Sinicization
Sinicization | |||||||||||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 漢化 | ||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 汉化 | ||||||||||||||
Hanyu Pinyin | hànhuà | ||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | Han-ization | ||||||||||||||
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Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 中國化 | ||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 中国化 | ||||||||||||||
Hanyu Pinyin | zhōngguóhuà | ||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | Chinese-ization | ||||||||||||||
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Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||
Vietnamese alphabet | Hán hóa | ||||||||||||||
Chữ Hán | 漢化 | ||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | Han-ization | ||||||||||||||
Korean name | |||||||||||||||
Hangul | 중국화 | ||||||||||||||
Hanja | 中國化 | ||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | Chinese-ization | ||||||||||||||
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Japanese name | |||||||||||||||
Hiragana | ちゅうごくか | ||||||||||||||
Kyūjitai | 中國化 | ||||||||||||||
Shinjitai | 中国化 | ||||||||||||||
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Sinicization, sinicisation, sinofication, or sinification, or sinonization is a process whereby non-Chinese societies come under the influence of Chinese culture, particularly Han Chinese culture, language, societal norms, and ethnic identity. Areas of influence include diet, writing, industry, education, language, law, lifestyle, politics, philosophy, religion, science and technology, culture, and value systems. More broadly, "Sinicization" may refer to policies of acculturation, assimilation, or cultural imperialism imposed by China onto neighboring East Asian countries, and minority ethnic groups inside China. Evidence of this can be seen in the value systems, cuisine, architectural style, and lexicons. This is reflected in the histories of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, in the adoption of the Chinese writing system, which has long been a unifying feature in the Sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to these Asian countries.
Integration
The integration or assimilation policy is a type of nationalism aimed at strengthening of the Chinese identity among the population. Proponents believe integration will help to develop shared values, pride in being the country's citizen, respect and acceptance towards cultural differences among citizens of China. Critics argue that integration destroys ethnic diversity, language diversity, and cultural diversity. Analogous to North America with approximately 300 Native American languages and distinct ethnic groups; in China there are 292 non-Mandarin languages spoken by native peoples of the region.[1] There are also a number of immigrant languages, such as Khmer, Portuguese, English, etc.
Historical examples of sinicization
Austronesian peoples
Before sinicization, non-Chinese indigenous peoples of Southern China, collectively termed by the Chinese as Baiyue inhabited the coastline of China from as far north as the Yangtze River to as far south as the Gulf of Tonkin. Analysis of DNA recovered from human remains shows high frequencies of Haplogroup O1 in Liangzhu culture linking this culture to modern Austronesian populations. It is believed that Liangzhu culture was the ancestral homeland of Proto-Austronesian populations before they spread to Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Over time, the southward spread of Han Chinese led to the sinicization of most of the Baiyue populations that remained in Southern China, whether in the Yangtze Valley or in coastal areas from the mouth of the Yangtze to the Gulf of Tonkin.[2] The remnants of these peoples who were not fully sinicized are now recognized officially as the ethnic minorities of the PRC.
Turkic peoples
Descendants of Uyghurs who migrated to Taoyuan County, Hunan have largely assimilated into the Han Chinese and Hui population and practice Chinese customs, speaking varieties of Chinese as their language.
Tang dynasty
During the 8th and 9th centuries in the Tang dynasty, Chinese male soldiers moved into Guizhou (formerly romanized as Kweichow) and married native non-Chinese women, their descendants being known as Lao-han-jen (original Chinese), in contrast to new Chinese people who colonized Guizhou at later times. They still spoke an archaic dialect as of 1929.[3] Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from these soldiers in garrisons who married non-Chinese women.[4]
Yuan dynasty
The Mongol Yuan dynasty appointed a Muslim from Bukhara, Ajall Shams al-Din Omar, as governor of Yunnan after conquering the Bai Kingdom of Dali. Sayyid Ajjall then promoted Sinicization and Confucianization of the non-Han Chinese peoples in Yunnan during his reign. Sayyid Ajall founded a "Chinese style" city where modern Kunming is today, called Zhongjing Cheng. He ordered that a Buddhist temple, a Confucian temple, and two mosques be built in the city.[5] Advocating Confucianism was part of his policy. The Confucian temple that Sayyid Ajall built in 1274, which also doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan.[6]
Both Confucianism and Islam were promoted by Sayyid Ajall in his "civilizing mission" during his time in Yunnan.[7] Sayyid Ajall viewed Yunnan as "backward and barbarian" and utilized Confucianism, Islam, and Buddhism for "civilizing" the area.[8]
In Yunnan, the widespread presence of Islam is credited to Sayyid Ajall's work.[9]
Sayyid Ajall was first to bring Islam to Yunnan. He promoted Confucianism and Islam by ordering construction of mosques and temples of Confucianism.[10] Sayyid Ajall also introduced Confucian education into Yunnan.[11][12] He was described as making 'the orangutans and butcherbirds become unicorns and phoenixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps', and praised by the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies, He Hongzuo.[13]
Shams al-Din constructed numerous Confucian temples in Yunnan, and promoted Confucian education. He is best known among Chinese for helping sinicize Yunnan province.[14] He also built multiple mosques in Yunnan. Sayyid Ajall also introduced Confucian rituals and traditions to Yunnan,[15] including Chinese social structures, Chinese funeral rituals and Chinese marriage customs.[8][16]
The aim of Sayyid Ajall's policy of promoting Confucianism and education in Yunnan was to "civilize" the native "barbarians". Confucian rituals were taught to students in newly founded schools by Sichuanese scholars, and Confucian temples were built.[17][18] The natives of Yunnan were instructed in Confucian ceremonies like weddings, matchmaking, funerals, ancestor worship, and kowtow by Sayyid Ajall. The native leaders has their "barbarian" clothing replaced by clothing given to them by Sayyid Ajall.[18][19]
Both Marco Polo and Rashid al-Din Vatvat recorded that Yunnan was heavily populated by Muslims during the Yuan Dynasty, with Rashid naming a city with all Muslim inhabitants as the 'great city of Yachi'.[20] It has been suggested that Yachi was Dali City (Ta-li). Dali had many Hui Muslim people.[21]
Sayyid Ajall's son Nasir al-Din became Governor of Yunnan in 1279 after his death.[22][23]
The historian Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein has written on Sayyid Ajall's Confucianization and Sinicization policies, in her dissertation Sayyid 'Ajall Shams al-Din: A Muslim from Central Asia, serving the Mongols in China, and bringing 'civilization' to Yunnan,[24] the paper The Origins of Confucian and Islamic Education in Southwest China: Yunnan in the Yuan Period,[25] and The Sinicization and Confucianization in Chinese and Western Historiography of a Muslim from Bukhara Serving Under the Mongols in China.[26]
Ming dynasty
During the Ming conquest of Yunnan Chinese military soldiers were settled in Yunnan, and many married the native women.
Qing dynasty
The rulers of the Qing dynasty were ethnic Manchus who adopted the norms of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rules. The "orthodox" historical view emphasized the power of Han Chinese to "sinicize" their conquerors, although more recent research such as the New Qing History school revealed Manchu rulers were savvy in their manipulation of their subjects and from the 1630s through at least the 18th century, the emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used Central Asian models of rule as much as Confucian ones. There is also evidence of sinicization, however. For example, Manchus originally had their own separate style of naming from the Han Chinese, but eventually adopted Han Chinese naming practices.
Manchu names consisted of more than the two or one syllable Chinese names, and when phonetically transcribed into Chinese, they made no sense at all.[27] The meaning of the names that Manchus used were also very different from the meanings of Chinese names.[28] The Manchus also gave numbers as personal names.[29]
Eventually, the Qing royal family (the Aisin Gioro) gave their children Chinese names, which were separate from the Manchu names, and even adopted the Chinese practice of generation names, although its usage was inconsistent and error ridden. Eventually[when?] they stopped using Manchu names.[30]
The Niohuru family of the Manchu changed their family name to Lang, which sounded like "wolf" in Chinese, since wolf in Manchu was Niohuru; thus forming a translation.[31]
Although the Manchus replaced their Manchu names with Chinese personal names, the Manchu bannermen followed their traditional practice in typically used their first/personal name to address themselves and not their last name, while Han Chinese bannermen used their last name and first in normal Chinese style.[32][33]
Usage of surnames was not traditional to the Manchu while it was to the Han Chinese.[34]
Nguyen dynasty Vietnam
Vietnamese Nguyen Emperor Minh Mạng sinicized ethnic minorities such as Cambodians, Chams and Montagnards, claimed the legacy of Confucianism and China's Han dynasty for Vietnam, and used the term Han people 漢人 to refer to the Vietnamese.[35] Minh Mang declared that "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han [Sino-Vietnamese] customs."[36] These policies were directed at the Khmer and hill tribes.[37] The Nguyen lord Nguyen Phuc Chu had referred to Vietnamese as "Han people" in 1712 when differentiating between Vietnamese and Chams.[38]
Minh Mang used the name "Trung Quốc" 中國 (the same hànzì as for "China") to refer to Vietnam.[39]
Chinese clothing was adapted by the Vietnamese people under Nguyễn.[40][41][42][43]
Modern examples of sinicization
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang pursued a sinicization policy, which foreign observers understood as "the time had come to set about the business of making all natives either turn Chinese or get out." It was noted that "Chinese colonization" of "Mongolia and Manchuria" led to the conclusion "to a conviction that the day of the barbarian was finally over."[44][45][46]
Ma Clique
Hui Muslim General Ma Fuxiang created an assimilationist group and encouraged the integration of Muslims into Chinese society.[47] Ma Fuxiang was a hardcore assimilationist and said that Hui should assimilate into Han.[48]
Xinjiang
The Hui Muslim 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) governed southern Xinjiang in 1934–1937. The administration that was set up was colonial in nature, putting up street signs and names in Chinese, which used to be in only Uighur language. They lived much like Han Chinese, importing Han cooks and baths.[49] The Hui also switched carpet patterns from Uyghur to Han in state owned carpet factories.[50]
Strict surveillance and mass detentions of Uighurs in the re-education camps is a part of the ongoing sinicization policy by the Communist Party of China.[51]
Since 2015, it has been estimated that over a million Uyghurs have been detained in Xinjiang re-education camps.[52][53][54][55] The camps were established under General Secretary Xi Jinping's administration with the main goal of ensuring adherence to national ideology.[56] Critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs have accused the Chinese government of propagating a policy of sinicization in Xinjiang in the 21st century, calling this policy an ethnocide or a cultural genocide of Uyghurs.[57][58][59][60]
Taiwan
After the Republic of China took control of Taiwan in 1945 and relocated its capital to Taipei in 1949, the intention of Chiang Kai-shek was to eventually go back to mainland China and retake control of it. Chiang believed that to retake mainland China, it would be necessary to re-Sinicize Taiwan's inhabitants who had undergone assimilation under Japanese rule. Examples of this policy included the renaming of streets with mainland geographical names, use of Mandarin Chinese in schools and punishments for using other regional languages (such as the fāngyán of Hakka and Hokkien), and teaching students to revere traditional ethics, develop pan-Chinese nationalism, and view Taiwan from the perspective of China.[61][62] Other reasons for the policy were to combat the Japanese influences on the culture that had occurred in the previous 50 years, and to help unite the recent immigrants from mainland China that had come to Taiwan with the KMT and among whom there was a tendency to be more loyal to one's city, country or province than to China as a nation.[63]
The process of re-asserting non-Chinese identity, as in the case of ethnic groups in Taiwan, is sometimes known as desinicization. This is an issue in, for example, the Taiwan independence movement and Taiwan localization movements.
Tibet
The sinicization of Tibet is the change of Tibetan society to Han Chinese standards by means of state propaganda, police presence, cultural assimilation, religious persecution, immigration, population transfer and political reform.[64][65][66][67] It has been underway since the Chinese invasion of Tibet by the Tibetan Government in Exile,[68] in 1951. In present-day Tibet traditional Tibetan festivals have "been turned into a platform for propaganda and political theater” where "government workers and retirees are barred from engaging in religious activities, and government workers and students in Tibetan schools are forbidden from visiting local monasteries.”[69] According to president of the Central Tibetan Administration, Lobsang Sangay, with the ongoing expulsion of monks and nuns from monasteries and nunneries, and destruction of the Larung Gar monastery,[70] Tibet's largest Buddhist institution, "unfortunately what is happening is that the Chinese government is reviving something akin to cultural revolution in Tibet."[71][72]
Religion
In April 2016, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping declared that in order to “actively guide the adaptation of religions to socialist society, an important task is supporting China’s religions’ persistence in the direction of sinicization.”[73][74] He later reiterated this plan to the 19th Communist Party Congress saying “We will fully implement the Party’s basic policy on religious affairs, insist on the sinicization of Chinese religions, and provide active guidance for religion and socialism to coexist.”[73][75]
Protestantism
The Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) of Protestant churches in China has described the Boxer Rebellion and the anti-Christian movement of 1922-27 as early efforts to sinicize Christianity.[76]
The TSPM and China Christian Council arranged a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6, 2014, commemorating the anniversary of the TSPM. This conference included a seminar on the sinicizaton of Christianity, with Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, saying “churches in China will continue to explore the sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs.”[77][78]
In 2019, TSPM chairman Xu Xiaohong made a pledge to eliminate any Western "imprint" from Chinese faith saying "[We] must recognise that Chinese churches are surnamed ‘China’, not ‘the West’" and "No matter how much effort or time it takes, our resolution in upholding the Sinicisation of Protestantism will never change, and our determination to walk a path that is adapted to a socialist society will never waver."[76]
Catholicism
In December 2016, the Ninth National Congress of the Chinese Catholic Representatives reaffirmed their plan for the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association to uphold the principle of independence and self-governance, along with the promotion of sinicization.[79][80]
In March 2018, Archbishop Paul Gallagher, Secretary for Relations with States within the Holy See's Secretariat of State, said that "two expressions or, more precisely, two principles stand out, which should interact with each other, namely “Sinicization” and “inculturation”. I am convinced that an important intellectual and pastoral challenge arises in an almost natural way from the bringing together of these two terms, which indicate two real visions of the world."[81][82]
In June 2018, the Bishops' Conference of the Catholic Church in China and the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association ) issued a "Five-Year Plan on Carrying Forward the Catholic Church's Adherence to the Direction of Sinicization in Our Country".[83][84] This document includes provisions forbidding worship outside of designated church structures and government-authorized times, as well as participation of minors under the age of 18 in any religious services. Churches in Hebei province and the Yibin Diocese of Sichuan province began holding training seminars immediately.[85][86]
Islam
In 2015, paramount leader Xi Jinping first raised the issue of "Sinicization of Islam". In 2018, a confidential directive was issued ordering local officials to "prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state’s functions".[87]
Yang Faming, leader of the Islamic Association of China, said in a 2018 speech that "We must allow traditional Chinese culture to permeate Islam and jointly guard the spiritual homeland of the Chinese people."[88] He encouraged Chinese characteristics to be present in religious ceremony, culture, and architecture.[73]
In popular culture
In some forms of fiction, due to China's communist statehood, Soviet-themed characters are de-Sovietized and switched over to become Chinese to fit modern (post-Cold War) times. The original cut of the 2012 Red Dawn remake depicted a Chinese invasion before having said information leaked to the Global Times, sparking controversy in China and threatening its airing in the country (the invaders were changed to North Koreans).[89] In 2006, Chinese versions of the Crimson Dynamo and the Abomination were created and made members of the Liberators in Marvel Comics, the comic book The Ultimates 2.
See also
References
- ^ "China". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 2018-11-19. Retrieved 2018-12-05.
- ^ Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5. ISBN 9780871698650.
- ^ (in English) Scottish Geographical Society (1929). Scottish geographical magazine, Volumes 45–46. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. p. 70. Archived from the original on 2018-05-17. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ (in English) Margaret Portia Mickey (1947). The Cowrie Shell Miao of Kweichow, Volume 32, Issue 1. The Museum. p. 6. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Gaubatz, Piper Rae (1996). Beyond the Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese Frontiers (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 78. ISBN 0804723990. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Tan Ta Sen (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia (illustrated, reprint ed.). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 92. ISBN 978-9812308375. Archived from the original on 13 May 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Atwood, Christopher P. "Sayyid Ajall 'Umar Shams-ud-Din". Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2004. Ancient and Medieval History Online. Facts On File, Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/History/MainPrintPage.asp?iPin=EME454&DataType=Ancient&WinType=Free Archived 2014-08-13 at the Wayback Machine (accessed July 29, 2014).
- ^ a b Lane, George (June 29, 2011). "Sayyed ajall". Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ M. Th Houtsma (1993). First encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936. BRILL. p. 847. ISBN 90-04-09796-1. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
Although Saiyid-i Adjall certainly did much for the propagation of Islam in Yunnan, it is his son Nasir al-Din to whom is ascribed the main credit for its dissemination. He was a minister and at first governed the province of Shansi : he later became governor of Yunnan where he died in 1292 and was succeeded by his brother Husain. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that the direction of this movement was from the interior, from the north. The Muhammadan colonies on the coast were hardly affected by it. On the other hand it may safely be assumed that the Muslims of Yunnan remained in constant communication with those of the northern provinces of Shensi and Kansu.
- ^ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 385. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
certain that Muslims of Central Asian originally played a major role in the Yuan (Mongol) conquest and subsequent rule of south-west China, as a result of which a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century AD. Foremost among these soldier-administrators was Sayyid al-Ajall Shams al-Din Umar al-Bukhari (Ch. Sai-tien-ch'ih shan-ssu-ting). a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Szechwan ... And Yunnan in c. 1252, and who became Yuan Governor of the latter province in 1274–79. Shams al-Din—who is widely believed by the Muslims of Yunnan to have introduced Islam to the region—is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building Confucian temples, as well as mosques and schools
- ^ Liu, Xinru (2001). The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 019979880X. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ "Ethnic Groups - china.org.cn". www.china.org.cn. Archived from the original on 2014-12-02. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- ^ Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
claimed descent from the emir of Bokhara ... and was appointed as the top administrator in Yunnan in the 1270s. Today the Muslims of Yunnan regard him as the founder of their community, a wise and benevolent ruler who 'pacified and comforted' the peoples of Yunnan. Sayyid Ajall was officially the Director of Political Affairs of the Regional Secretariat of Yunnan ... According to Chinese records, he introduced new agricultural technologies, constructed irrigation systems, and tried to raise living standards. Though a Muslims, he built or rebuilt Confucian temples and created a Confucian education system. His contemporary, He Hongzuo, the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies, wrote that through his efforts 'the orangutans and butcherbirds became unicorns and phonixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps' ...
[page needed] - ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Rachewiltz, Igor de, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). Vol. Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 476. ISBN 3447033398. ISSN 0571-320X. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
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(help) - ^ Rachewiltz, Igor de, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). Vol. Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 477. ISBN 3447033398. ISSN 0571-320X. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
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(help) - ^ Yang, Bin (2009). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0231142540. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - ^ a b Yang, Bin (2008). "Chapter 5 Sinicization and Indigenization: The Emergence of the Yunnanese" (PDF). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231142540. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help)[page needed] - ^ Yang, Bin (2009). Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0231142540. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - ^ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 174. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
from the Yuan Dynasty, and indicated further Muslim settlement in northeastern and especially southwestern Yunnan. Marco Polo, who travelled through Yunnan "Carajan" at the beginning of the Yuan period, noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population. Similarly, the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that the 'great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims.
- ^ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 387. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
when Maroco Polo visited Yunnan in the early Yuan period he noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population while the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that 'the great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Ta-li in western Yunnan, which was to emerge as the earliest centre of Hui Muslim settlement in the province.
- ^ ( )Thant Myint-U (2011). Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
In this way, Yunnan became known to the Islamic world. When Sayyid Ajall died in 1279 he was succeeded by his son Nasir al-Din who governed for give years and led the invasion of Burma. His younger brother became the Transport Commissioner and the entire family entrenched their influence.
[page needed] - ^ (Original from the University of Virginia) Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah (1986). Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8. The Institute. p. 385. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
On his death he was succeeded by his eldest son, Nasir al-Din (Ch. Na-su-la-ting, the "Nescradin" of Marco Polo), who governed Yunnan between 1279 and I284. While Arab and South Asian Muslims, pioneers of the maritime expansion of Islam in the Bay of Bengal, must have visited the
- ^ ""CESWW" - Dissertations in Central Eurasian Studies - History". cesww.fas.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2014-08-25. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- ^ "Session 8: Individual Papers: New Work on Confucianism, Buddhism, and Islam from Han to Yuan". Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- ^ Gladney, Dru C. (1996). Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Vol. Volume 149 of Harvard East Asian monographs (illustrated ed.). Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 366. ISBN 0674594975. ISSN 0073-0483. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
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(help) - ^ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
famous Manchu figure of the early Qing who belonged to the Niohuru clan) would have been the unwieldy "Niu-gu-lu E-bi-long" in Chinese. Moreover, the characters used in names were typically chosen to represent the sounds of Manchu, and not to carry any particular meaning in Chinese. For educated Han Chinese accustomed to names composed of a familiar surname and one or two elegang characters drawn from a poem or a passage from the classics, Manchu names looked not just different, but absurd. What was oneo to make of a name like E-bi-long, written in Chinese characters meaning "repress-must flourish," or Duo-er-gun, meaning "numerous-thou-roll"? S.... To them they looked like nonsense.... But they are not nonsense in Manchu: "E-bi-long" is the transcription of ebilun, meaning "a delicate or sickly child," and "Duo-er-gun" is the Chinese transcription of dorgon, the Manchu word for badger.
- ^ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
Thus we find names like Nikan (Chinese), Ajige (little), Asiha (young), Haha (nale), Mampi (knot—a reference to the hair?), Kara (black), Fulata (red-eyed), Necin (peaceful), Kirsa (steppe fox), Unahan (colt), Jumara (squirrel), Nimašan (sea eagle), Nomin (lapis lazuli), and Gacuha (toy made out of an animal's anklebone).44 Names such as Jalfungga (long-lived), Fulingga (lucky one), Fulungga (majestic), and Hūturingga (fortunate), were not unknown, either, particularly after the seventeenth century. Although mightily foreign when written as Zha-la-feng-a, Fu-ling-a, Fu-long-a, or Hu-tu-ling-ga
- ^ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 243. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
While Chinese names, too, sometimes ended in characters with the sounds "zhu," "bao," and "tai," more often than not, such names in the Qing belonged to Manchus and other bannermen (Chinese bannermen and Mongols sometimes took Manchu-sounding names), even if the attached meaning is not clear (it is not certain that all names in fact had a specific meaning). Giving "numeral names" was another unique Manchu habit. These were names that actually referred to numbers. Sometimes they were given using Manchu numbers—for example, Nadanju (seventy) or Susai (fifty). Other times number names used the Manchu transcriptions of Chinese numbers, as in the name Loišici (= Liushi qi, "sixty-seven"), Bašinu (= bashi wu, "eight-five").45 Such names, unheard of among the Han, were quite common among the Manchus, an appeared from time to time among Chinese bannermen. Popular curiosity about this odd custom in Qing was partly satisfied by the nineteenth-century bannerman-writer Fu-ge, who explained in his book of "jottings" that naming children for their grandparents' ages was a way of wishing longevity to the newly born.46
- ^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
At Xiuyan, in eastern Fengtian, the Manchus in the seventh or eighth generation continued as before to give their sons polysyllabic Manchu personal names that were meaningless when transliterated into Chinese, but at the same time they began to also give them Chinese names that were disyllabic and meaningful and that conformed to the generational principle. Thus, in the seventh generation of the Gūwalgiya lineage were sons with two names, one Manchu and one Chinese, such as Duolunbu/Shiman, Delinbu/Shizhu, and Tehengbu/Shizhen. Within the family and the banner, these boys used their Manchu name, but outside they used their Han-style name. Then, from the eight or ninth generation one, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Gūwalgiya at Xiuyan stopped giving polysyllabic Manchu names to their sons, who thereafter used Chinese names exclusively.
- ^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
and when the ancient and politically prominent Manchu lineage of Niohuru adopted the Han-style surname Lang, he ridiculed them for having "forgotten their roots." (The Niohuru, whose name was derived from niohe, Manchu for wolf," had chosen Lang as their surname because it was a homophone for the Chinese word for "wolf.")
- ^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
Manchu men had abandoned their original polysyllabic personal names infavor of Han-style disyllabic names; they had adopted the Han practice of choosing characters with auspicious meanings for the names; and they had assigned names on a generational basis.... Except among some Hanjun such as the two Zhao brothers, bannermen still did not, by and large, use their
- ^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928 (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780295804125. Archived from the original on January 5, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
family name but called themselves only by their personal name—for example, Yikuang, Ronglu, Gangyi, Duanfang, Xiliang, and Tieliang. In this respect, most Manchus remained conspicuously different from Han.
- ^ Mark C. Elliott (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 241. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Archived from the original on December 31, 2013. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
Chinese names consist typically of a single-character surname and a given name of one or two characters, the latter usually chosen for their auspicious meaning. Manchu names were different. For one thing, Manchus did not commonly employ surnames, identifying themselves usually by their banner affiliation rather than by their lineage. Even if they had customarily used both surname and given name, this would not have eliminated the difference with Han names, since Manchu names of any kind were very often longer than two characters—that is, two syllables— in length. Where a Han name (to pick at random two names from the eighteenth century) might read Zhang Tingyu or Dai Zhen, the full name of, say, Ebilun (a
- ^ Norman G. Owen (2005). The Emergence Of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2890-5.
- ^ A. Dirk Moses (1 January 2008). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. pp. 209–. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4. Archived from the original on 2008.
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(help) - ^ Randall Peerenboom; Carole J. Petersen; Albert H.Y. Chen (27 September 2006). Human Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Study of Twelve Asian Jurisdictions, France and the USA. Routledge. pp. 474–. ISBN 978-1-134-23881-1.
- ^ "Vietnam-Champa Relations and the Malay-Islam Regional Network in the 17th–19th Centuries". Archived from the original on 2004-06-17.
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: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Angelasancartier.net". Archived from the original on 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
- ^ "#18 Transcultural Tradition of the Vietnamese Ao Dai". 2010-03-14. Archived from the original on 2010-03-23. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
- ^ "Ao Dai". Archived from the original on 2016-02-04. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
- ^ "The Ao Dai and I: A Personal Essay on Cultural Identity and Steampunk". 2010-10-20. Archived from the original on 2016-03-07. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
- ^ The new Orient; a series of monographs on Oriental culture ... 1933. p. 116. Retrieved 2011-05-29.
- ^ Paul Carus, ed. (1934). The Open court, Volume 47. The Open Court Pub. Co. p. 116. Retrieved 2011-05-29.
- ^ Owen Lattimore (1962). Frontier history. Oxford University Press. p. 197. Retrieved 2011-05-29.
- ^ Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa (2002). The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture. Routledge. p. 368. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". Modern China. 10 (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: 296. doi:10.1177/009770048401000302. JSTOR 189017.
- ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 130. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 131. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ "Chinese official says 'sinicization' of religion in Xinjiang must go on". Archived from the original on 2020-01-10.
- ^ Lipes, Joshua (November 24, 2019). "Expert Says 1.8 Million Uyghurs, Muslim Minorities Held in Xinjiang's Internment Camps". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved November 28, 2019.
- ^ "U.N. says it has credible reports China holds million Uighurs in secret camps". Reuters. Retrieved 10 August 2018.
- ^ "Data leak details China's 'brainwashing system'". BBC News. 2019-11-24. Retrieved 2020-07-21.
- ^ "Former inmates of China's Muslim 're-education' camps tell of brainwashing, torture". www.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
- ^ Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (2019-11-16). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-11-16.
- ^ ""'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'" - The Independent, 5 July 2019". Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ ""'Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs" - The Times 17 December 2019". Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ ""China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'" - 28 November 2019". Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ ""Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture" - Financial Times 12 September 2019". Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ Dreyer, June Teufel (July 17, 2003). Taiwan's Evolving Identity. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Archived from Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved May 20, 2009.
In order to shore up his government's legitimacy, Chiang set about turning Taiwan's inhabitants into Chinese. To use Renan's terminology, Chiang chose to re-define the concept of shared destiny to include the mainland. Streets were re-named; major thoroughfares in Taipei received names associated with the traditional Confucian virtues. The avenue passing in front of the foreign ministry en route to the presidential palace was named chieh-shou (long life), in Chiang's honor. Students were required to learn Mandarin and speak it exclusively; those who disobeyed and spoke Taiwanese Min, Hakka, or aboriginal tongues could be fined, slapped, or subjected to other disciplinary actions.
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value (help) - ^ "Starting Anew on Taiwan". Hoover Institution. 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-04-08. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
The new KMT concluded that it must "Sinicize" Taiwan if it were ever to unify mainland China. Textbooks were designed to teach young people the dialect of North China as a national language. Pupils also were taught to revere Confucian ethics, to develop Han Chinese nationalism, and to accept Taiwan as a part of China.
- ^ "Third-Wave Reform". Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2019-01-01.
.... The government initiated educational reform in the 1950s to achieve a number of high-priority goals. First, it was done to help root out fifty years of Japanese colonial influence on the island's populace--"resinicizing" them, one might say- -and thereby guarantee their loyalty to the Chinese motherland. Second, the million mainlanders or so who had fled to Taiwan themselves had the age-old tendency of being more loyal to city, county, or province than to China as a nation. They identified themselves as Hunanese, Cantonese, or Sichuanese first, and as Chinese second.
- ^ Burbu, Dawa (2001) China's Tibet Policy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-0474-3, pp. 100–124
- ^ Samdup, Tseten (1993) Chinese population—Threat to Tibetan identity Archived 2009-02-05 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Warren, James (May 18, 1997). "On Tibet, Senator's Daughter Shows More Spine Than the U.S." Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ ""They Say We Should Be Grateful" Mass Rehousing and Relocation Programs in Tibetan Areas of China". hrw.org. Human Rights Watch. 2013-06-27. Archived from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ "Invasion & After: Tibet Since the Chinese Invasion". tibetoffice.org. Office of Tibet, Washington D.C. Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ Lodoe, Kalden; Demo, Yangdon; Gelek, Lobsang (September 6, 2019). "Tibetan Religious Festival Marred by Police Presence, State Propaganda". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 9 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ Wong, Edward (February 27, 2017). "U.N. Human Rights Experts Unite to Condemn China Over Expulsions of Tibetans". New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ "China could not succeed in destroying Buddhism in Tibet: Sangay". May 25, 2017. Archived from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ Wong, Edward (November 28, 2016). "China Takes a Chain Saw to a Center of Tibetan Buddhism". New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ a b c Bowie, Julia; Gitter, David (14 June 2018). "The CCP's Plan to 'Sinicize' Religions". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ "习近平:全面提高新形势下宗教工作水平-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 23 April 2016. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ "习近平:决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 27 October 2017. Archived from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ a b Gan, Nectar (12 March 2019). "Chinese Protestant church head wants purge of Western influences". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
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The National Committee of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement of Protestant Churches in China marked its 60th anniversary in 2014. Subsequently, China's government-sponsored China Christian Council (CCC) and the TSPM orchestrated a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6 to commemorate the anniversary of the TSPM, which included a seminar on the so-called "sinicization" of Christianity. Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, was quoted as saying that "churches in China will continue to explore the sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs." Gao Feng, chairman of the CCC, stated that the TSPM would "take on a new mission in this age, adhere to the path of sinicization, and deepen and advance the process of sinicizing Christianity." Wang Zuo'an, director of the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), also reinforced the need for the sinicization of Christianity.
- ^ "'Sinicization' of Christianity China's aim". Baptist Press. 6 May 2015. Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
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- ^ Shan Ren Shen Fu. "The Ninth Assembly of Chinese Catholic Representatives: More smog and pollution in 2017". AsiaNews. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ H.E. Msgr. Paul Richard Gallagher (26 March 2018). "Intervention of the Secretary for Relations with States at the International Conference on "Christianity in the Chinese Society: Impact, Interaction and Inculturation"". Summary of Bulletin. Holy See Press Office. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ Valente, Gianni (22 March 2018). "Gallagher: we are not afraid of China's new global leadership - La Stampa". Vatican Insider (in Italian). Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ "Sinicization of China Church: the plan in full - UCA News". Union of Catholic Asian News Limited. Hong Kong, China. 31 July 2018. Archived from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
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- ^ "China's Catholics told to create five-year plan to Sinicise Church". World Watch Monitor. 26 July 2018. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
- ^ Myers, Steven Lee (21 September 2019). "A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 September 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
The restrictions they now face can be traced to 2015, when Mr. Xi first raised the issue of what he called the "Sinicization of Islam," saying all faiths should be subordinate to Chinese culture and the Communist Party. Last year, Mr. Xi's government issued a confidential directive that ordered local officials to prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions.
- ^ "杨发明委员:坚持我国伊斯兰教中国化方向-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). 10 March 2018. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
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External links
- Sinicization vs. Manchuness (by Xiaowei Zheng).
- Sinicization: at the crossing of three China regions, an ethnic minority becoming increasingly more Chinese: the Kam People, officially called Dong People (in French)/ Sinisation: à la limite de trois provinces de Chine, une minorité de plus en plus chinoise: les locuteurs kam, officiellement appelés Dong, Jean Berlie, Guy Trédaniel editor, Paris, France, published in 1998.
- Sinicization of the Kam (Dong People), a China minority (in French)/ Sinisation d'une minorité de Chine, les Kam (Dong), Jean Berlie, s.n. editor, published in 1994.
- Islam in China, Hui and Uyghurs: between modernization and sinicization, the study of the Hui and Uyghurs of China, Jean A. Berlie, White Lotus Press editor, Bangkok, Thailand, published in 2004. ISBN 974-480-062-3, ISBN 978-974-480-062-6.