: Implications for the settlement of the New World. Laboratorio de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, Departamento de Genetica e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociencias, Universidade de Sao Paulo.

[49] C. Michael Hogan, Cueva del Milodon, Megalithic Portal, 13 April 2008 [15]

[50] Calvin J. Heusser (2003) Ice Age Southern Andes: A Chronicle of Paleoecological Events, Elsevier, 240 pages ISBN 0444514783

[51] Webb et al. 2006 First Floridians and Last Mastodons, Springer

[52] Schafer from the website of the "Friends of the Ice Age" in Kenosha County, Wisconsin

[53] Ancient Stone "Tools" Found; May Be Among Americas' Oldest from the National Geographic website

[54] DNA from Fossil Feces breaks Clovis Barrier

[55] New Scientist 12/4/08 pg 15

[56] Mud Lake Site from the website of the "Friends of the Ice Age" in Kenosha County, Wisconsin

[57] "The Greatest Journey," James Shreeve, National Geographic, March 2006, pg. 64

[58] Pre-Clovis Occupation on the Nottoway River in Virginia Pre-Clovis Occupation on the Nottoway River in Virginia from the website of the Athena Review, Vol.2, no.3

[59] Lee, Mike (December 27, 1999). "Work on 1987 discovery on hold". Tri-City Herald. Kennewick, WA: The McClatchy Company. OCLC 17157840. Retrieved {{subst:today}}. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

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@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 The Clovis culture was replaced by several more localized regional cultures from the time of the [[Younger Dryas]] cold climate period onward. Post-Clovis cultures include the [[Folsom tradition]], Gainey, Suwannee-Simpson, Plainview-Goshen, Cumberland, and Redstone.  Each of these is commonly thought to derive directly from Clovis, in some cases apparently differing only in the length of the fluting on their projectile points.  Although this is generally held to be the result of normal cultural change through time,<ref name="Haynes2002">{{cite book |title=The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era |last=Haynes |first=Gary |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=0521524636 |page=52 }}</ref> numerous other reasons have been suggested to be the driving force for the observed changes in the archaeological record, such as [[Younger Dryas impact event|an extraterrestrial impact event]] or post-glacial [[climate change]] with numerous faunal extinctions.
-After the discovery of several Clovis sites in western North America in the 1930s, the Clovis people came to be regarded as the first human inhabitants of the [[New World]].  Clovis people were considered to be the ancestors of all the indigenous cultures of North and [[South America]].  However, this majority view has been contested over the last thirty years by several archaeological discoveries, including possible sites like [[Cactus Hill]] in [[Virginia]], [[Paisley Caves]] in the [[Summer Lake (Oregon)|Summer Lake Basin]] of [[Oregon]], the [[Topper (archaeological site)|Topper]] site in [[Allendale County, South Carolina]], [[Meadowcroft Rockshelter]] in [[Pennsylvania]], and the [[Monte Verde]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/clovis/ |title=Monte Verde Under Fire |publisher=Archaeology.org |date=1999-10-18 |accessdate=2011-02-06}}</ref> and [[Cueva Fell]] sites in [[Chile]]. The claim to the oldest human archaeological site known in the Americas belongs to the [[Pedra Furada]] human remains and hearths, a site that precedes the Clovis culture and the other sites already mentioned by 19.000 to 30.000 years, but this discovery has become an issue of contention between North American archaeologists and their South American and European counterparts.<ref>[http://www.athenapub.com/10pfurad.htm "Pedra Furada, Brazil: Paleoindians, Paintings, and Paradoxes: An interview with Drs. Niède Guidon, Anne-Marie Pessis, Fabio Parenti, Claude Guérin, Evelyne Peyre, and Guaciara M. dos Santos"]</ref><ref>[http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/pedrafurada.html "Brazilian Findings Spark Archeological Debate" by Alex Bellos]</ref><ref>[http://space.newscientist.com/article/mg14619834.000-stones-of-contention.html "Stones of contention" by David Meltzer]</ref>  In American archaeology most dates older than 10,000 are controversial. They are under intense scrutiny and may change as new dating technologies are developed and existing ones refined.<ref>The oldest Americans Archaeological sites, George Weber. http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text54.htm</ref>
+After the discovery of several Clovis sites in western North America in the 1930s, the Clovis people came to be regarded as the first human inhabitants of the [[New World]].  Clovis people were considered to be the ancestors of all the indigenous cultures of North and [[South America]].  However, this majority view has been contested over the last thirty years by several archaeological discoveries, including possible sites like [[Cactus Hill]] in [[Virginia]], [[Paisley Caves]] in the [[Summer Lake (Oregon)|Summer Lake Basin]] of [[Oregon]], the [[Topper (archaeological site)|Topper]] site in [[Allendale County, South Carolina]], [[Meadowcroft Rockshelter]] in [[Pennsylvania]], the Friedkin<ref name=Waters2011>{{cite journal | last=Waters | first=Michael | authorlink= | coauthors = Forman, Jennings, Nordt, Driese, Feinberg, Keene, Halligan, Lindquist, Pierson, Hallmark, Collins and Wiederhold | title= The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas | journal = Science | volume = 331 | issue = 25 | pages = 1599&ndash;1603 | url=http://media.kansas.com/smedia/2011/03/24/13/article.source.prod_affiliate.80.pdf | |accessdate=2011-03-24}}</ref> site in Texas,  and the [[Monte Verde]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/clovis/ |title=Monte Verde Under Fire |publisher=Archaeology.org |date=1999-10-18 |accessdate=2011-02-06}}</ref> and [[Cueva Fell]] sites in [[Chile]]. The claim to the oldest human archaeological site known in the Americas belongs to the [[Pedra Furada sites|Pedra Furada]] human remains and hearths, a site that precedes the Clovis culture and the other sites already mentioned by 19,000 to 30,000 years, but this discovery has become an issue of contention between North American archaeologists and their South American and European counterparts.<ref>[http://www.athenapub.com/10pfurad.htm "Pedra Furada, Brazil: Paleoindians, Paintings, and Paradoxes: An interview with Drs. Niède Guidon, Anne-Marie Pessis, Fabio Parenti, Claude Guérin, Evelyne Peyre, and Guaciara M. dos Santos"]</ref><ref>[http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/pedrafurada.html "Brazilian Findings Spark Archeological Debate" by Alex Bellos]</ref><ref>[http://space.newscientist.com/article/mg14619834.000-stones-of-contention.html "Stones of contention" by David Meltzer]</ref>  In American archaeology most dates older than 10,000 are controversial. They are under intense scrutiny and may change as new dating technologies are developed and existing ones refined.<ref>The oldest Americans Archaeological sites, George Weber. http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text54.htm</ref>
 ==Description==
@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 The culture was originally named for a small number of artifacts found between 1936 and 1938 at [[Blackwater Locality No. 1]], an [[archaeological site]] near [[Clovis, New Mexico]].  People began collecting artifacts at this site in the late 1920s but artifacts and animal remains that had not moved since the Pleistocene were not recovered until 1936.  The ''in situ'' finds of 1936 and 1937 included most of four stone Clovis points, two long bone points with impact damage, stone blades, a portion of a Clovis blade core, and several cutting tools made on stone flakes.  Clovis sites have since been identified throughout much, but not all, of the contiguous [[United States]], as well as [[Mexico]] and [[Central America]], and even into Northern South America.<ref name=Pearson&Ream>{{ cite journal | last = Pearson | first = Georges | authorlink = | coauthors = Ream, Joshua | year = 2005 | month = | title = Clovis on the Caribbean Coast of Venezuela | journal = Current Research in the Pleistocene | volume = 22 | issue = | pages = 28&ndash;31 | issn = 8755-898X | url = | accessdate = | quote = }}</ref>
-A hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively-shaped fluted stone [[spear]] point, known as the [[Clovis point]]. The Clovis point is [[biface|bifacial]] and typically fluted on both sides. Archaeologists do not agree on whether the widespread presence of these artifacts indicates the proliferation of a single people, or the adoption of a superior technology by diverse population groups. It is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted [[mammoth]] as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains.  Mammoth was only a small part of the Clovis diet; [[Bison antiquus|extinct bison]], [[mastodon]], [[Ground sloth|sloths]], [[tapir]], palaeolama, [[horse]] (the association of Clovis with horse remains is in dispute as no actual Clovis artifacts have been found in direct association with fossil horse remains) and a host of smaller animals have also been found in Clovis sites where they were killed and eaten. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have been used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited.
+A hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively-shaped fluted stone [[spear]] point, known as the [[Clovis point]]. The Clovis point is [[biface|bifacial]] and typically fluted on both sides. Archaeologists do not agree on whether the widespread presence of these artifacts indicates the proliferation of a single people, or the adoption of a superior technology by diverse population groups. It is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted [[mammoth]] as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains.  Mammoth was only a small part of the Clovis diet; [[Bison antiquus|extinct bison]], [[mastodon]], [[Ground sloth|sloths]], [[tapir]], palaeolama, [[horse]] (the association of Clovis with horse remains is in dispute as no actual Clovis artifacts have been found in direct association with fossil horse remains) and a host of smaller animals have also been found in Clovis sites where they were killed and eaten. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have been used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}
 ==Disappearance of Clovis==
@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
 Archaeological sites that predate Clovis that are well documented include the following:
 {{colbegin|2}}
 *[[Pedra Furada sites|Pedra Furada]], Brazil (55,000 yr BP ABOX)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sci.tech-archive.net/Archive/sci.archaeology/2009-09/msg00169.html |title=Ancient hearth tests carbon dating (Pedra Furada) - 17 November 2003 |publisher=Sci.tech-archive.net |date= |accessdate=2011-02-06}}</ref><ref>TL age-estimates of burnt quartz pebbles from the Toca do Boqueir o da Pedra Furada (Piaui, Northeastern Brazil), H. Valladas, N. Merciera, M. Michaba et al., http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-486G37P-1&_user=10&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3652ebac4124fdb4e6279451ad6bec32&searchtype=a</ref><ref>A revised chronology of the lowest occupation layer of Pedra Furada Rock Shelter, Piauí, Brazil: the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas, G. M. Santos, M. I. Bird, F. Parenti et al., http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-498TSWP-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1616903590&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=dedde5befeb198e96ce3086e2f2b74f5&searchtype=a</ref>
+*[[Topper (archaeological site)|Topper]], (50,000 yr BP) South Carolina, US<ref>]http://articles.cnn.com/2004-11-17/tech/carolina.dig_1_oldest-radiocarbon-topper-site-human-sites?_s=PM:TECH]</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/11/041118104010.htm]</ref>
-*[[Monte Verde]], Chile (12,780 ±240 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref name=mad157>Madsen 157</ref>
+*[[Meadowcroft Rockshelter|Meadowcroft]], Pennsylvania, US (16,000 yr BP)<ref>[http://www.heinzhistorycenter.org/secondary.aspx?id=150]</ref>
-*[[Tagua-Tagua]], Chile
+*[[Buttermilk Creek Complex]], Texas, US(15,500 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20287-first-americans-arrived-2500-years-before-we-thought.html]</ref>
-*[[Grand Abriga da Santana do Riancho]], Brazil
+*[[Salada]], Texas, US. (15,500 yr BP) <ref name=Waters2011/><ref>[http://www.star-telegram.com/2011/03/24/2947233/texas-artifacts-strongest-evidence.html]</ref>
-*[[Lapa do Boquete]], Brazil (12,070 ±170 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref name=mad157/>
+*[[Cactus Hill]], Virginia, US (15,000 yr BP) <ref>[http://www.athenapub.com/cacthill.htm]</ref>
-*[[Lapa dos Bichos]], Brazil
-*[[Tibitó]], Colombia (11,740 ±110 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref name=mad157/>
-*[[Taima-Taima]], Venezuela
-*[[Topper (archaeological site)|Topper]], South Carolina, US
-*[[Cactus Hill]], Virginia, US
 *[[Saltville, Virginia]], US (14,510 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref>Madsen 152</ref>
+*[[Taima-Taima]], Venezuela (14,000 yr BP)<ref>[http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/taima-taima-text.html]</ref>
-*[[Meadowcroft Rockshelter|Meadowcroft]], Pennsylvania, US
+*[[Monte Verde]], Chile (14,800 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref name=mad157>Madsen 157</ref><ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1124/]</ref>
-*[[Chesrow]], Wisconsin, US
+*[[Tanana Valley]], Alaska, US (14,000 yr BP)<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/40316728]</ref>
-*[[Smith Creek Cave]], Nevada, US
+*[[Taima-Taima]], Venezuela (14,000 yr BP)<ref>[http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/taima-taima-text.html]</ref>
-*[[Danger Cave]], Utah, US
+*[[Paisley Caves]], Oregon, US (14,300 yr BP)<ref>[http://newswise.com/articles/view/539341/]</ref>
-*[[Connley Cave#5]], Oregon, US
+*[[Lapa do Boquete]], Brazil (12,070 ±170 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref name=mad157/><ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3284/is_n277_v72/ai_n28711513/pg_3/]</ref>
-*[[Nenana Valley]], Alaska, US
+*[[Connley Caves]], Oregon, US (13,000 yr BP)<ref>[http://pages.uoregon.edu/ftrock/connley_caves_description.php]</ref>
-*[[Tanana Valley]], Alaska, US
-*[[Teklanika Valley]], Alaska, US.<ref>Madsen 140, 156-7</ref>
+*[[Nenana valley]], Alaska, US (12,000 yr BP)<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/281707]</ref>
+*[[Tibitó]], Colombia (11,740 ±110 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref name=mad157/>
+*[[Tagua-Tagua]], Chile (11,380 ±380 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP)<ref>[http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text-Taguatagua/text-Taguatagua.htm]</ref>
 {{colend}}
@@ Line 65: / Line 64: @@
 A more substantiated claim is that of [[Paisley Caves]], where rigorous carbon-14 and genetic testing appears to indicate that humans related to modern Native Americans were present in the caves over 1000 [[Radiocarbon year|<sup>14</sup>C year]]s before the earliest evidence of Clovis. A study published in Science presents strong evidence that humans occupied sites in Monte Verde, at the tip of South America, as early as 13,000 years ago.<ref>Science, May 9, 2008, Ancient Algae Suggest Sea Rount for First Americans</ref> If this is true then humans must have entered North America long before the Clovis Culture &ndash; perhaps 16,000 years ago.
-The [[Tlapacoya (Mesoamerican site)|Tlapacoya]] site is located along the base of a volcanic (remnant) hill on the shore of the former [[Lake Chalco]]. Seventeen excavations along the base of Tlapacoya hill between 1956 and 1973 uncovered piles of disarticulated bones of bear and deer that appeared to have been butchered, plus 2,500 flakes and blades presumably from the butchering activities, plus one non-fluted spear point.  All were found in the same stratum containing three circular hearths filled with charcoal and ash.  Bones of many other animal species were also present, including horses and migratory waterfowl. Two uncalibrated radiocarbon dates on carbon from the hearths came in at approximately 24,000 and 22,000 years ago (see Tlapacoya: 35,000 años de historia del Lago de Chalco, by José Luis Lorenzo and Lorena Mirambell (coordinadores) Colección Científica núm 155, serie prehistória, Instituto Nacional de Antropología, México (1986)).  At another location a prismatic micro-blade of obsidian was found in association with a tree trunk radiocarbon dated (uncalibrated) at approximately 24,000 years ago. This obsidian blade has recently been hydration dated by Joaquín García-Bárcena to 22,000 years ago and the hydration results published in a seminal article that deals with the evidence for pre-Clovis habitation of Mexico ("Primeros pobladores: La Etapa Lítica en México."  Arqueología Mexicana, Vol. IX, núm. 52, pp.&nbsp;28–29.  Joaquín García-Bárcena(2001)).
+The [[Tlapacoya (Mesoamerican site)|Tlapacoya]] site is located along the base of a volcanic (remnant) hill on the shore of the former [[Lake Chalco]]. Seventeen excavations along the base of Tlapacoya hill between 1956 and 1973 uncovered piles of disarticulated bones of bear and deer that appeared to have been butchered, plus 2,500 flakes and blades presumably from the butchering activities, plus one non-fluted spear point.  All were found in the same stratum containing three circular hearths filled with charcoal and ash.  Bones of many other animal species were also present, including horses and migratory waterfowl. Two uncalibrated radiocarbon dates on carbon from the hearths came in at approximately 24,000 and 22,000 years ago (see Tl
-===Coastal migration route===
-Recent studies of the [[mitochondrial DNA]] of [[First Nations]]/[[indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] suggest that the people of the New World may have diverged genetically from Siberians as early as 20,000 years ago, far earlier than the standard theory suggests.<ref name="Fagundes, Nelson J 2008 pp. 1-10"/> However, this pattern is not inconsistent with a later colonization from Siberia because [[Coalescent theory|gene coalescent theory]] predicts that genetic co-ancestry is expected to greatly predate colonization and/or isolation. According to one alternative theory, the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of North America may have been free of ice, allowing the first peoples in North America to come down this route prior to the formation of the ice-free corridor in the continental interior.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} No solid evidence has yet been found to support this hypothesis except that genetic analysis of coastal marine life indicates diverse fauna persisting in refugia throughout the Pleistocene ice ages along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia; these refugia include common food sources of coastal aboriginal peoples, suggesting that a migration along the coastline was feasible at the time.<ref>Jacobs et al. 2004; Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences; 32: 601-652</ref>{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
-===Solutrean hypothesis===
-{{Main|Solutrean hypothesis}}
-The controversial [[Solutrean hypothesis]] proposed in 1999 by Smithsonian archaeologist [[Dennis Stanford]] and colleague [[Bruce Bradley]] (Stanford and Bradley 2002), suggests that the Clovis people could have inherited technology from the [[Solutrean]] people who lived in southern Europe 21,000-15,000 years ago, and who created the first [[Stone Age]] artwork in present-day southern [[France]].<ref>The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Palaeolithic route to the New World. Bruce Bradley and Dennis Stanford. World Archaeology 2004 Vol. 36(4): 459 – 478. http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Conservation%20Biology/Karen%20PDF/Clovis/Bradley%20&%20Stanford%202004.pdf</ref> The link is suggested by the similarity in technology between the projectile points of the Solutreans and those of the Clovis people. The model envisions these people making the crossing in small watercraft via the edge of the pack ice in the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]] that then extended to the Atlantic coast of France, using skills similar to those of the modern Inuit people.
-In a 2008 study of the relevant paleoceanographic data, Kieran Westley and Justin Dix concluded that "it is clear from the paleoceanographic and paleo-environmental data that the LGM North Atlantic does not fit the descriptions provided by the proponents of the Solutrean Atlantic Hypothesis. Although ice use and sea mammal hunting may have been important in other contexts, in this instance, the conditions militate against an ice-edge-following, maritime-adapted European population reaching the Americas."<ref>Westley, Kieran; Justin Dix "The Solutrean Atlantic Hypothesis: A View from the Ocean" ''Journal of the North Atlantic'' 2008 1:85–98 [http://www.science.ulster.ac.uk/cma/Westley+Dix2008(Solutrean_Atlantic_Final).pdf]</ref>
-Supporters {{Who|date=January 2009}} of this hypothesis suggest that stone tools found at [[Cactus Hill]] (an early American site in [[Virginia]]), are knapped in a style between Clovis and Solutrean.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} Other scholars such as Emerson F. Greenman and Remy Cottevieille-Giraudet have also suggested a Northern Atlantic point of entry, citing toolmaking similarities between Clovis and Solutrean-era artifacts.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
-[[University of New Mexico]] anthropologist Lawrence G. Straus, a primary critic of the Solutrean hypothesis, points to the theoretical difficulty of the ocean crossing, a lack of Solutrean-specific features in pre-Clovis artifacts, as well as the lack of art (such as that found at [[Lascaux]] in France) among the Clovis people, as major deficiencies in the Solutrean hypothesis. The 3,000 to 5,000 radiocarbon year gap between the Solutrean period of France and Spain and the Clovis of the New World also makes such a connection problematic.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Straus, Lawrence G. |year=2000 |month=April |title=Solutrean Settlement of North America? A Review of Reality |journal=[[American Antiquity]] |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=219–226 |doi=10.2307/2694056 |issn=00027316 |publisher=Society for American Archaeology |jstor=2694056}}</ref> In response, Bradley and Stanford contend<!--the word 'contend' is theirs, please don't change it --> that it was "a very specific subset of the Solutrean who formed the parent group that adapted to a maritime environment and eventually made it across the north Atlantic ice-front to colonize the east coast of the Americas" and that this group may not have shared all Solutrean cultural traits.<ref>Bradley, Bruce; Stanford, Dennis "The Solutrean-Clovis connection : reply to Straus, Meltzer and Goebel"  World archaeology 38:44, 704-714, Taylor & Francis, 2006</ref>
-===Genetic studies===
-{{Main|Indigenous Amerindian genetics}}
-Mitochondrial DNA analysis  has found that some members of some native North American tribes have a maternal ancestry (called [[haplogroup X (mtDNA)|haplogroup X]]) linked to the maternal ancestors of some present day individuals in western Asia and Europe, albeit distantly.
-An article in the ''[[American Journal of Human Genetics]]'' states "Here we show, by using 86 complete mitochondrial genomes, that all Native American [[haplogroup]]s, including [[Haplogroup X (mtDNA)|haplogroup X]], were part of a single founding population, thereby refuting multiple-migration models." The study also argues for a Beringian isolation and subsequent coastal migration.<ref>{{ cite journal | last = Fagundes | first = Nelson J.R. | authorlink = | coauthors = ''et al.'' | year = 2008 | month = | title = Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 82 | issue = 3 | pages = 583&ndash;592 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013 | url = http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/Fagundes-et-al.pdf| accessdate = 2008-07-04| quote = | pmid = 18313026 | pmc = 2427228 }}</ref>
-{{clear}}
 ==Other sites==
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 * A site in [[Walker, Minnesota]] with stone tools, alleged to be from 13,000 to 15,000 years old based on surrounding geology, was discovered in 2006.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/02/070215-stone-tools.html Ancient Stone "Tools" Found; May Be Among Americas' Oldest] from the ''[[National Geographic]] website</ref>
+* In a 2011 article <ref name=Waters2011/> in ''Science'', Waters et al. 2011 describe an assemblage of 15,528 lithic artifacts from the Debra L. Friedkin site west of Salado, Texas. These artifacts (including 56 tools, 2,268 macrodebitage and 13,204 microdebitage) define the Buttermilk Creek Complex formation, which stratigraphically underlies a Clovis assemblage. While carbon dating could not be used to directly date the artifacts, 49 samples from the 20 cm Buttermilk floodplain sedimentary clay layer in which the artifacts were embedded were dated using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL). Eighteen OSL ages, ranging from 14,000 to 17,500 ka were obtained from this layer. The authors report “the most conservative estimate” of the age of the Buttermilk clays range from 13,200 to 15,500 ka, based on the minimum age represented by each of the 18 OSL ages.
 * Human coprolites have been found in [[Paisley Caves]] in Oregon, carbon dated at 14,300 years ago. Genetic analysis revealed that the coprolites contained mtDNA haplogroups A2 and B2, two of the five major Native American mtDNA haplogroups.<ref>[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/320/5872/37 DNA from Fossil Feces breaks Clovis Barrier]</ref><ref>New Scientist 12/4/08 pg 15</ref>

v t e Pre-Columbian North America
Periods Lithic Archaic Formative Classic Post-Classic
Archaeological cultures	Adena Alachua Ancient Beringian Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi) Avonlea Baytown Belle Glade Buttermilk Creek complex Caborn-Welborn Cades Pond Calf Creek Caloosahatchee Clovis Coles Creek Comondú Deptford Folsom Fort Ancient Fort Walton Fremont Glacial Kame Glades Hohokam Hopewell List of Hopewell sites La Jolla Las Palmas Maritime Archaic Mississippian List of Mississippian sites Mogollon Monongahela Old Cordilleran Oneota Paleo-Arctic Paleo-Indians Patayan Plano Plaquemine Poverty Point Red Ocher Safety Harbor Santa Rosa-Swift Creek St. Johns Steed-Kisker Suwannee Valley Tchefuncte Troyville Weeden Island
Archaeological sites	Angel Mounds Anzick site Bandelier National Monument Bastian Benson Blue Spring Shelter Bluefish Caves The Bluff Point Stoneworks Brewster Cahokia Candelaria Cave Casa Grande Chaco Canyon Coso Rock Art District Crystal River Cuarenta Casas Cueva de la Olla Cutler Eaker El Fin del Mundo El Vallecito Effigy Mounds Etowah Indian Mounds Eva Folsom Fort Ancient Fort Center Fort Juelson Four Mounds Gila Cliff Dwellings Glenwood Grimes Point Helen Blazes Holly Bluff Hopewell Culture National Historical Park Horr's Island Huápoca Key Marco Kimball Village Kincaid Mounds Kolomoki Mounds Lake Jackson Mounds Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site L'Anse aux Meadows Lynch Quarry Site Marksville Marmes Rockshelter Meadowcroft Rockshelter Mesa Verde Moaning Cavern Moorehead Circle Morrison Mounds Moundville Mummy Cave Nodena site Ocmulgee Mounds Old Stone Fort Orwell site Paquime Painted Bluff Parkin Park Pinson Mounds Plum Bayou Mounds Portsmouth Earthworks Poverty Point Pueblo Bonito Recapture Canyon River Styx Roberts Island Rock Eagle Rock Hawk Rosenstock Village Russell Cave Salmon Ruins Serpent Mound Sierra de San Francisco Shell ring sites Spiro Mounds Stallings Island SunWatch Taos Pueblo Town Creek Indian Mound Turkey River Mounds Upward Sun River Velda Mound West Oak Forest Earthlodge Wickiup Hill Windover Winterville Wupatki
Human remains	Anzick-1 Arlington Springs Man Buhl Woman Kennewick Man La Brea Woman Leanderthal Lady Melbourne Man Minnesota Woman Peñon woman Spirit Cave mummy Vero man
Miscellaneous	Aridoamerica Black drink Ceremonial pipe Chanunpa Chunkey Clovis point Container Revolution Eastern Agricultural Complex Eden point Effigy mound Falcon dancer Folsom point Green Corn Ceremony Horned Serpent Kiva Medicine wheel Metallurgy Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing Mound Builders N.A.G.P.R.A. Norse colonization of North America Oasisamerica Piasa Projectile point Southeastern Ceremonial Complex Stickball Three Sisters agriculture Thunderbird Transoceanic contact Underwater panther Water glyphs
Related Genetic history Pre-Columbian era

v t e History of the Americas
History	North America Mesoamerica Central America Caribbean Latin America South America Andean South America Genetics
Settlement	Indigenous peoples Indigenous population Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories Christopher Columbus Exploration European colonization Spanish colonization French colonization Portuguese colonization British colonization Columbian Exchange Decolonization
Societies	Paleo-Indians Pre-Columbian era Aztec Maya Muisca Inca
Related	Maps Culture Geography Indigenous languages Epidemics Slavery
Lists	Pre-Columbian cultures Indigenous peoples Population Conflicts North America South America
Chronology	Archaeology of the Americas North America by period North American timelines Mesoamerica by period Mesoamerica timeline
Era: By period By region Three-age system Ancient history Pre-Columbian era Classical Antiquity Middle Ages Modern history Future