Environmental toxicology
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Environmental toxicology, also known as entox, is a multidisciplinary field of science concerned with the study of the harmful effects of various chemical, biological and physical agents on living organisms.[1][2] Ecotoxicology is a subdiscipline of environmental toxicology concerned with studying the harmful effects of toxicants at the population and ecosystem levels.
Rachel Carson is considered the mother of environmental toxicology, as she made it a distinct field within toxicology in 1962 with the publication of her book Silent Spring, which covered the effects of uncontrolled pesticide use. Carson's book was extensively based on a series of reports made by Lucille Farrier Stickel on the ecological effects of the pesticide DDT.[3]
Organisms can be introduced to toxicants at various stages of their life cycle. The degree of toxicity can vary depending on where the organism is found within its food web. Bioaccumulation occurs when molecular compounds are stored in an organism's fatty tissues. Over time, this leads to the establishment of a trophic cascade and the biomagnification of specific toxicants. Biodegradation releases CO2 and water as by-products into the environment. This process is typically limited in areas affected by environmental toxicants.
Harmful effects of chemical and biological agents can include toxicants from pollutants, insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers, all of which can impact an organism and its community through shifts in species diversity and abundance. Resulting changes in population dynamics impact the ecosystem by altering its productivity and stability.
Legislation has been implemented since the early 1970s to ensure that harmful effects of environmental toxicants are minimized for all species. Unfortunately, according to McCarty (2013[4]) we are facing the risk of entering in a "dark age" due to longstanding limitations in the implementation of the simple conceptual modes
Sources of environmental toxicity
There are many sources of environmental toxicity that can lead to the presence of toxicants in our food, water and air. These sources include organic and inorganic pollutants, pesticides and biological agents, all of which can have harmful effects on living organisms. There can be so called point sources of pollution, for instance the drains from a specific factory but also non-point sources (diffuse sources) like the rubber from car tires that contain numerous chemicals and heavy metals that are spread in the environment.
PCBs
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are organic pollutants that are still present in our environment today, despite being banned in many countries, including the United States and Canada. Due to the persistent nature of PCBs in aquatic ecosystems, many aquatic species contain high levels of this chemical.[3] For example, wild salmon (Salmo salar) in the Baltic Sea have been shown to have significantly higher PCB levels than farmed salmon as the wild fish live in a heavily contaminated environment. [5]
Heavy metals
Heavy metals found in food sources, such as fish can also have harmful effects. These metals can include mercury, lead and cadmium. It has been shown that fish (i.e. rainbow trout) are exposed to higher cadmium levels and grow at a slower rate than fish exposed to lower levels or none.[5] Moreover, cadmium can potentially alter the productivity and mating behaviours of these fish. Heavy metals can not only affect behaviors, but also the genetic makeup in aquatic organisms. In Canada, a study examined genetic diversity in wild yellow perch along various heavy metal concentration gradients in lakes polluted by mining operations. Researchers wanted to determine as to what effect metal contamination had on evolutionary responses among populations of yellow perch. Along the gradient, genetic diversity over all loci was negatively correlated with liver cadmium contamination.[6] Additionally, there was a negative correlation observed between copper contamination and genetic diversity. Some aquatic species have evolved heavy metal tolerances. In response to high heavy metal concentrations a Dipteran species, Chironomus riparius, of the midge family, Chironomidae, has evolved to become tolerant to Cadmium toxicity in aquatic environments. Altered life histories, increased Cd excretion, and sustained growth under Cd exposure is evidence that shows that Chironomus riparius exhibits genetically based heavy metal tolerance.[7]
Pesticides
Pesticides are a major source of environmental toxicity. These chemically synthesized agents have been known to persist in the environment long after their administration. The poor biodegradability of pesticides can result in bioaccumulation of chemicals in various organisms along with biomagnification within a food web. Pesticides can be categorized according to the pests they target. Insecticides are used to eliminate agricultural pests that attack various fruits and crops. Herbicides target herbal pests such as weeds and other unwanted plants that reduce crop production.
DDT
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is an organochlorine insecticide that has been banned due to its adverse effects on both humans and wildlife. DDT’s insecticidal properties were first discovered in 1939.[6] Following this discovery, DDT was widely used by farmers in order to kill agricultural pests such as the potato beetle, coddling moth and corn earworm.[6] In 1962, the harmful effects of the widespread and uncontrolled use of DDT were detailed by Rachel Carson in her book The Silent Spring. Such large quantities of DDT and its metabolite Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) that were released into the environment were toxic to both animals and humans.[7]
DDT is not easily biodegradable and thus the chemical accumulates in soil and sediment runoff.[8] Water systems become polluted and marine life such as fish and shellfish accumulate DDT in their tissues.[8] Furthermore, this effect is amplified when animals who consume the fish also consume the chemical, demonstrating biomagnification within the food web.[8] The process of biomagnification has detrimental effects on various bird species because DDT and DDE accumulate in their tissues inducing egg-shell thinning.[7] Rapid declines in bird populations have been seen in Europe and North America as a result.[7]
Humans who consume animals or plants that are contaminated with DDT experience adverse health effects. Various studies have shown that DDT has damaging effects on the liver, nervous system and reproductive system of humans.[8]
By 1972, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) banned the use of DDT in the United States.[8] Despite the regulation of this pesticide in North America, it is still used in certain areas of the world. Traces of this chemical have been found in noticeable amounts in a tributary of the Yangtze River in China, suggesting the pesticide is still in use in this region.[9]
Sulfuryl fluoride
Sulfuryl fluoride is an insecticide that is broken down into fluoride and sulfate when released into the environment. Fluoride has been known to negatively affect aquatic wildlife. Elevated levels of fluoride have been proven to impair the feeding efficiency and growth of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio).[10] Exposure to fluoride alters ion balance, total protein and lipid levels within these fish, which changes their body composition and disrupts various biochemical processes.[10]
Societies
- American College of Toxicology (ACT)
- Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC)
- Society of Toxicology (SOT)
Journals
- Environmental Health Perspectives
- Environmental Toxicology
- Environmental Toxicology & Pharmacology
- Journal of Environmental Science and Health
- Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health
- Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry
See also
- Ecotoxicology
- Environmental chemistry
- Environmental science
- Toxicology
- Unacceptable Levels (2013 documentary film)
References
Notes
- ^ http://www.biology.sfu.ca/degree/graduate/met
- ^ http://www.clemson.edu/entox/
- ^ "Lucille Farrier Stickel: Research Pioneer". National Wildlife Refuge System. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. March 7, 2014. Retrieved August 24, 2015.
- ^ McCarty, L.S. (Dec 2013). "Are we in the dark ages of environmental toxicology?". Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 67 (3): 321–324.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ "Dioxins and PCBs report shows drop in dietary exposure over last decade | European Food Safety Authority". www.efsa.europa.eu. Retrieved 2016-02-04.
- ^ Bourret, V., Couture, P., Campbell, P.G.C., and Bernatchez, L. (2008). “Evolutionary ecotoxicology of wild yellow perch (Perca flavescens) populations chronically exposed to a polymetallic gradient.” Aquatic Toxicology. 86:76-90.
- ^ Bickham J.W., Sandhu S., Hebert P.D., Chikhi L., and Athwal R. (2000). “Effects of chemical contaminants on genetic diversity in natural populations: implications for biomonitoring and ecotoxicology.” Mutat Res. 463.1: 33-51.
Further reading
- D. A. Wright, P. Welbourn. Environmental Toxicology. ISBN 0-521-58151-6.
- W. G. Landis, M.-H. Yu. Introduction to Environmental Toxicology (3rd ed.). ISBN 1-56670-660-2.
- D. G. Crosby. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-19-511713-4.
- W. Hughes. Essentials of Environmental Toxicology. ISBN 978-1-56032-470-6.
- S. F. Zakrzewski. Environmental Toxicology. ISBN 978-0-19-514811-4.
- L. G. Cockerham, B. S. Shane. Basic Environmental Toxicology. ISBN 978-0-8493-8851-4.
- P. L. Williams, R. C. James, S. M. Roberts. Principles of Toxicology-Environmental and Industrial Applications (2nd ed.). ISBN 0-471-29321-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - M. C. Newman, W. H. Clements. Ecotoxicology: A Comprehensive Treatment. ISBN 978-0-8493-3357-6.
External links
