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Chieftainess (category)

• 'Davidson, Hilda R.E. 1990. Gods and myths of Northern Europe. Repr. Harmondsworth:

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Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate refers to the chattel slavery taking place in the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), a period when the Islamic Caliphate was established and the Islamic conquest expanded outside of the Arabian Peninsula.

The slave trade in the Rashidun Caliphate expanded in parallell with the Imperial conquests, when non-Muslim war captives as well as civilians were enslaved, and humans were demanded by tribute and taxation from subjugated people. During the Rashidun Caliphate, the regulations regarding slavery in the Islamic law was enacted in a large scale, and lay the foundation for the institution in the Umayyad Caliphate.

==Slave trade

Slaveriet i Rashidunkalifatet byggde främst på en handel med krigsfångar som togs under den första etappen av den islamiska expansionen och som enligt religionens bud ansågs legitima att förslava, även om en vissa kommersiell slavhandel med personer som tillfångatagits av slavhandlare också förekom.

Slavhandeln i kalifatet byggde på en kombination av förslavande av krigsfångar, tributer och beskattning i form av slavar, i parallell med kommersiell slavhandel som hade börjat redan under förislamisk tid.

===War captives

Under Rashidunkalifatet påbörjades den militära expansionen som byggde ett imperium utanför den arabiska halvön: i öster mot Persien; och i väster mot Palestina, Syrien Egypten. Den militära expansionen föregick parallellt med en massiv slavhandel knuten till krigföringen, där icke muslimska krigsfångar dödades eller gjordes till slavar.

Tusentals kvinnor och barn blev också förslavade under erövringarna. Efter Caesareas fall sändes 4000 "huvuden" (slavar) till kalif Umar i Medina och delades ut mellan Ansars föräldralösa; slavarna samlades för inventering på Jurd-slätten, som brukade användas för att ansamla Medinas trupper, och torde ha rymt tusentals människor.

Kalif Abu Bakr hade gett två flickor tagna under erövringarna som slavinnor till två döttrar till en av Muhammeds följeslagare; dessa ersattes av kalif Umar med två flickor från slavarna från Caesarea eftersom de förra två hade dött. En del litterära pojkar från Caesarea behölls för att användas som sekreterare inom den nya statsapparaten, eftersom det rådde brist på läs- och skrivkunniga personer.

Den judiska konvertiten Abdallah ibn Salam var känd för att medla mellan den judiska exilarken och muslimer i friköpandet av judiska fångar sedan de tagits som slavar under erövringarna, och fick påminna exilarken om Torans ord att de var skyldiga att friköpa även kvinnor, sedan de hade varit tveksamma att köpa tillbaka våldtäktsoffer.

===Tributary slaves

Slaves were also provided via human tribute and taxation. A permanent supply source of African slaves were provided to the Caliphate via the baqt treaty, which was between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sudanese Christian Kingdom of Dongola in 650, and by which the Christian Kingdom was obliged to provide up 400 slaves annually to the Caliphate via Egypt.

===Commercial slave trade

The slave trade from Africa to Arabia via the Red Sea had ancient roots. While in Pre-Islamic Arabia, Arab war captives were common targets of slavery, importation of slaves from Ethiopia across the Red Sea also took place. The Red Sea slave trade appears to have been established at least from the 1st-century onward, when enslaved Africans were trafficked across the Red Sea to Arabia and Yemen. The Red Sea slave between Africa and the Arabian Peninsula continued for centuries until its final abolition in the 1960s.

==Slave market

Under Rashidunkalifatet förde den arabiska eliten fortfarande en delvis nomadisk livsstil i den arabiska halvön, med centrum i Mecka och Medina.

Kalif Umar ibn al-Khattab (636-644) sålde en grupp på vad kan ha varit tusentals slavar till två framstående Qurashis. Kalif Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661) brukade frige slavar på villkor att de kvarstannade som arbetare på hans gods i sex år efter frigivningen.

===Female slaves

See also: History of concubinage in the Muslim world, Islamic views on concubinage, and Ma malakat aymanukum

Slavinnor kunde delas upp i kategorierna jariya eller jawari (även kallad ama och khadima), arbetade som tjänare och kunde delas sexuellt med andra män; en mahziyya var en jariya som användes exklusivt som konkubin och kunde kosta tusentals dirham; en slavinna som fött ett barn som hennes ägare erkände som sitt, blev en um walad som inte längre kunde säljas men dock förblev sin befintliga ägare slav; en qina eller qiyan var en slavinna som utbildats till underhållare inom sång, musik, poesi, dans, recitation, och var en mycket dyr kategori.

====Sexuellt slaveri

Manliga muslimer fick veta att de hade rätt att ha sex med kvinnliga fångar (slavar), i engelsk översättning: "those men who guard their genitals, except with their wives and those whom their right hands possess, for then there is no blame" (Quran 23:6), vilket gav män rätten att ha sex med sina hustrur samt med kvinnliga slavar. Medan män hade rätt till sex med både hustrur och slavinnor, definierade islams lag ingen skillnad i legitimitet mellan en mans barn med sin hustru och hans (erkända) barn med en slavinna; följden av tystnaden blev att om en man erkände sitt barn med en slavinna definierades inte barnet som utomäktenskapligt.

Haremsinstitutionen utvecklades, med många kvinnor som togs tillfånga och förslavades under krigstågen och därefter placerades i haremen i sexuellt slaveri som konkubiner. Denna form av slaveri hade alltid förekommit, men expanderat kraftigt med den Islamiska erövringen av Persien 651.

===Male slaves

I kalifatet var kvinnliga slavar betydligt mer prioriterade än manliga. Samtidigt förekom dock militärt slaveri redan under denna tid, och skulle komma att växa ytterligare under nästa kalifat. Eunucker tillhörde en annan kategori manliga slavar som kom att bli allt vanligare parallellt med utvecklingen av haremsystemet.

Manliga slavar sända till Arabien sysselsattes med att arbeta på godsen, gräva underjordiska bevattningskanaler och andra grovarbeten, och tusentals manliga slavar sändes som grovarbetare till arabiska halvön under erövringarna så kristna och judiska samhällen tömdes på unga män.

====Militärt slaveri

Slavsoldater var ett fenomen som hade förekommit sedan antiken, men som aldrig hade spelat någon större roll i Medelhavsområdet. Det var först under islam som fenomenet militärt slaveri kom att spela en allt större roll, med större antal slavsoldater.

Under islams första sekler var definitionen av militärt slaveri oklar, då både slavar och före detta slavar kunde definieras som slavsoldater; vissa slavar stred som soldater i egenskap av muslimer snarare än för att de hade tilldelats denna roll som slavsoldater, vissa slavar frigavs sedan de hade stridit som soldater för islam, medan vissa före detta slavar blev soldater i de muslimska arméerna efter att de redan hade frigetts. Slavsoldater betecknades ofta som mawla, en term som i sig hade en oklar betydelse och kunde syfta både på slavar och före detta slavar. Utvecklingen av militärt slaveri är därför oklar, men det står klart att den expanderade kraftigt under Umayyadkalifatet.

Slavsoldater deltog redan i Muhammeds första militära slag, ofta mawla-konvertiter, och den afrikanska slaven Mihja har kallats den första muslimen som avled i ett militärt slag. I Slaget vid Badr beräknas åtminstone 24 slav-mawla-soldater ha deltagit.

==See also

• Afro-Iraqis
• History of slavery in the Muslim world
• History of concubinage in the Muslim world
• Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people
• Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East
• Racism in the Arab world
• Racism in Muslim communities
• Slavery in Al-Andalus

==References

==Referenced material

• Dynamics in the History of Religions Between Asia and Europe: Encounters, Notions, and Comparative Perspectives. (2012). Nederländerna: Brill.
• Patterson, O. (1985). Slavery and Social Death. Storbritannien: Harvard University Press.
• Manning, P. (1990). Slavery and African life: occidental, oriental, and African slave trades. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press.
• The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500-AD 1420. (2021). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press.
• Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press.
• Willis, J. R. (2014). Slaves and Slavery in Africa: Volume One: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement. Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis.
• Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. (2017). Storbritannien: Oxford University Press.
• Pipes, D. (1981). Slave Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System. Storbritannien: Yale University Press.
• Rio, A. (2017). Slavery After Rome, 500-1100. Storbritannien: OUP Oxford.
• Heng, G. (2018). The Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages. Indien: Cambridge University Press.
• Dangler, J. (2017). Edging Toward Iberia. Storbritannien: University of Toronto Press.
• Black, J. (2011). A Brief History of Slavery. Storbritannien: Little, Brown Book Group.
• Phillips, W. D. (1985). Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade. Storbritannien: Manchester University Press.
• The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The Invisible Commodity. (2021). Schweiz: Springer International Publishing.
• Freamon, B. K. (2019). Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. Nederländerna: Brill.
• Taef El-Azhari, E. (2019). Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661-1257. Storbritannien: Edinburgh University Press.

{{Asia topic|Slavery in}

[[Category:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate] [[Category:Islam and slavery]

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==Racial dimension

There was a dimension of racism in the slavery of the Umayyad Caliphate. All non-Muslims not living under Islamic rule were considered a legitimate target of enslavement of Muslims by Islamic law. Because of this, the religious border lands around the Muslim world became centers of sources of slaves, and non-Muslim slaves were trafficked to the Caliphate from Europe in the North, Asia in the East and Africa in the South. Consequently, slaves in the Umayyad Caliphate could have many different races. However, this did not prevent a racist component of slavery. Slaves were valued differently on the market depending on their race, and were considered to have different abilities because of their racial identity, and a racial hierarchy excisted among slaves of different races in the Caliphate.

Turkish men were widely regarded to be brave and suitable for military slavery. Caliph Mutasim had 70.000 Turkish slave soldiers, and one of his governors noted that there were "none like the Turk for service". While Turkish men were considered brave soldiers, Turkish women were seen as ideal for giving birth to brave sons.

al-Baladhuri described how Caliph al-Mamun used to write to his governors in Khurasan to raid those peoples of Transoxiana who had not submtted to Islam: "when al-Mutasim became Caliph he did the same to the point that most of his military leaders came from Transoxiana: Soghdians, Farhanians, Ushrusanians, peoples of Shash, and others [even] their kings came to him. Islam spread among those who lived there, so they begun raiding the Turks who lived there".

During the Umayyad Caliphate, when the Islamic Caliphate expanded to a truly international empire composed of many different ethnicities, and Islam a universial civilization, with people of different races making the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, the Muslim world developed different stereotypical views on different races.

By the 8th-century, Blackness was associated with ugliness and inferior status, and this was mentioned by black Arab poets in their writings.

, mawla-non arab muslims freedman; capture, enslaved, manumitted, discriminated,

disriminerade till 800t, slavsöner ej fulla rättig/full arab, umayyad califerna sön av fria kvin utom 2 sista, hajin= mongrel/half-breed slavson, foreign slave mother, 

, half arab, abduh badawi: "there was a consensus that the most unfortunate of the hajins and the lowest in social status were those to whom blackness had passed from their mothers", son of african mother more visibly recongizable, "son of a black woman"-insult, "son of a white woman"; praised boasting,

, rom: import få svarta slavar, islam massive slavimport africa, arab expansion,

, arab: "he would prefer to be a mutilated ethipian slave tending brroody goats on a hilltop until deat overtakes him, rathert han that a signle arrow should be shot between the two sides" 8arab sicivl war), Abd al-Hamid (d. 750), secretary mayyad caliph, caliph fått sv slav av guernor, order sekreteraren: "had you been able to find a smaller number than one and a worse color than black you would have sent that as a gift", arab ansåg slaveri bra pga konvertera slav till slam; outside world infidel barbarians; polytiest-idolators source of slaves, enslavement beneficians islam civilisation, enl samtida förf, 42 , white friade slaven fri från restriktioner; friade svarta salven ofta tider och platser sällan able rice aove lowest levels; umayyad svarta poeter-sångare framgå, ofta klag diskrim, 60 , men sedan försvinn inga från ca 750, nästan helst saknas från positions wealth, power, privilgies, medeltida förf kallar detta pga lack of capacity 61 rasism: simply piety, immense potency-unbridled sexualty, "The Thousand and One Nights", seducer/ravisher/victim of wives/daughters/frustrated white ladies, repulsive uglniess incandescent sexuality black woman av arab poets, black connected sin, evil, devilry adna damnation, white skin oposite association, 95

Articles

{{slavery}

The Slave trade in the Mongol Empire refers to the slave trade conducted by the Mongol Empire (1206–1368). This includes the Mongolia vassal khanates which was a part of the Mongol Empire, such as the Chagatai Khanate (1227–1347), Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), Ilkhanate (1256–1335) and Golden Horde (1242–1368).

In Pre-Imperial Mongolia slavery had not played any big part, but the Mongol invasions and conquests of the 13th-century created a great influx of war captives, which were by custom considered legitimate to enslave, and caused a signficant expansion of slavery and slave trade. The Mongol Empire established a massive international slave trade founded upon war captives enslaved during the Mongol conquests, which were distributed by market demand around the Empire via a network of slave markets connected through the cities of the Empire.

The slave trade network established thorough the Mongol Empire was partially built upon earlier slave markets, and partially upon new. Many centers of the slave trade survived the fall of the Mongol Empire, notably the major Bukhara slave trade, which survived until the 1870s.

==Background and supply

See also: Mongol invasions and conquests

The Mongol slave trade was based on war captives and human tributes, and the constant warfare and conquests of the Mongol Empire and their vassal khanates supplyed a constant influx of enslaved people to the slave trade network of the Empire. This contributed to the constant warfare within the Mongol Empire.

The Mongol warfare developed routines for the capture of slaves. When the Mongols captured a city, the routine were to enslave people deemed to be suitable for the slave market, such as craftsmen and other skilled artisans.

There was a system for whom were enslaved. One practice was to count the boys of a captured city and select one of then as a prisoner, and then do the same with girls. If a man had three sons, one was selected for enslavement. All adult men and women who were unmarried were defined as legitimate for enslavement.

The established standard for war captives was to ask for ransom for war captives and, if no ransom was offered, sell them as slaves.

Another method to aquire slaves were taxation in the form of human tributes from conquered states. The Mongol often asked for tribute in the form of humans; this custom was not ended in conquered Russia until the Mongols introduced a regulated tribute tax in the form of silver and fur from Russia in 1257–1259.

Enslavement could also be used against subjugated people unable to pay their taxes or tributes. Up until the Russian Uprising of 1262, for example, the Mongols sold Russian peasants who were unable to pay tribute to the Italian slave traders in the Crimea.

The slave trade was fed by raids and purchase by slave traders; by tributary system in which subjugated states were forced to give slaves as tributes; and by war captives during the warfare campaigns during the Mongal Empire and its succeeding Khanates.

===The trade

Once captive, the enslaved people were distributed to the different slave markets around the Empire.

The Mongol Empire established a massive international slave trade with war captived based on the Mongol invasions and conquests, and used a network of cities to transport slaves across different parts of the Empire in accordance with market demand for particular categories of slaves; such as Christian slaves to the Muslim slave market, and Muslim slaves to the Christian world.

The slave trade network of the Mongol Empire was organized in a route from North China to North India; from North India to the Middle East via Iran and Central Asia; and from Central Asia to Europa via the Steppe of the kipchak territory between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea and Caucasus. This slave trade route was connected via a number of cities used to transport slaves to the peripheries of the Empire, consisting of the capitals of the Mongol Khanates - with the capital of Qaraqorum as the main center - and already excisting slave trade centers, notably the old slave trade center of Bukhara. The network was new but used and included many old slave trade centers, notably the Ancient Central Asian slave trade center Bukhara.

The different slave trade centers were used by the Empire to cater to the specific slave markets in different parts of the world, which all had different needs and a market for different categories of slaves, which together made it possible for the Empire to dispose of all slaves for the highest possible profit.

==Slave market

See also: History of slavery in the Muslim world, History of concubinage in the Muslim world, Islamic views on concubinage, Ma malakat aymanukum, Qiyan, Jarya, and Abd (Arabic)

The far reaching slave trade network of the Empire made it possible to distribute different categories of slaves to the parts of the world where they could be sold for the highest profit. The slave markets in different parts of the world had different demands and were in need of different categories of slaves, which was a factor the slave trade of the Empire was able to adjust to.

There were three main factors to consider in order to distribute the slaves to the correct slave market for the highest profit. The first factor was the religious factor; neither Christians nore Muslims bought slaves of their own religion, which made it necessary to traffick slaves accross religious borders and sell Christian slaves to Muslims and Muslim slaves to Christians. The second factor was military slavery, which constituted a massive market for male slaves to the Muslim world. The third factor to consider was the ethnic or racial factor. Different races were preferred for different purposes in different parts of the world, such as for example Turkish men who were preferred as slave soldiers in the Middle east; Tartars who were popular as house slaves in Italy, and Corean girls who were popular as concubines in China.

==Europe

The Black Sea slave trade in the North West was used by the Mongol Empire to dispose of slaves deemed suitable for use in Christian Europe. The Genovese and Venetian slave trade established in the Black Sea ports in parallell with the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus' and were flooded with slaves when the Mongols used the Italian slave traders in the Black Sea ports to dispose of war captives from the Russian campaign, and the Mongols established a long term collaboration with the Italian slave traders at the Black Sea.

The Mongol Empire used the European market to dispose of mainly Muslim Tartar war captives, who was taken captives during the conquests and inner warfare and rebellions of the Empire. Muslim captives were not possible to sell in the Muslim world, but could be sold to Christian Europe, and in the period of 1351 and 1408, between 80–90 percent of all slaves trafficked by Genova and Venice to South Europe from the Black Sea were of Tatarian ethnicity.

Most slaves sold by the Mongols to Europe via the Black sea slave trade were Tatar or Mongol, though a few Chinese and Indian slaves are also noted to have been sold.

The slave trade to Europe mainly concerned Tatarian house slaves to Italy, Spain and Portugal and was a small market compared to the export to the Muslim world.

==China

The slave market in China was small, since traditionally slavery did not play a big role in China. There were however a market for skilled slaves and luxury slaves. These were skilled artisans and craftsmen, girls used as concubine sex slaves, and well educated male slaves used within the sophisticated administration.

The slaves requested on the Chinese slave market were primarily kipchak, European Rus people and Coreans.

==India

One of the most important markets for the Mongol Empire were the Muslim Delhi Sultanate in Northern India. The Delhi Sultanate was dependent on a constant supply of male Turkish slaves from Central Asia as slave soldiers, and these were regularly provided to India via the Hindu Kush from Central Asia.

==The Middle East

The Muslim world of the Middle East was the biggest market for the slave trade of the Empire. There were traditionally an established market in the Muslim world for slave-girls for sexual slavery as concubines, and for slave-boys for military slavery as slave soldiers.

Bukhara in Central Asia was since Ancient times a provider of slaves to the Muslim Middle East, and used by the Empire to traffick slaves suitable for the Muslim slave market; from Central Asia, the slave trade route continued via Tabriz to Aleppo.

Male slaves for military slavery (Ghilman) were trafficked from China to the Middle East via Central Asia and Iran. Turkish slave soldiers were transported from the Golden Horde in Central Asia to the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt via the Black Sea.

The slave market of the Muslim world was used by the Empire to depose of Christian slaves. After the Siege of Acre (1291), the inhabitants of the city, being Frankish Christians, were deported to the slave market of Baghdad.

In the Ilkhanate in Iran, Mongolian soldiers reportedly often owned slaves used to cultivate the land alotted to them.

==Mongolia

Slavery also increased in the domestic market of Mongolia during the expansion of the Empire. Mongolia itself therefore also became a destination of slaves. The main capital of Qaraqorum was the main base of the cities forming the slave trade network of the Empire, and the presence of slaves of all ethnicites, such as Russians or Arabs, are noted by contemporary wittnesses in Mongolia.

The capital of the Empire recieved large quantities of war prisoners for its own market. An example is the Siege of Baghdad of 1258, after which thousands of Arab people of the conquered city were taken as slaves to Azerbaijan or Mongolia.

==End of the slave trade

The Mongol Empire were gradually divided from 1294 until its final division in 1368. The network of slave trade cities established by the Empire continued in many cases as separate slave trades. The Ancient Bukhara slave trade, for example, continued for another five centuries until 1873.

==See also

• [[Slavery in Egypt]
• [[Genoese slave trade]
• [[Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate]

==References

[[Category:European slave trade [[Category:Economy of the Republic of Venice] [[Category:Italian slave trade]

Other

Atheist Day

Atheist Day observed annually on March 23, is a day that focuses on those who do not believe in god.

March 23rd

References==

• https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/atheist-day/
• https://nationaltoday.com/atheist-day/
• https://www.holidaycalendar.io/holiday/atheist-day

Notable women of history

Science

16th-century

• Sophia Brahe (1556–1643), Danish astronomer and chemist
• Isabella Cortese, (fl. 1561), Italian alchemist
• Loredana Marcello (died 1572), Venetian botanist
• Tarquinia Molza (1542–1617), Italian natural philosopher
• Catherine de Parthenay (1554–1631) French mathematician
• Elinor Sneshell (fl. 1593), surgeon
• Tan Yunxian (1461–1554) Chinese physician.

17th century

• Anna Åkerhjelm (1647–1693), Swedish traveller and amateur archeologist.
• Ann Baynard (1672–1697) British Natural philosopher
• Aphra Behn (1640–1689), British translator of an astronomical work
• Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine (1618–1680), German natural philosopher
• Celia Grillo Borromeo (1684–1777), Italian natural philosopher
• Louise Bourgeois Boursier (1563–1636), French obstetrician
• Titia Brongersma (1650–1700), Frisian archaeologist, poet
• Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673), natural philosopher
• Elizabeth Cellier (fl. 1680), British midwife
• Marie Crous (fl. 1640), French mathematician
• Maria Cunitz (1610–1664), Silesian astronomer
• Jeanne Dumée (1660-1706), French astronomer
• Maria Clara Eimmart (1676–1707), German astronomer
• Eleanor Glanville (1654–1709), English entomologist
• Elisabeth Hevelius (1647–1693), astronomer, wife of Johannes Hevelius
• Hedvig Eleonora Klingenstierna, (17th century) Swedish lecturer in Latin at Linköping University
• Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717), naturalist
• Marie Meurdrac (c. 1610 – 1680), French chemist and alchemist
• Elena Cornaro Piscopia (1646–1684), Italian mathematician and the first female PhD
• Marguerite de la Sablière (c. 1640 – 1693), French natural philosopher
• Jane Sharp (fl. 1671), British obstetrician
• Justine Siegemund (1636–1705), German obstetrician
• Elizabeth Walker (1623–1690), British pharmacist

18th century

• Maria Gaetana Agnesi (1718–1799), Italian mathematician
• Geneviève Charlotte d'Arconville (1720–1805) French anatomist
• Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Meiningen (1751–1827), German astronomer
• Maria Angela Ardinghelli (1728–1825), Italian mathematician and physicist
• Sarah Sophia Banks (1744–1818), British natural history collector
• Giuseppa Barbapiccola (c. 1702 – 1740), natural philosopher, translator
• Laura Bassi (1711–1778), Italian physicist
• Marie Marguerite Bihéron (1719–1795), French anatomist
• Jacoba van den Brande (1735–1794), Dutch founder of first all-female science academy
• Maria Christina Bruhn (1732–1802), Swedish inventor
• Margaret Bryan (c. 1760 – 1815), British natural philosopher
• Elsa Beata Bunge (1734–1819), Swedish botanist
• María Andrea Casamayor (1700–1780), Spanish mathematician
• Émilie du Châtelet (1706–1749), French mathematician and physicist
• Maria Medina Coeli (1764–1846), Italian physician.
• Jane Colden (1724–1766), American biologist
• Angélique du Coudray (1712–1794), French midwife
• Maria Dalle Donne (1778–1842), Italian physician
• Eva Ekeblad (1724–1786), Swedish agronomist
• Dorothea Erxleben (1715–1762), German physician
• Charlotta Frölich (1698–1770), Swedish agronomist and historian
• Elizabeth Fulhame (fl. 1794), British chemist
• Lucia Galeazzi Galvani (1743–1788), Italian physician
• Sophie Germain (1776–1831), elasticity theory, number theory
• Clelia Durazzo Grimaldi (1760–1830), Italian botanist
• Catherine Littlefield Greene (1755–1814), American inventor
• Salomée Halpir (1718-fl. 1763), Lithuanian oculist
• Caroline Herschel (1750–1848), German-British astronomer
• Christine Kirch (1696–1782), German astronomer
• Margaretha Kirch (1703–1744), German astronomer
• Maria Margarethe Kirch, (1670–1720), German astronomer
• Marie Lachapelle (1769–1821), French midwife
• Marie-Jeanne de Lalande (1760–1832), French astronomer
• Marie Paulze Lavoisier (1758–1836), French chemist and illustrator
• Nicole-Reine Lepaute (1723–1792), French astronomer
• Elisabeth Christina von Linné (1743–1782), Swedish botanist
• Martha Daniell Logan (1704–1779), American horticulturalist
• Eliza Lucas (1722–1793), American agronomist and indigo dye pioneer
• Maria Lullin (1750–1831), Swiss entomologist
• Catharine Macaulay (1731–1791), British social scientist
• Anna Morandi Manzolini (1716–1774), Italian physician and anatomist
• Sybilla Masters (1675–1720) patent for a corn mill
• Maria Petraccini (1759–1791), Italian anatomist and physician
• Louise du Pierry (1746–1807), French astronomer
• Marie Anne Victoire Pigeon (1724–1767) French mathematician
• Faustina Pignatelli (1705-1785), Italian physicist
• Cristina Roccati (1732–1797) Italian physics teacher
• Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839) British archaeologist
• Clotilde Tambroni (1758–1817), Italian philologist and linguistic
• Geneviève Thiroux d'Arconville (1720–1805), French chemist
• Petronella Johanna de Timmerman (1723–1786), Dutch scientist
• Wang Zhenyi (astronomer) (1768–1797), Chinese astronomer

Academia

• Bettisia Gozzadini, scholar (d. 1260)
• Elena Cornaro Piscopia
• Laura Bassi
• Sophia Elisabet Brenner
• Aurora Liljenroth
• Isabella Losa
• Francisca de Lebrija
• Beatriz Galindo
• Luisa de Medrano
• Cristina Roccati
• Bettina d'Andrea
• Novella d'Andrea
• Ingunn Arnórsdóttir
• Meta Forkel-Liebeskind
• Philippine Engelhard
• Caroline Schelling
• Therese Huber
• Dorothea Schlözer
• Anna Maria van Schurman
• María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda
• María Pascuala Caro Sureda
• Maria Pellegrina Amoretti
• Ida Kahn
• Fok Hing Tong

Religion

• Eve Frank ‎

Others

• Madaluzza Contarini Gradenigo
• Kyra Frosini
• Sophie de Marbois-Lebrun, Duchess of Plaisance
• Contarina Barbarigo
• Eustahija Arsić
• Josefa Ordóñez‎

Politics

• Theodora (senatrix)
• Beatriz de la Cueva

External links

• http://dbd.cat/llista_biografies.php

• 1680
• 1752
• 1754
• 1755
• 1772
• 1790

Composition of the troupe of the Comédie-Française in 1779

Directors : the Actors
Actors	Actresses
Preville	Drouin
Brizzard	Bellecour
Molé	Lelievre
Dauberval	Preville
Augé	Mole
Bouret	Doligny
Monvel	Luzy
Dugazon	Fanier
Des Effarts	Saint-Val
Delarive	Dugazon
Dazincourt	Vestris
Fleury	Lachassaigne
Bellemont	Suin
	Saintval
	Contat
Dancers	Female dancers
Deshayes, ballet master	Mlle Constance-Cholet, first dancer
Desnoyers, first dancer	Mlle Noziere, danseuse en double
Victor, danseur en double	La Croix
Goyon, danseur en double	Verdoncelle
Guiardelle, danseur en double	Duplessys
Lefevre, danseur en double	Baudry
Marchand	Arnaud
Evrard	Baudry
Giguet	Guenard
Coffon
Audille
Magnenet, surnumeraire
Mullot, surnumeraire
Coinde, surnumeraire
Favre, surnumeraire
Le Quin, surnumeraire
Magnenet, surnumeraire
Orchestra
Baudron, 1st violin and composer	La Lance, 1st violin (orchestra needs updating, the others are uppdated)
Chaudet, 1st violin	Fillion, 1st violin
Rose, 1st violin	Marteau, 1st violin
Cunissy, 2nd violin	Fleury, 2nd violin
Rameau, 2nd violin	Milot, 2nd violin
Bertrand, 2nd violin	Hugot, 2nd violin
Rougeaux, alto	Prot, alto
André, oboe	Le Det, timpanist
Deshais, oboe	Ducreux, oboe
Pilet, oboe	Tuasch, bassoon
Dumonet, cor	Heins, cor
Jolet, bass	Chapelet, bass
Toutant, bass	Prunelle, bass
Gresset, double bass	Raoul, copyist

Sources

• spectacles de Paris, ou calendrier historique & chronologique, Paris 1779.

Saved article6

{{slavery} [[File:Sultanat de Zanzibar vèrs 1875.png|thumb|Sultanate of Zanzibar, 1875] [[File:Tippu Tip (Muhammed el Murjebi also Hemed bin Mohammed).jpg|thumb|Tippu Tip.] [[File:Sansibar, Sultanspalast.jpg|thumb|Sansibar, Sultanspalast] [[File:Slavery in Zanzibar RMG E9093.tiff|thumb|Slavery in Zanzibar RMG E9093] [[File:Slave Memorial (33917931664).jpg|thumb|Slave Memorial (33917931664)]

Slavery existed in the Sultanate of Zanzibar until 1909. Slavery and slave trade existed in the Zanzibar Archipelago for thousands of years. When clove and coconut plantations became a big industry on the islands, domestic slavery expanded to a point where two thirds of the populations were slaves. Zanzibar was internationally known as a major player in the Indian Ocean slave trade, where slaves from the Swahili coast of Eastern Africa were trafficked across the Indian Ocean to Oman in the Arabian Peninsula during the Zanzibar slave trade.

During the 19th-century, Britain conducted an international abolitionist campaign against the Sultanate and restricted and eventually abolished the slavery and slave trade in Zanzibar via a number of treaties between 1822 and 1897, resulting in the end of the slave trade and finally the end of slavery itself in 1909.

==History

It is unknown when slave trade from Zanzibar started, and it may have existed also before the Arabs arrived in the area in the 8th-century. During the middle ages, the Zanzibar Archipelago became a part of the Swahili culture and belonged to the Kilwa Sultanate, which was a center of the Indian Ocean slave trade between East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula during the middle ages, and the islands of the Zanzibar Archipelago are known to have traded in ivory and slaves long before it became a part of Oman.

In the 1690s, it finnally became united with Oman.

==Zanzibar slave trade

See also: Trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, and Somali slave trade

The slave trade consisted of a third of the income to the Sultanate alongside ivory and cloves. The slave dhows was often rented of commercial ventures, and their crew a mix of Arab-Swaihili free men and slaves, with the profit divided via an owner-Captain-crew share system.

===Northern slave route

Zanzibar was united with Oman in the Omani Empire (1696-1856), and the history of its slave trade was therefore intimately linked with the history of Oman. Slaves from the Swahili coast was transported via Zanzibar to Oman, and from Oman to Persia and the rest of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East. Together, Zanzibar and Oman dominated the Indian Ocean slave trade during the 18th- and 19th-century. This continued after the union between Zanzibar and Oman was broken in 1856 and the Sultanate was split in the Sultanate of Zanzibar (1856-1964) and the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman (1856-1970).

After the unification of Zanzibar and Oman, slaves became the biggest industry of Zanzibar alongside ivory and clove.

The Arabian slaveships, dhow, was normally rented or a part of a commercial enterprise, with an Arab and Swaihili crew, partially or fully enslaved, in which the profit was shared between the owner, the captain and the crew (the enslaved crew members having to give half of their salary to their enslaver).

The numbers of the slave traffic is not known, but one estimation is that about 2250 slaves were trafficked between Zanzibar and the Arabian Peninsula between 1700 and 1815.

===Southern slave route

The French islands in the Indian Ocean initially imported their slaves from Portuguese Mozambique and from Madagascar, but in 1775 the first French slave trader visited Zanzibar and acquired 1625 slaves during his first two visits, which opened the "Southern route" from Zanzibar to French Mauritius, Réunion and Seychelles.

Mauritius and Seychelles became British colonies in 1815, and the British ended the legal slave trade to those islands. In 1848, France abolished slavery on French Réunion.

==Slave market

See also: Slavery in Oman, History of concubinage in the Muslim world, Islamic views on concubinage, Ma malakat aymanukum, Qiyan, Jarya, and Abd (Arabic)

The slaves in Zanzibar was categorized in plantation laborers (shamba), house slaves, concubines (suria), craftsmen, coolies (wachukuzi) and day laborers (vibarua).

After introduction of a plantation economy, slaves were no longer merely exported via Zanzibar but the import of slaves to the Sultanate expanded because of the need for slave laborers for weeding, picking, drying and stemming on the clove and coconut plantations.

Slaves were affordable in Zanzibar, and every free man in Zanzibar was said to own slaves. In the 1850s, two thirds of the population on Zanzibar are estimated to have been slaves.

Female slaves were generally more prioritized in the slave market in the Islamic world. The Zanzibar slave trade focused on children "the reason given by the dealers being that children were driven more easily, like flocks of sheep...", and particularly girls; while a "fresh boy" newly arried from the mainland were sold for a price of 7-15 $ in 1857, a girl between the age of seven and eight were sold for 10-18 $.

===Female slaves

See also: Slavery in Oman, History of concubinage in the Muslim world, Islamic views on concubinage, Ma malakat aymanukum, Qiyan, Jarya, and Circassian slave trade

The slave market for women in the Sultanate followed the normal pattern in the Islamic world. Female slaves were sold for use as either domestic servants (ayahs) or for sex slavery as concubines.

Aside from the female slaves used as concubines in private harems, female slaves were also used for prostitution. While there were male prostitutes, there was very few or no free female prostitutes in Zanzibar. The Islamic Law formally prohibited prostitution. However, since Islamic Law allowed a man to have sexual intercourse with his female slave, prostitution was practiced by a pimp selling his female slave on the slave market to a client, who returned his ownership of her after 1-2 days on the pretext of discontent after having had intercourse with her, which was a legal and accepted method for prostitution in the Islamic world.

In 1844 the British Consul noted that there were 400 free Arab women and 800 men in Zanzibar, and the British noted that while prostitutes were almost nonexistent, men bought "secondary wives" (slave concubines) on the slave market for sexual satisfaction; "public prostitutes are few, and the profession ranks low where the classes upon which it depends can easily afford to gratify their propensities in the slave market", and the US Consul Richard Waters commented in 1837 that the Arab men in Zanzibar "commit adultery and fornication by keep three or four and sometimes six and eight concubines". Sultan Seyyid Said replied to the British Consul that the custom was necessary, because "Arabs wont work; they must have slaves and concubines".

The concubines were often treated harshly by the wives of their enslavers, who were claimed to have "[ruled] the concubines with a rod of iron". Sultan Barghash (r. 1870-1888) was only married to one wife, who made him the request to never acknowledging the children he had with his slave concubines as his own (meaning the women did not become umm walad and were not free after the death of their enslaver).

In his contemporary report A Report on Slavery and the Slave Trade in Zanzibar, Pemba, and the Mainland of the British Protectorates of East Africa from 1895, Donald MacKenzie noted that sexual slavery did not, in fact, result in many children, which necessitated the need for constant slave import: "It is a curious fact that Slaves have but very few children, owing, it is said, to the manner in which very young girls are treated by the Arabs and others ; hence the necessity for the continued importation of raw Slaves to supply the demand. I was much struck with the evidence of non-increase amongst the Slaves as regards children. Taking the death-rate at 30 per mille, upwards of 7,000 Slaves would have to be imported annually to supply this deficiency in labour".

===Royal harem

See also: History of concubinage in the Muslim world, Abbasid harem, Safavid harem, Qajar harem, Mughal Harem, and Ottoman Imperial Harem

The model of the royal harem of Zanzibar were similar to most royal harems at the time. Enslaved eunuchs were employed to guard and manage the affairs of the harem, while female slave maids were employed to see to the needs of the slave concubines, the wives and the female relatives.

The memoirs of Princess Emily Ruete provides valuable insight and description of the royal harem. Sultan Seyyid Said had three legal wives, but despite all his marriages being childless, he nevertheless had 36 children, who must thus have been born to slave concubines. The concubines were referred to as sarari or suria, and could be of several different ethnicities, often Ethiopian or Circassian. Ethiopian, Indian or Circassian (white) women were much more expensive than the majority of African women sold in the slave market in Zanzibar, and white women in particular were so expensive that they were in practice almost reserved for the royal harem. White slave women were called jariyeh bayza and imported to Oman and Zanzibar via Persia (Iran) and had the reputation of "soon renders the house of a moderately rich man unendurable". The white slave women were generally referred to as "Circassian", but this was a general term and did not specifically refer to Circassian ethnicity as such but could refer to any white women, such as Georgian or Bulgarian. Emily Ruete referred to all white women in the royal harem as "Circassian" as a general term, one of whom was her own mother Jilfidan, who had arrived via the Circassian slave trade to become a concubine at the royal harem as a child. When the sultan Said bin Sultan died in 1856, he had 75 enslaved sararai-concubines in his harem.

Emily Ruete described the multi ethnic Royal harem in her memoirs:

Arabic was the only language really sanctioned in my father's presence. But as soon as he turned his back, a truly Babylonian confusion of tongues commenced, and Arabian, Persian, Turkish, Circassian, Swahely, Nubian, and Abyssinian were spoken and mixed up together, not to mention the various dialects of these tongues. [...] Both at Bet il Mtoni and at Bet il Sahel the meals were cooked in the Arab as well as in the Persian and Turkish manner. People of all races lived in these two houses — the races of various beauty. The slaves were dressed in Swaihily style, but we were permitted to appear in Arab fashion alone. Any newly-arrived Circassian or Abyssinian woman had to exchange her ample robes and fantastic attire within three days for -the Arab costume provided for her. [...] On the seventh day after the birth of a child my father used to' pay a visit to the infant and its mother to present some article of jewellery to the baby. In the same way a new Surie received at onco the necessary jewels, and had her servants assigned to her by the chief eunuch."

===Male slaves

See also: Slavery in Oman and Abd (Arabic)

While most enslaved women, eunuchs and children were used in urban households as domestics or concubines (sex slaves), only a minority of non-castrated male slaves were used in the city as craftsmen or porters (hamalis). The majority of non-castrated male slaves were instead used for hard slave labor in the clove and coconut-plantations.

In 1828 the sultan ordered his (Arab) subjects on Zanzibar to grow a certain proportion of clove; and since the original inhabitants of the islands, the shirazi, had converted to Islam and was therefore not legitimate to enslave, the growing clove industry resulted in a big import of slave labor. The sultan's order resulted in a plantation economy centered on clove and coconut plantations on particularly Unguja, Pemba and the mainland of the Sultanate, which resulted in a booming slave import for domestic use in the Archipelago, from which most slaves had previously been sold on rather than kept on the islands.

While Black Africans were not the only ethnicity enslaved, there was a particular racism toward them among Arabs. Black African slaves were referred to as ugly and uncivilised washenzi ("barbaric savages"), and while female Africah slaves were sexuelly abused by male Arab slave masters, the Arab text Alf Laylah Wa Laylah described how "the good [Arab] woman will welcome death rather than be touched by a black man".

Slavery in Zanzibar was known to be hard, with slaves often subjected to bad treatment. Slaves were often forced to convert to Islam. Many enslavers had a reputation of being cruel slave owners, particularly plantation owners, such as Princess Khole; the Hinaway family had 600 slaves on their plantations and was known to treat their slaves harshly; caught ranaways were punished by being placed in the Mapinguni (the place of shackles), Mgooni (the fish trap) or Mashimoni (the pits). Manumissions normally took place at the deathbed of an enslaver who wished to be given a revard for it in the afterlife, but was otherwise rare; slaves often attempted to escape, particularly from the plantations, and often died from the punishment when caught.

==Activism against slavery and slave trade

See also: Anglo-Zanzibar War

Early efforts

The British restricted the Zanzibar slave trade by a number of treaties from 1822. In the Moresby Treaty of 1822, the Zanzibar slave trade was prohibited from the South and East, and by the Hammerton Treaty of 1845, it was restricted to the north as well.

The Hammerton Treaty of 1845 with the British restricted slave trade to be legal only within the territory of Zanzibar, but Zanzibar continued to import slaves from Kilwa in the East African coast to Madagascar and the Comoros with official papers for a legal slave trade north.

In an 1867 agreement with the British, Zanzibar was pressured to ban the export of slaves to Arabia, and to limit the slave trade within the borders of the Sultanate to only between Latitude 9 degreees South of Kilwa, and Latitude 4 degreees South of Lamu.

===1873 treaty In 1872, Henry Bartle Frere was sent to Zanzibar to negotiate an end to the slave trade. In the 1873 Frere treaty with the British, Sultan Turki signed a treaty that obliged Zanzibar to end the import of slaves from the mainland to the islands. This included "slaves who were destined for transport from one part of the Sultan's dominion to another, or using his land for passing them to foreign dominions. Anyone found involved in this traffic would be liable to detention and condemnation by all [British] Naval Officers and Agents, and all slaves entering the Sultan's dominions should be freed." In practice, however, the slave trade continued, though at a reduced level.

After the Frere treaty, the British navy patrolled the Sea between the East African mainland and the Zanzibar Archipelago to stop the slave trafficking between the mainland and the archipelago. The Frere treaty did not stop the slave trade, which continued as illegal smuggling.

After 1873 slaves were given the right to apply for help from the British if they were about to be sold against their will.

The open slave market in Stone Town was closed after the 1873 prohibition, and the illegal slave smuggling was centered on the more isolated island of Pemba. The Sultanate still imported 10,000 slaves every month in 1875, and there were skirmishes at sea between Arab slave dhows and the British navy. In the treaty with the British of 1873, Zanzibar was forced to ban the import of slaves to Zanzibar itself from the Zanzibar mainland. However the slave trade continued illegally, and now often in the form of the kidnapping of slaves from slave owners on the mainland, and a British official in Lamu noted in 1884-85 that "slave stealers, of whom there are plenty in the area", stole slaves from the Arab slave traders to smuggle them to Zanzibar and Pemba.

When the slave trade from Zanzibar to the Arabian peninsula was banned, the slaves captured by Zanzibari slave traders in East Africa were no longer transported from the Swahili coast to the Arabian peninsula on sea via Zanzibar, but instead forced to walk by land to Somalia, from which they could enter the slave dhows to Arabia away from British eyes.

1890 decree

After British pressure, in 1890 the sultan of Zanzibar issued a decree that "the exchange sale or purchase of slaves - domestic or otherwise is prohibited"; banned the buying and selling of slaves within the borders of Zanzibar, and inheriting slaves from any other than the children of a slave owner; slavery as such was not banned, but excisting slaves were given the right to buy their freedom, and the children of slaves born after 1890 were to be born free. When the Vice Consul attempted to enforce the 1890 decree on Pemba in 1895, it was met with intense protest.

The British authorities were somewhat reluctant to interfere against slavery on Zanzibar too soon because of their concern for local economy, and Sir John Kirk noted that "slavery... is essential to prosperity in Pemba", but the British were put under pressure from British missionaries and the British public. The British Friends Anti-Slavery Committee launched a campaign in newspapers such as Times London to put pressure on the British government to force Zanzibar to finnally ban slavery, which put the British under pressure from home to act against Zanzibar.

===Abolition

In 1897 the British forced the Sultan to abolish slavery in Zanzibar by declaring that it lacked legal status.

After abolition, the Slavery Commissioners court was founded staffed with British officials, to receive and enforce the manumission applications of the former slaves. 56 12.000 slaves applied for freedom on Unguja and Pemba between 1897 and 1909, 55-63 of whom where women, but they were a minority of the slaves.

In 1897, most of the inhabitants on Pemba were unaware even of the 1890 decree and opposed the enforcement of abolition on the island; Emily Keys noted in 1898 that French missionaries had been threatened by the Arab Pemba elite "who were threatening to shoot all newcomers to the island".

The slave owners on Zanzibar attempted, often successfully, to prevent their slaves from being aware of the abolition of slavery, and ship them abroad to sell them in Muscat, Jeddah and Mecca; in April 1898, the British stopped an Arab boat were a rich Arab male passenger had brought with him 36 male and female servants to sell in Arabia; the servants informed the British that they had been bribed in order to accompany him there.

The 1897 decree has been referred to as the abolition of slavery on Zanzibar, however, it was in fact not the abolition of all slaves, since concubines (sex slaves) were explicitly excluded from abolition. The British viewed the question of the concubines as too sensitive to meddle in, and decided to exclude them from manumission. The Muslim owners of slave concubines pointed out to the British officials that single women would not be able to support themselwes and were likely to become prostitutes if they were manumitted. The British excluded the concubines by officially classifying them as wives rather than slaves, but did gave them the right to apply for manumission on the grounds of cruelty and abuse from their enslaver.

In 1909, the British finally forced the sultan to include the concubines in the abolition, which signified the final and actual abolition of slavery in Zanzibar. After 1909 the former slaves continued to work for their former enslavers in exchange for patronage and the right to continue to live on the land of their enslavers.

The slave trade from Zanzibar to the Arabian peninsula continued after the official abolition of the slave trade. As late as in the Interwar period after the end of the WWI, Arab men from Zanzibar brought with them large retinues of African servants to the Hajj pilgrimage, and sold them on the slave market in Jeddah on arrival; shortly after the end of the war on 1918, the British was informed about one such case when an Arab man had brought with him a dozen young female servants on his Hajj pilgrimage, and sold them to merchants in Mecca and Medina. The British noted that the Arab slave owners in Zanzibar regarded their former slaves as still slaves, who continued to work for them and who were still sold by them in Jeddah, Mecca and Medina:

"it seems this was a common practice among wealthy former slave owners who, after 1897, employed their former slaves at minimal wages and continued to consider them as slaves, and the only way of selling them abroad appears to have been the pretext of going to Mecca where their "wathumish" (servants) were sold away as Khadims".

==Gallery

• 
  Slave Holding Cell with Manacles.
• 
  A site of the former slave market in Mkunazini area.
• 
  Contemporary Engraving of Zanzibar Slave Market.
• 
  Slave boat, 1869

==See also

• Baqt
• [[Red Sea slave trade]
• [[Indian Ocean slave trade]
• [[Comoros slave trade]
• [[History of slavery in the Muslim world]
• [[History of concubinage in the Muslim world]
• [[Human trafficking in the Middle East]

==References

[[Category:Islam and slavery] [[Category:Slavery by country|Zanzibar] [[Category:Slavery in Africa|Zanzibar] [[Category:History of Zanzibar] [[Category:Human rights abuses in Tanzania] [[Category:Anti-black racism in Africa] [[Category:Racism in Tanzania] [[Category:Slavery in Zanzibar] [[Category:Slavery in Oman]

Saved article5

{{Slavery} [[File:Old World 820.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the Abbasid Empire, it vassals and other world empires in the 9th century]

[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Amin - 195 AH (811 AD).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Gold dinar minted during the reign of al-Amin (809–813)]

[[Image:Varangian routes.png|thumb|upright=2|Map showing the major Varangian trade routes: the Volga trade route (in red) and the Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks (in purple). Other trade routes of the eighth-eleventh centuries shown in orange.]

[[Image:S. V. Ivanov. Trade negotiations in the country of Eastern Slavs. Pictures of Russian history. (1909).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Rus trading slaves with the Khazars: Trade in the East Slavic Camp by Sergei Ivanov (1913). Many saqaliba slaves came from Europe to the Abbasid harem via the Volga trade route from Eastern Europe via the Khazars and the Caspian Sea]

[[File:Wall gypsum decoration from Iskaf Bani Junaid, Diyala, Iraq, 3rd century AH. Iraq Museum.jpg|thumb|Wall decoration made of gypsum from Iskaf Bani Junaid, Iraq, 3rd century AH. Iraq Museum]

[[File:British Museum Harem wall painting fragments 2.jpg|thumb|9th-century harem wall painting fragments found in Samarra

The harem of the caliphs of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) in Baghdad was composed of his mother, wives, slave concubines, female relatives and slave servants (women and eunuchs), occupying a secluded portion of the Abbasid household. This institution played an important social function within the Abbasid court and was that part were the women were confined and secluded. The senior woman in rank in the harem was the mother of the Caliph. The Abbasid harem acted as a role model for the harems of other Islamic dynasties, as it was during the Abbasid Caliphate that the harem system was fully enforced in the Muslim world.

==Background and origin

The harem system first became fully institutionalized in the Islamic world under the Abbasid caliphate. Although the term harem does not denote women's quarters in the Quran, a number of Quranic verses discussing modesty and seclusion were held up by Quranic commentators as religious rationale for the separation of women from men, including the so-called hijab verse (33:53). In modern usage hijab colloquially refers to the religious attire worn by Muslim women, but in this verse it meant "veil" or "curtain" that physically separates female from male space. Although classical commentators agreed that the verse spoke about a curtain separating the living quarters of Muhammad's wives from visitors to his house, they usually viewed this practice as providing a model for all Muslim women.

In contrast to the earlier era of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphate, women in Umayyad and Abbasid society were ideally kept in seclusion and absent from all arenas of the community's central affairs.

The growing seclusion of women were illustrated by the power struggle between the Caliph Al-Hadi and his mother Al-Khayzuran, who refused to live in seclusion but instead challenged the power of the Caliph by giving her own audiences to male supplicants and officials and thus mixing with men. Her son considered this improper, and he publicly addressed the issue of his mothers public life by assembling his generals and asked them:

'Who is the better among us, you or me?' asked Caliph al-Hadi of his audience.

'Obviously you are the better, Commander of the Faithful,' the assembly replied.

'And whose mother is the better, mine or yours?' continued the caliph.

'Your mother is the better, Commander of the Faithful.'

'Who among you', continued al-Hadi, 'would like to have men spreading news about your mother?'

'No one likes to have his mother talked about,' responded those present.

'Then why do men go to my mother to speak to her?'

Conquests had brought enormous wealth and large numbers of slaves to the Muslim elite. The majority of the slaves were women and children, many of whom had been dependents or harem-members of the defeated Sassanian upper classes. In the wake of the conquests an elite man could potentially own a thousand slaves, and ordinary soldiers could have ten people serving them.

Nabia Abbott, preeminent historian of elite women of the Abbasid Caliphate, describes the lives of harem women as follows.

The choicest women were imprisoned behind heavy curtains and locked doors, the strings and keys of which were entrusted into the hands of that pitiable creature – the eunuch. As the size of the harem grew, men indulged to satiety. Satiety within the individual harem meant boredom for the one man and neglect for the many women. Under these conditions ... satisfaction by perverse and unnatural means crept into society, particularly in its upper classes.

The marketing of human beings, particularly women, as objects for sexual use meant that elite men owned the vast majority of women they interacted with, and related to them as would masters to slaves.

==Hierarchy and organisation

The Abbasid harem established a model of hierarchy and organisation which was to become a standard for Muslim harems for centuries. It was a large institution; during the reign of al-Muqtadir, the harem consisted of 4000 enslaved women and 11.000 enslaved servants.

===The mother

On the top of the hierarchy was not the wife of the ruler. As a Muslim, the ruler could have several wives, and as he must formally treat them equally, he could not give one wife higher status than another, and give her a role similar to that of a Christian queen consort. Instead, it was the mother of the Caliph who had the highest rank and position in the harem and thereby among all the women at court.

Her background could be both that of a free wife, or that of an enslaved concubine.

===Female relatives

In the harem resided also the unmarried or divorced daughters, sisters and other nonmarried female relatives of the Caliph.

The Abbasid princesses could make themselves known for their poetry and other accomplishments, as long as they observed the seclusion. Princess Ulayya bint al-Mahdi only performed in private, chaperoned family functions to avoid any potential impropriety, such as to be compared to the slave-qiyan, jawaris or mughanniyat, but she was referred to as a qayna as a tribute to her musical ability.

===Wives

The Abbasid Caliph sometimes entered diplomatic marriages. During the later centuries of the Abbasid Caliphate the Caliphs often married Seljuk princesses, who acted as pious role models by founding or making donations to pious or charitable institutions.

It was common for Caliphs to manumit and marry their former slave concubines.

===Concubines

Below the legal wives were the enslaved concubines of the Caliph, termed mahziyyat.

A concubine were educated in various accomplishments to entertain her master. Because of this, many women became renowned for their skill and knowledge in music, dance, poetry and even science.

A slave concubine who was selected to have sex with the Caliph and then gave birth to a child by him, attained the coveted position of an umm walad. She could also become a legal wife of the Caliph, if he manumitted her and chose to marry her.

A famous concubine were the qiyan ʽInān.

===Female entertainers

The harem also consisted of a large number of jawaris; enslaved female entertainers. They performed for the caliph and the rest of the harem.

The Jawari entertainers were not synonymous with the concubines, and the jawaris and concubines belonged to two different categories. However, the Jawaris could be chosen by the Caliph for sexual intercourse, and thus transition to become a concubine.

The jawaris were sometimes former qiyan. One famous harem entertainer was the singer Shāriyah.

During reign of the Caliph al-Amin (r. 809-813) in Bahgdad, there was a category fo female entertainers known as ghulamyyat, slave-girls dressed as boys, who were trained to perform as singers and musicians and who attended the drinking parties of the sovereign and his male guests.

===Qahramana

The qahramana (Arabic: قَهْرَمانَة qahramānah, 'stewardess') were female slaves responsible for various tasks within the harem. They could act as governesses for the children, as well as the personal servants and agents of the women, functioning as intermediaries between the harem women and the outside world.

The qahramana were the only women who were allowed the mobility to leave and enter the harem, and they regularly left the harem to make purchases for the secluded harem women and handle the affairs between the women and the merchants and tradespeople of the outside world. This mobility was envied by the harem women, and one story describe the envy of a harem woman, who wished to become a qahramana so that she would be able to leave the harem, and finally managed to achieve her goal to become a qahramana.

The mobility of a qahramana made them into influential figures as the personal agents and messengers between the harem women and the world outside the harem. Umm Musa, qahramana to the mother of al-Muqtadir, became an influential figure as a messenger of supplicants to the Caliph mother and the Caliph. Another example was qahramana Zaydan, who acted as the jailkeeper of high status prisoners: after having been the jailer of the vizier Ibn al-Furat, who had fallen from favour, she managed to have him restored to power through her harem contacts and was rewarded by him with lands and wealth, a cooperation which continued for the rest of their careers. The perhaps most famous of them all were Thumal the Qahraman.

===Eunuchs

The eunuchs were the castrated male slaves responsible for guarding the harem, for preventing the women from leaving the harem and for approving any visitor before they gained entrance.

==Harem slavery

See also: Saqaliba, Prague slave trade, Al-Andalus slave trade, Balkan slave trade, Black Sea slave trade, Samanid slave trade, and Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate

With the exception of the legal wives and female relatives of the Caliph, the inhabitants of the harem—concubines, entertainers and eunuchs—were all enslaved people. The slaves were either war captives (called sabaya) or bought from slave markets, and the slave women were divided in to the categories jawari and qiyan (singers), mahziyyat (concubines) and qahramanat (stewardesses). The men meant for the harem were all eunuchs; the non eunuch males served the palace outside of the harem.

According to Islamic practice of slavery and slave trade, foreign non-Muslims were free to enslave, and it was preferred that slaves were to be non-Muslims from non-Muslim regions. In accordance with the Ma malakat aymanukum, the principle of concubinage, women could be legally kept as concubines in the harem if they were of non-Muslim origin. The four main ways to enslave a person were by kidnapping, by slave raids, by piracy, or by buying a child from poor parents.

One of the chief regions for the export of slaves to the Abbasid Caliphate came through Persia (Iran), which was a passage area for several slave trade routes: the saqaliba slave trade of Europeans provided by the Vikings to the Samanid Empire in Central Asia via the Volga trade route; the slave trade of mainly Turks from Central Asia, also via the Samanid slave trade; Christian Greeks, Armenians, and Georgians from the Caucasus by Muslim slavers; and the slave route of Hindu Indians following the Islamic invasion of India from the 8th-century onward. Since many parts of Persia remained Zoroastrian the first centuries after conquest, some non-Muslim "infidel territory" in Persia were also exposed to Muslim slave raids, particularly Daylam in northwestern Iran and the Pagan mountainous region of Ḡūr in central Afghanistan. Two of the twelve caliphs’ mothers whose nationalities are known were European saqaliba; Al-Musta'in's mother Mukhariq, and Al-Mu'tazz's mother Qabiha. A Zoroastrian-Persian background were not uncommon among the qiyan-entertainers and slave concubines in the Caliphate, and some ended up in the Abbasid harem itself; Marājel, concubine of Harun al-Rashid and mother of the future caliph Al-Ma'mun, and Māridah, slave of Harun al-Rashid and mother of the future caliph Al-Mu'tasim, were both Iranians.

==Impact

The Abbasid harem system came to be a role model for the harems of later Islamic rulers, and the same model can be found in subsequent Islamic nations during the Middle Ages, such as the Caliphate of Cordoba and the harem of the Fatimid Caliphate, which also consisted of the model of prominent mothers; slave concubines who became umm walad when giving birth; female Jawaris entertainers, qahramana's and eunuchs. The harem system was fairly the same during the Ottoman Empire, with only minor changes in the model of the Imperial Harem.

==See also

• [[Harem#Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates]
• [[Imperial Harem]
• [[History of concubinage in the Muslim world]
• [[Qiyan]
• [[Safavid imperial harem]
• [[Qajar harem]

==References

• Marilyn Booth Harem Histories: Envisioning Places and Living Spaces
• Maaike van Berkel, Nadia Maria El Cheikh, Hugh Kennedy, Letizia Osti Crisis and Continuity at the Abbasid Court: Formal and Informal Politics
• Jeroen Duindam, Tülay Artan, Metin Kunt Royal Courts in Dynastic States and Empires: A Global Perspective
• Leigh K. Jenco, Murad Idris, Megan C. Thomas, Megan Christine Thomas The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Political Theory

===Notes

==Sources

• Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05583-2.

[[Category:Abbasid harem| ] [[Category:Concubinage] [[Category:Harem] [[Category:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate] [[Category:Sexual slavery] [[Category:Women from the Abbasid Caliphate] [[Category:Sexuality in the Middle East]

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{{slavery}

[[File:Dinar of Abbasid caliph al-Mustanjid 557 AH.jpg|thumb|Dinar of Abbasid caliph al-Mustanjid 557 AH] [[File:Boutre_indien.jpg|thumb|Dhows were used to transport goods and slaves.] [[File:Zanj Rebellion.svg|thumb|Zanj Rebellion] [[File:Zanj Rebellion - Thawrat al-Zanj - by Ahmad Barakizadeh.jpg|thumb|Zanj Rebellion - Thawrat al-Zanj - by Ahmad Barakizadeh]

Slavery was a major part of society, culture and economy in the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), which during its history included most of the Middle East. While slavery was an important part also of the preceding Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), it was during the Abbasid Caliphate that the slave trade to the Muslim world reached a permanent industrial scale.

The Caliphate was a major slave trade destination, and slaves were imported from several destinations. Since Islamic law prohibited enslavement of Muslims, slaves were imported from non-Muslim lands around the Muslim world. These included Pagan Africa in the South; Christian and Pagan Europa in the North; and Pagan Central Asia and India in the East.

They slaves came from the North along the Balkan slave trade and the Volga trade route; from the East via the Bukhara slave trade; from the West via the Andalusian slave trade, the Trans-Saharan slave trade and the Red Sea slave trade; and from the South from the Indian Ocean slave trade. The slave trade to and slavery in the area continued during subsequent rulerships, and continued in the Ottoman Empire until the 20th-century.

==Slave trade

Further information: History of slavery in the Muslim world, Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid harem, Qiyan, Jarya, Sack of Amorium, Abd (Arabic), and Bukhara slave trade

The slave trade had been big also during the Umayyad Caliphate, but then, it had been fueled by war captives and people enslaved as tax levy; during the Abbasid Caliphate, the slave trade in war captives was supplanted by people bought through commercial slave trade provided for the slave markets in Basra, Baghdad and Samarra. In parallell with the slave trade in captives and the slaves provided as tax levy and tributes, the expansion of the commercial slave trade expanded slavery during the Abbasid period.

===African slave trade

Further information: Trans-Saharan slave trade, Red Sea slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade, and Baqt

In the Abbasid Empire, African slaves were referred to as Zanj. African slaves were favored for hard labor.

====Baqt The Christian Kingdom of Dongola in the Sudan was obliged to provide between 360 and 400 slaves every year to Islamic Egypt (then an Abbasid province) in accordance with the terms of the Baqt treaty.

====Red Sea slave trade African slaves were transported in the 9th-century via the Red Sea slave trade from Africa across the Red Sea to the slave markets of Jeddah, Mecca and Medina, and from there by caravan over the desert to the slave market of Baghdad.

====Indian Ocean slave trade The Indian Ocean slave trade established, in which slaves were trafficked from East Africa across the Indian Ocean by dhow through the Persian Gulf to Ras al Khymah, Dubai, Bandrar Abbas, Bushine and Basra.

===European slave trade

Further information: Bukhara slave trade, Prague slave trade, Balkan slave trade, al-Andalus slave trade, Black Sea slave trade, and Khazar slave trade

European slaves were referred to as saqaliba. The Vikings sold both Christian and Pagan European captives to the Muslims, who referred to them as saqaliba; these slaves were likely both Pagan Slavic, Finnic and Baltic Eastern Europeans as well as Christian Western Europeans. European slaves were viewed as luxury goods and primarily served in the households of royalty and rich people. There were several routes for saqaliba slaves to the Abbasid Caliphate.

====Khazar and Bukhara slave trade The main route of European slaves to the Caliphate was the Eastern Volga trade route via Russia and Central Asia down to Baghdad via Persia. Initially via the Khazar slave trade, and later via the Samanid slave trade.

The Khazar slave trade and the Samanid slave trade in Bukhara constituted the two great furnishers of slaves to the Abbasid Caliphate. People taken captive during the viking raids in Western Europe could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade or transported to Hedeby or Brännö and from there via the Volga trade route to Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver dirham and silk, which have been found in Birka, Wollin and Dublin; initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed via the Khazar Kaghanate, but from the early 10th-century onward it went via Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm, to the Samanid slave market in Central Asia and finnally via Iran to the Abbasid Caliphate.

This slave trade is known to have functioned from at least between 786 and 1009, as big quantities of silver coins from the Samanid Empire has been found in Scandinavia from these years, and people taken captive by the Vikings during their raids in Western Europe were likely sold in Islamic Central Asia, a slave trade which was so lucrative that it may have contributed to the Viking raids in Western Europe, used by the Vikings as a slave supply source for their slave trade with Islamic world.

====Al-Andalus slave trade Other routes for saqaliba slaves to the Caliphate was via the al-Andalus slave trade in Western Europe. From the Prague slave trade of Pagan Slavs via France to slavery in al-Andalus in Spain, and via the al-Andalus slave trade to the Abbasid Caliphate. The al-Andalus slave trade was significantly reduced with the end of the Prague slave trade in the 11th-century, but continued in a smaller scale until the end of the reconquista.

Andalusian Saracen pirates established a base in Camargue, Fraxinetum or La Garde-Freinet-Les Mautes (888-972), from which they made slave raids in to France and the Fraxinetum slave trade exported the Frankisk prisoners they captured as slaves to the Muslim world.

Slaves captured by the vikings in the British islands were also sold via the Dublin slave trade to the al-Andalus slave market.

====Saracen piracy Saracens from Aghlabids of Ifriqiya managed an extensive slave trade of Italians captured in Southern Italy to Abbasid Maghreb from the early the mid 9th-century.

While the Saracen bases in France was eliminated in 972 and Italy in 1091, this did not prevent the Saracen piracy slave trade of the Mediterranean; both Almoravid dynasty (1040-1147) and the Almohad Caliphate (1121–1269) aproved of the slave raiding of Saracen pirates toward non-Muslim ships in Gibraltar and the Mediterranean for the purpose of slave raiding.

===Turkish people Turkisk peoples belonged to the most common categories of slaves to the Abbasid Caliphate after Africans. They were foremost favored for military slavery.

Turkish people from the Central Asian Steppe, were a major supply source for slaves to the Abbasid Caliphate during the entire Middle Ages. They were Pagans, adherents of Tengrism, and thereby viewed as legitimate targets of slavery. In the Middle East, they were referred to as "white" and used for miliary slavery for centuries during the Middle Ages. Turkish slaves were trafficked to the Abbasid Caliphate via the Bukhara slave trade.

Turkish slaves were the main slave supply of the Samanid slave trade, and regularly formed a part of the land tax sent to the Abbasid capital of Baghdad; the geographer Al-Maqdisi (ca. 375/985) noted that in his time the annual levy (ḵarāj) included 1,020 slaves.

From the early 9th-century, military slavery played a major military role in the Abbasid Caliphate, and Turkish male slaves were particularly favored for the role of slave soldiers.

==Slave market The slave market and use of slaves in the Abbasid Caliphate divided slaves into male, female and eunuchs. The slaves were also divided in skin color. Eunuchs were used for domestic and administrative purpuse; male slaves were used for labor and military slavery; and females were used for domestic service and sexual slavery (concubinage).

===Female slaves

See also: History of concubinage in the Muslim world, Islamic views on concubinage, Ma malakat aymanukum, and Abbasid harem

Female slaves were primarily used as either domestic servants, or as concubines (sex slaves), while male slaves were used in a number of tasks. The sex slave-concubines of rich Urban men who had given birth to the son of their enslaver were counted as the most privileged, since they became an Umm Walad and became free upon the death of their enslaver; the concubine of a Beduoin mainly lived the same life as the rest of the tribal members and the women of the family. Female domestic slaves lived a hard life and reproduction among slaves was low; it was noted that the infant mortality was high among slaves, and that female slaves were often raped in their childhood and rarely lived in their forties, and that poorer slave owners often prostituted them.

The slave trade in the Muslim world focused on women for used of domestic servants and sex slaves. Women were trafficked to the royal Abbasid harem from Europe via the Volga trade route, as well as from Africa and Asia. The royal harem was used as a role model for the harems of other wealthy men. Women from Europe, Central Asia, Asia and Africa was used as sex slaves and domestic servants within the royal harem and the lesser harems of private men, as well as the harems of local principalities within the Abbasid Caliphate.

===Male slaves The use of male slaves were far more varied. Since eunuchs lacked family of their own and was unable to have children, they were considered highly thrustworthy, and used as harem guards, as guards at mosques and holy sites, as administrators and family stewards.

Slave labourers were used in cash-crop production, in the silk textile industry, in salt production and land reclamation, in cotton and sugar production especially in the area of the big slave market center of Basra. Slave labourers were kept in big work camps, and often had to be replaced by new slaves through the slave trade, since the marshlands in Mesopotamia caused slaves to die in large numbers from malaria, and slaves were not allowed to marry or have children. Around 15,000 slaves were estimated to be kept in the Basra area at any given time, and that a quarter of the labor force consisted of slave labor. Contemporary writers in the late 9th-century estimated that there were around 300,000 slaves in Iraq. The harsh condition resulted in a big slave rebellion known as the Zanj Rebellion, which lasted between 869 and 883.

From the early 9th-century, slaves, specifically Turkish slaves, were also employed as slave soldiers.

Thousands and possibly millions of Africans, Berbers, Turks, and Europeans from Northeastern Europe (saqaliba) are estimated to have been enslaved in this time period.

==See also

• Afro-Iraqis
• [[History of slavery in the Muslim world]
• [[History of concubinage in the Muslim world]
• [[Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people]
• [[Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East ]
• [[Racism in the Arab world]
• [[Racism in Muslim communities]
• [[Slavery in Al-Andalus]

==References

==Referenced material

• Segal, Ronald (2001). Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 9780374527976.

{{Asia topic|Slavery in}

[[Category:Islam and slavery] [[Category:Slavery by country|Iraq] [[Category:Slavery in Asia|Iraq] [[Category:Anti-black racism in Asia] [[Category:Indian Ocean slave trade] [[Category:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate]

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{{slavery} {{Expand Swedish|date=March 2024|Slavhandeln i Bukhara} [[File:IMG 6842-Buchara.JPG|thumb|IMG 6842-Buchara] [[File:Coins Spilling Silver Hoard 2 closeup.jpg|thumb|Samanid coins found in the Spillings Hoard.] [[Image:Varangian routes.png|thumb|upright=2|Map showing the major Varangian trade routes: the Volga trade route (in red) and the Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks (in purple). Other trade routes of the eighth-eleventh centuries shown in orange.] [[File:Evariste-Vital Luminais - Pirates normands au IXe siècle.jpg|thumb|Vikings captured people during their raids in Europe.] [[File:S. V. Ivanov. Trade negotiations in the country of Eastern Slavs. Pictures of Russian history. (1909).jpg|thumb|Trade negotiations in the country of Eastern Slavs. Pictures of Russian history. (1909). Vikings sold people they captured in Europe to Muslim merchants in present day Russia.] [[File:Russian Central Asia - including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva and Merv (1885) (14598230327).jpg|thumb|Russian Central Asia - Bokhara.] [[File:Russischer Photograph - Buchara, bedeutende Handelsmetropole (Zeno Fotografie).jpg|thumb|Russischer Photograph, Buchara, 19th-century.] [[File:Le Tour du monde-12-p104.jpg|thumb|Bukhara 19th-century.] [[File:Эмир Бухары Музаффар.jpg|thumb|Muzaffar bin Nasrullah abolished the Bukhara slave trade in 1873.] [[File:Abdulakhad.jpg|thumb|'Abd al-Ahad abolished slavery in Bukhara 1885. ] [[File:Prokudin-Gorskii-19-v2 (cropped).png|thumb|Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan is known to have staffed his royal harem with slaves until the end of the Emirate in 1920]

Bukhara slave trade refers to the slave trade in the city of Bukhara in Central Asia (present day Uzbekistan) from antiquity until the 19th-century. Bukhara and Khiva was known as the major centers of slave trade in Central Asia for centuries, until the Russian conquest of Central Asia in the late 19th-century.

The city of Bukhara was an important trade center along the Ancient Silk Road, were slave trade were a part of the trade between Europe and Asia. In the Middle Ages, Bukhara came to lie in a religious border zoone between the Muslim world and the non-Muslim world, which was seen as a legitimate target of slavery by Muslims, and referred to as the "Eastern Dome of Islam". It became the center of the massive slave trade of the Samanid Empire, who bought European saqaliba-slaves from the vikings in Russia and sold them on to Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East, and as such constituted one of the main trade routes of Saqaliba (European) slaves to the Muslim world. Bukhara was also a center for the trade in non-Muslim Turkish people from Central Asia to the Middle East and to India, where they were one of the main ethnicities of military slavery (ghilman) for centuries.

In the early modern age, Bukhara met competition as a slave trade in Khiva, but continued to function as a major slave trade center for non-Muslims slaves to Central Asia and the Middle East. In this time period the two main targets were Christian Eastern Europeans, who where aquired by a trading connection with the Crimean slave trade in the Black Sea; and Persians who, while Muslims, were Shia Muslims and therefore still seen as legitimate to enslave by Sunni Muslims Bukhara. The Ancient Bukhara slave trade was not closed until its closure was forced upon the Emir of Bukhara by the Russians in 1873.

==Background

Bukhara was a city along the Silk road since Ancient times, and was thus a center of the Silk road trade. The trade along the Silk road included slave trade. Bukhara is known from at least 6th-century BC. The city belonged to Persia in antiquity and the First Turkic Khaganate.

In the middle ages the city became Islamic after the Islamic conquest of Persia and was a part of the Abbasid Caliphate before gaining independence during the Samanid Empire. Bukhara has been called a center of Islam in Central Asia, or the "Eastern Dome of Islam".

==Antiquity

The Ancient Silk Road connecting Mediterranean world and China in East Asia may have existed as early as the 3rd-century BC, since Chinese silk has been found in Rome has been dated to about 200 BC. The Silk Road connected to the Mediterranean world via two routes, which met in Bukhars, who thus served as an important center in the Silk Road trade.

From China, the Silk Road continued over the Tian Shan, Hami, Turpan, Almalik, Tashkent, Samarkand and finnally Bukhara, where it split in two main roads: a Southern route from Bukhara to Merv and from there to Antioch, Trebizond, or Aleppo; or the Northern route from Bukhara over the Karakum Desert to the Caspian Sea, Astrakhan and Kazan close to the Black Sea.

The Silk Road did not sell only textiles, jewels, metal and cosmetic, but also slaves. connecting the Silk Road slave trade to the Bukhara slave trade as well as the Black Sea slave trade.

==Samanid Empire (9th-century–10th-century)

Bukhara was a capital of the Samanid Empire. During the Samanid Empire, Bukhara was a major center of the slave trade in Central Asia. The Samanid Empire was strategically well situated geopgraphically to function as a key supplier of slaves to the Islamic world, because it lay in a religious border zone between Dar al-Islam (The Muslim world), and Dar al-Harb, the world of non-Muslim infidels, who by Islamic law were a legitimate target for slaves to the Muslim world.

Slaves were imported to Bukhara from different non-Muslim lands and via Bukhara to the Muslim world over Persia to the Middle East, and over the Hindu Kush (in present day Afghanistan) in to India. The situation was similar to other religious border zones in Muslim lands, which were also slave trade centers: such as Al-Andalus in Spain, which were the center of the al-Andalus slave trade; Muslim North Africa, which were the center of the Trans-Saharan slave trade and the Red Sea slave trade; as well as Muslim East Africa, which was the center of the Indian Ocean slave trade.

The Samanid slave trade constituted one of the two great furnishers of slaves to the Muslim market to in the Abbasid Caliphate; the other being the Khazar slave trade, who supplied it with captured Slavs and tribesmen from the Eurasian northlands. The Samanid slave trade was one of the major routes of European saqaliba-slaves to the Islamic Middle East, alongside the Prague slave trade and the Balkan slave trade.

The Samanid regulated the transit slave trade across their territories, requiring a fee of 70-100 dirhams and a license (jawāz) for each slave boy; the same fee but no license for each slave girl; and a lesser fee, 20-30 dirhams, for each adult woman.

===Hindu Indians

Warfare and tax revenue policies was the cause of enslavement of Indians for the Central Asian slave market already during the Umayyad conquest of Sindh of the 8th-century, when the armies of the Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim enslaved tens of thousands of Indian civilians and well as soldiers.

During the Ghaznavid campaigns in India of the 11th-century, hundreds of thousands of Indians were captured and sold on the Central Asian slave markets; in 1014 "the army of Islam brought to Ghazna about 200,000 captives (qarib do sit hazar banda), and much wealth, so that the capital appeared like an Indian city, no soldier of the camp being without wealth, or without many slaves", and during the expedition of the Ghaznavid ruler Sultan Ibrahim to the Multan area of northwestern India 100,000 captives were brought back to Central Asia, and the Ghaznavids were said to have captured "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men and women". During his twelfth expedition into India in 1018-1019, the armies of Mahmud of Ghazni captured so many Indian slaves that the prices fell and according to al-'Utbi, "merchants came from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Ma wara3 an-nahr (Central Asia), 'Iraq and Khurasan were filled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery".

===Viking slave trade {{See also|Route from the Varangians to the Greeks|Black Sea slave trade}

The Samanid Empire had important trade contacts with Scandinavia and the Baltics, where many Samanid coins have been found. During the early Middle Ages, the Samanid Empire was one of the two major destinations of the Viking Volga trade route, along which the Vikings exported slaves captured in Europe to the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East via the Caspian Sea and the Samanid Empire to Iran (the other route was to the Byzantine Empire and the Mediterranean via Dnieper and the Black Sea slave trade).

Islamic law prohibited Muslims from enslaving other Muslims, and there was thus a big market for non-Muslim slaves in Islamic territory. The Vikings sold both Christian and Pagan European captives to the Muslims, who referred to them as saqaliba; these slaves were likely both Pagan Slavic, Finnic and Baltic Eastern Europeans as well as Christian Western Europeans.

People taken captive during the viking raids in Western Europe, such as Ireland, could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade or transported to Hedeby or Brännö in Scandinavia and from there via the Volga trade route to present day Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver dirham and silk, which have been found in Birka, Wollin and Dublin; initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed via the Khazar Kaghanate, but from the early 10th-century onward it went via Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm, to the Samanid slave market in Central Asia and finnally via Iran to the Abbasid Caliphate. Also Slavic Pagans were enslaved by vikings, Madjars and Volga Bulgars, who transported them to Volga Bulgaria, where they were sold to Muslim slave traders and continued to Khwarezm and the Samanids, with a minor part being exported to the Byzantine Empire. This was a major trade; the Samanids were the main source of Arab silver to Europe via this route, and Ibn Fadlan referred to the ruler of the Volga Bulgar as "King of the Saqaliba" because of his importance for this trade.

The slave trade between the Vikings and the Muslims in Central Asia are known to have functioned from at least between 786 and 1009, as big quantities of silver coins from the Samanid Empire has been found in Scandinavia from these years, and people taken captive by the Vikings during their raids in Western Europe were likely sold in Islamic Central Asia, a slave trade which was so lucrative that it may have contributed to the Viking raids in Western Europe, used by the vikings as a slave supply source for their slave trade with Islamic world.

The slave trade between the vikings and Bukhara via present day Russia ended when the vikings converted to Christianity in the 11th-century. However, East Europeans were still exported to the slave trade in Central Asia. During the warfare between the Russian principalities in the 12th-century, Russian princes allowed their Cuman (kipchak) allies to enslave peasants from the territory of opposing Russian principalities, and sell them to slave traders in Central Asia.

===Turkish peoples

A major source of slaves to the Samanid Empire was the non-Muslim Turkish peoples of Central Asian steppe, which were both bought as well as regularly kidnapped in slave raids by the thousands to supply the Bukhara slave trade.

The slave trade with Turkish people was the biggest slave supply for the Samanid Empire. Until the 13th-century, the majority of Turkish peoples were not Muslims but adherents of Tengrism, Buddhism and various forms of animism and shamanism, which made them infidels and as such legitimate targets for enslavements by Islamic law. Many slaves in the Mideaval Islamic world referred to as "white" were of Turkish origin.

From the 7th century onward, when the first Islamic military campaigns were conducted toward Turkish lands in Caucasus and Central Asia, Turkish people were enslaved as war captives and then trafficked as slaves via slave raids via southern Russia and the Caucasus into Azerbaijan, and through Karazm and Transoxania into Khorasan and Iran; in 706 the Arab governor Qotayba b. Moslem killed all men in Baykand in Sogdia and took all the women and children as slaves in to the Umayyad Empire and in 676 eighty Turkish nobles captured from the queen of Bukhara were abducted to the governor Saʿīd b. ʿOṯmān of Khorasan to Medina as agricultural slaves, where they killed their enslaver and then committed suicide.

The military campaigns were gradually replaced by pure commercial Muslim slave raids against non-Muslim Turks into "infidel territory" (dār al-ḥarb) in the Central Asian steppe, resulting in a steady flow of Turks to the Muslim slave markets of Bukhara, Darband, Samarkand, Kīš, and Nasaf. Aside from slave raids by Muslim slave traders, Turkish captives were also provided to the slave trade as war captives after warfare among the Turkish peoples themselwes in the steppes (as was the case of Sebüktigin), and in some cases sold by their own families.

Turkish slaves were the main slave supply of the Samanid slave trade, and regularly formed a part of the land tax sent to the Abbasid capital of Baghdad; the geographer Al-Maqdisi (ca. 375/985) noted that in his time the annual levy (ḵarāj) included 1,020 slaves. The average rate for a Turkish slave in the 9th-century was 300 dirhams, but a Turkish slave could be sold for as much as 3,000 dinars.

The trade in Turkish slaves via Bukhara continued for centuries after the end of the Samanid Empire.

===Slave market The slaves were both sold at the Bukhara slave market for domestic use in the Samanid Empire, as well as sold to slave traders and exported to other lands in the Middle East, particularly to the Abbasid Caliphate.

The slave market in the Muslim world prioritized women for the use of domestic servants and concubines (sex slaves) and men as eunuchs, laborers and slave soldiers.

In the sexual slave market, light skinned girls were considered more exclusive for slave concubinage in the harems of the Muslim world than African women from the Trans-Saharan and the Red Sea slave trade, and European women were popular, but Turkish girls were a more common ethnicity.

Turkish male slaves were considered supremely suitable as slave soldiers for their background in the hard life style of the steppe, a stereotype al-Jahiz described in his Resāla fī manāqeb al-Tork wa ʿāmmat jond al-ḵelāfa ("epistle on the excellences of the Turks"), who were characterized as loyal and having a "single-minded devotion to their masters", being slaves and as such without any loyalty to their own families. Turkish men were particularly preferred to supply the Abbasid Army of ghilman slave soldiers in Baghdad. Mamluk soldiers were introduced in Yemen during the Ziyadid dynasty (818-981), and Turkish slave soldiers were to become a popular ethnicity from the beginning, eventually the preferred choice of ethnicity for this slave category.

In addition to slave soldiers, Turkish male slaves were also popular as palace slaves, and Turkish slaves served as cupbearers to rulers such as the Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, whose Turkish cupbearer and favorite Ayāz b. Aymaq played a political role at the Ghaznavid court.

The slave trade was the main trade income of the Samanid Empire, and alongside agriculture and other trade, the slave trade was the economic base of the state.

==Chagatai Khanate and Timurid Empire (13th-century–15th-century)

By the time of the Mongol campaigns in Central Asia, Bukhara belonged to the Khwarazmian Empire. The city was a still flourishing as a commercial center of the slave trade in Central Asia. During the Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire, Bukhara was pillaged after the Siege of Bukhara in February 1220. After the conquest of the Mongol Empire, Bukhara belonged to the Chagatai Khanate (1266–1347) and then the Timurid Empire (1370–1501).

===Slave trade

Bukhara was rebuilt after have been pillaged by the Mongols in 1220. Having been a major center of slave trade in Central Asia for centuries, Bukhara was integrated in the extensive network of the slave trade of the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire conducted a massive international slave trade with captives during the continuous Mongol invasions and conquests, and founded a network of cities to traffick slaves from one end of the Empire to the other. This network functioned to traffick different categories of slaves to slave markets where they were most requested; such as trafficking Muslim slaves to Christian lands and Christian slaves to Muslim lands.

The slave trade network of the Mongol Empire was organized in a route from North China to North India; from North India to the Middle East via Iran and Central Asia; and from Central Asia to Europa via the Steppe of the kipchak territory between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea and Caucasus. This slave trade route was connected via a number of cities used to transport slaves to the peripheries of the Empire, consisting of the capitals of the Mongol Khanates - with the capital of Qaraqorum as the main center - and already excisting slave trade centers, notably the old slave trade center of Bukhara.

The slave trade was fed by raids and purchase by slave traders; by tributary system in which subjugated states were forced to give slaves as tributes; and by war captives during the warfare campaigns during the Mongal Empire and its succeeding Khanates. During Timur Lenk's sack of Delhi, for example, thousands of skilled artisans were enslaved and trafficked to Central Asia and gifted by Timur to his subordinate elite.

===Indian slaves

During the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526), Hindus were enslaved in such large quantities for export to the Central Asian slave market that Indian slaves became low price slaves, available and affordable, and increased their demand in international markets. Aside for war captives enslaved during The Delhi Sultanate were provided with large numbers of Hindu slaves via their revenue system, in which the subordinate iqta'dars ordered their armies to abduct Hindus in large numbers as a means of extracting revenue. Taxes were often extracted from communities less loyal to the Sultan in the form of slaves, and non-Muslims who were not able to pay taxes could be defined as resisting the authority of the Sultan and thus abducted as slaves in warfare; Sultan 'Ala al-Din Khalji (r. 1296-1316) legalized the enslavement of non-Muslims who defaulted on their revenue payments.

===Slave market

The slave market of Bukhara continued as a major center of export of slaves to the Muslim world. The Middle East continued to have a big market for the slave categories girls for sexual slavery and boys for eunuchs and military slavery.

The supply of Turkish slaves started to gradually reduce from the early 14th-century onward in parallel with the growing conversion of Turkish peoples to Islam, which protected them from enslavement by Muslims. However, the demand for Turkish slaves were still high.

Turkish girls continued to be a popular target for sexual slavery as concubines; Shajar al-Durr were likely originally a Turkish slave concubine.

Turkish male slaves kept being viewed as ideal for military slavery. Turkish men were popular as slave soldiers in the slave market of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) and the Rasulid dynasty of Yemen (1229-1454).

In the domestic market in Central Asia, slaves were used in private households, to maintain the garden, and to cultivate the land and managed the livestock on the plantations of Central Asia's wealthy families; they were used for military slaves, as laborers to maintain irrigation canals, in brick factories, and trained to work in construction engineering. Private individuals could own hundreds of slaves: one Juybari Sheikh (a Naqshbandi Sufi leader) owned over 500 slaves, forty of them pottery producers, and others agricultural laborers, tending livestock, and carpenters. Indian slaves were particularly appreciated as skilled artisans because of the advanced Indian textile industry, agricultural production and architecture. A particular category were sex slavery, and attractive slave girls were sold for a higher price than artisans skilled att construct engineering.

==Khanate and Emirate of Bukhara (16th-century–19th-century)

The slave trade in Khiva and Bukhara was described by the English traveller Anthony Jenkinson in the mid 16th-century, at a time when they were major global slave trade centers and the "slave capitals of the world".

In the 16th-century, most slaves trafficked via Khiva and Bukhara were either Persians or Russians. About 100,000 slaves were sold in the slave market of Khiva and Bukhara every year, most of them Persians or Russians.

In the 19th-century the Khivean slave trade became bigger than the Bukhara slave trade, but both maintained many similarities. Turkmen tribal groups performed regular slave raids, referred to as alaman, toward two sources of slaves; Russian and German settlers along the Ural, and Persian pilgrims to Mashad, two categories who as Christians and Shia-Muslims respectively were seen as religiously legitimate to target for enslavement.

===Hindu Indians

A source of slaves were Hindu India imported via the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan, who were popular for the domestic market in Bukhara. Alongside Christian Russians, Buddhist Qalmaqs, non-Sunni Afghans and Shia Iranians, Hindu Indians were an important category of slaves in the Central Asian slave trade from at least the middle ages and the early modern era. Due to polytheist Hindus being clearly identified as kafirs, "non-believers" in Islam, Indians were viewed as undoubtedly legitimate targets for enslavement and popular as slaves in the Central Asian slave market.

While the Muslim domination in Northern India did not introduce slavery to India, where slavery are known since the 6th-century BC, the institution expanded during the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1856), and contributed to the traffick of humans between Central Asia and India.

Indian merchants transported Indian slaves to the Central Asian slave market, and enslaved Indians were bought or traded for commodities such as horses by Central Asian slave traders, who transported them to Central Asia via the Hindu Kush by caravan; in 1581 the Portuguese Jesuit missionary Father Antonio Monserrate noted that the "Gaccares" (Ghakkars) tribe in Punjab who functioned as mediators in the slave trade between Indian and Central Asia, trading Indian slaves for Central Asian ("TurkV) horses to such a degree that they became associated with the proverb, "slaves from India, horses from Parthia". The caravan roads of Central Asia were frequented by bandits who robbed the merchants along the roads, and in case of Indian merchants, the merchants and their retinue could be not only robbed but themselwes taken captive and sold on the slave market.

Indian slaves were also given as gifts between rulers; in the 16th-century, for example, four slaves skilled in masonry were given by the Mughal emperor Akbar to 'Abd Allah Khan II of Bukhara. In 1589, the price of a thirty-three-year-old male Indian slave in good health was sold in Samarqand for 225 tanga, and Indians were referred to as "slave-sheep".

===Persians A major source for slaves to the Khiva and Bukhara slava trade were Persians; while Islam banned Muslims from enslaving other Muslims, the Persians were Shia-Muslims while Khiva and Bukhara were Sunni-Muslims, and were therefore seen as legitimate targets for slavery.

Shia Iranians were seen as legitimate targets for Sunni Muslim Turkmen and Uzbek slave traders.

Iranian Shia were captured in during the warfare between the Uzbek and the Safavid, and by Turkmen slave raids to villages of North Western Iran.

===Russians

During the early modern era (16th-century–18th-century), Khiva and Bukhara imported large numbers of Europeans slaves kidnapped by the Crimean Tatars (normally Russians).

Christian Russian settlers were as non-Muslim seen as legitimate target for enslavement, and abducted from the frontiers by Crimean Tatars, Nogay, Qalmaq and Bashkir, and transported to the slave markets of Khiva, Balkh and Bukhara.

===Slave market {{See also|History of slavery in the Muslim world|History of concubinage in the Muslim world|Islamic views on concubinage|Ma malakat aymanukum|Qiyan|Jarya|Abd (Arabic)}

In the 16th-century Bukhara exported slaves to Central Asia, the Middle East and India. The Bukhara slave market was a destination for slave merchants from India and other countries of the "East", who came to Bukhara to buy slaves. The slaves were exported from Bukhara to other Islamic khanates in Central Asia.

Bukhara also used slaves for their domestic market. The use of slaves in Bukhara followed the normal model of slavery in the Islamic world. Female slaves were used as domestic servants or as concubines (sex slaves). Baron Meyendorff reported in the 1820s that a skilled artisan could be sold for about 100 tilla, while an attractive slave girls could be sold for as much as 150 tilla.

Male slaves were used as ghilman slave soldiers. Bukhara also used slave labor in their agriculture, normally Indian slaves.

In the 19th-century, the slave markets of Khiva and Bukhara were still among the biggest slave markets in the world. The Turkmen were so known for their slave raids that it was said that Turkmen "would not hesitate to sell into slavery the Prophet himself, did he fall into their hands". The constant raids against travellers constituted a problem for travelling in the region.

Between 20.000 and 40.000 slaves are estimated to have excisted in Bukhara in 1821, and around 20.000 in the 1860s.

====Royal harem {{See also|Circassian slave trade|Abbasid harem|Safavid harem|Qajar harem|Ottoman Imperial Harem}

The royal harem of the ruler of the Emirate of Bukhara (1785–1920) in Central Asia (Uzbekistan) was similar to that of the Khanate of Khiva. The last Emir of Bukhara was reported to have a harem with 100 women, but also a separate "harem" of ‘nectarine-complexioned dancing boys’. The harem was abolished when the Soviets conquered the area and the khan Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan was forced to flee; he reportedly left the harem women behind, but did take some of his dancing boys with him.

==Abolition {{See also|Russian conquest of Bukhara}

The slave market in Bukhara as well as that in Khiva was banned in 1873 after Russian conquest. However, the process was different. Bukhara became a Russian protectorate after the Russian conquest of Bukhara in 1868. The Russians did not have complete control over Bukhara, where the Emir was still formally in charge. When the slave trade in neighboring Khiva was abolished after the after the Russian conquest of Khiva in 1873, this put pressure on the Russians to use their power to abolish slavery also in Bukhara. Russia was under pressure by both nationally and internationally Western opinion to abolish slavery and slave trade.

The Russian-Bukharan Treaty of 1873 abolished the Bukhara slave trade. In contrast to neighboring Khiva, slavery as such was not banned in Bukhara after slave trade was banned. The Russian General Governor congratulated Emir Muzaffar bin Nasrullah for having abolished the slave trade in Bukhara, and expressed his hope that also slavery itself would be gradually phased out during a ten year period.

The Emir promised the Russians that he would abolish slavery in 1883 on condition that the former slaves remained with their enslavers until then, after which they would be given the right to buy themselwes free; after this promise, the Russians abstained from pressuring the emir more in the issue to avoid damaging their diplomatic contact with him.

===Aftermath However, despite the official abolition of 1873, the slave trade continued illegally with the blessing of the emir, who himself continued to buy Persian slaves from Turkmen slave traders to staff his harem with slave soldiers and his harem with slave concubines. In 1878, a Russian agent reported that he had wittnessed slave trade in Bukhara, and in 1882 the English traveller Henry Lansdell was made aware about the still ongoing slave trade.

Emir Muzaffar bin Nasrullah did not abolish slavery in 1883 as he had promised the Russians. However his son Emir 'Abd al-Ahad Khan fullfilled his father's promise by officially abolishing slavery in the Emirate of Bukhara. However, slavery in Bukhara continued, and the Royal Household and the Royal Harem continued to be staffed with slaves aquired from Turkmen slave trade agents in secrecy; when the Emirate of Bukhara was annexted by the Communist Soviet Union after the Bukharan Revolution and the Bukhara operation (1920), when the last Emir, Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan, fled from the Red Army and left his slave concubines behind.

==See also

• [[Slavery in Al-Andalus]
• [[Russian conquest of Bukhara]
• [[Slavery in Central Asia]
• [[Crimean slave trade]
• [[Khivan slave trade]
• [[Turkish slaves in the Delhi Sultanate]

==References

{{Asia topic|Slavery in}

[[Category:Khanate of Bukhara] [[Category:Islam and slavery] [[Category:Slave trade] [[Category:Samanid Empire] [[Category:Asian slave trade] [[Category:Emirate of Bukhara] [[Category:History of Bukhara] [[Category:European slave trade] [[Category:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate] [[Category:Viking Age economy] [[Category:Viking Age slave trade]

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{{Short description|none} {{slavery} [[File:Zarya Zarenicza by Andrey Shishkin.jpg|thumb|The Goddess Zorya of the Slavic religion. The fact that the Slavs were Pagans legitimated them as targets for enslavement in the eyes of both Christians and Muslims.] [[File:02019 1103 Eiserne Fesseln des 11. und 12. Jahrhunderts, Neu-Niekohr.jpg|thumb|02019 1103 Eiserne Fesseln des 11. und 12. Jahrhunderts, Neu-Niekohr] [[File:Duchy of Bohemia 1000.svg|thumb|Duchy of Bohemia in cirka 1000] [[File:Radhanite1.jpg|thumb|The Radhanite trade routes.] [[File:Saint Adalbert of Prague pleads with Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia, for the release of Christians slaves by their masters, Jewish merchants, Gniezno Door ca. 1170.png|thumb|Saint Adalbert of Prague pleads with Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia, for the release of Christians slaves by their masters, Jewish merchants, Gniezno Door ca. 1170] [[File:Salon Rico 1.jpg|thumb| Madinat al-Zahra.]

The Prague slave trade refers to the slave trade conducted between the Duchy of Bohemia and the Caliphate of Córdoba in Moorish al-Andalus in the early Middle Ages. The Duchy's capital of Prague was the center of this slave trade, and internationally known as one of the biggest centers of slave trade in Europe at the time.

The Prague slave trade is known as one of the main routes of saqaliba-slaves to the Muslim world, alongside the Balkan slave trade by the Republic of Venice in the South, and Volga route of the Vikings via Rus, Volga Bulgaria and the Samanid Bukhara slave trade in the East.

The Duchy of Bohemia was a new state in Christian Europe at this time, bordering to lands of Pagan Slavs to the North and East. Pagans were considered as legitimate targets of enslavement both by Christian and Islamic law. Bohemia was thereby able to traffick Pagan captives to the the slave market of the Muslim Caliphate of Cordoba through Christian France without trouble. The Prague slave trade was a mutual trade of benefit between the Caliphate of Córdoba, who were dependent on slaves to managed their state bureaucracy and military, and the Duchy of Bohemia, whose new state rose to economic prominence due to the trade.

The Prague slave trade was dependent upon supply of Pagan captives to maintain the slave trade with Muslim al-Andalus via Christian Europe, and therefore lost its supply source when Eastern Europe started to adopt Christianity. In parallel, in the early 11th-century both the Caliphate of Cordoba as well as the Duchy of Bohemia went through a period of political instability.

==Background

In Western Europe, a major slave trade route went from Prague in Central Europe via France to Moorish Al-Andalus, which was both a destination for the slaves as well as center of slave trade to the rest of the Muslim world in the Middle East. Prague in the Duchy of Bohemia, which was a recently Christianized state in the early 10th-century, became a major center of the European slave trade in between the 9th- and the 11th-century. The revenue from the Prague slave trade has been named as one of the economic foundations of the Bohemian state, financing the armies necessary to form a centralized state, which was not uncommon for the new Christian state in Eastern Europe.

The Duchy of Bohemia was a state in a religious border zone, bordering to Pagan Slavic lands to the North, East and South East. In the Middle ages, religion was the determining factor on who was considered a legitimate target for enslavement. Christians prohibited Christians from enslaving other Christians, and Muslims prohibited Muslims from enslaving other Muslims; however both aproved of the enslavement of Pagans, who thereby became a lucrative target for slave traders.

In the 9th and 10th-century, the Slavs in Eastern Europe were still adherents of the Slavic religion, making them Pagans to the Christians and infidels to the Muslims, and thereby considered as legitimate targets for enslavement by both. Bohemia, being a religious border state close to Pagan lands, were thus in an ideal position to engage in slave trade with both Christians and Muslims, having access to a close supply of Pagan captives. The slaves were aquired through slave raids toward the Pagan Slavic lands North of Prague.

The Pagan Slavic tribes of Central and Eastern Europe were targeted for slavery by several actors in the frequent military expeditions and raids alongside their lands. During the military campaigns of Charlemagne and his successor in the 9th-century, Pagan Slavs were captured and sold by the Christian Franks along the Danube-Elbe rivers, and by the mid 10th-century, Prague had become a big center of the slave trade in Slavic Pagans to al-Andalus via France.

==Supply {{See also|Poland in the Early Middle Ages|Bukhara slave trade}

Prague was known in all Europe as a major slave trade center. Captives sold as slaves via Prague were supplied by several routes.

===Dukes of Bohemia The armies of the Dukes of Bohemia captured Pagan Slavs from the East in expeditions to the lands later known as Poland to supply the slave market, which brought considerable profit to the Dukes.

Several sources from the 10th-century mentioned how the Dukes were involved in supplying the Prague slave market and that the slaves normally came from lands corresponding to what later corresponded to Southern Poland and Western Ukraine.

The Dukes of Bohemia, particularly Boleslaus I (r. 935-972) and Boleslaus II (r. 972-999), regularly provided the Prague slave market with new Pagan captives from expeditions to the Northeast.

===Vikings Another supply came from the vikings. The vikings were known to be supplyers of slaves to the Islamic market via other routes. People taken captive during the viking raids in Western Europe could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade or transported via the Volga trade route to Russia, where slaves were sold to Muslim merchants in the Khazar Kaghanate, and the Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm and finnally to the Abbasid Caliphate via the Samanid slave market in Central Asia.

While the slaves sold by the vikings via the Eastern route could be Christian Western Europeans, the slaves provided by the vikings to the slave route of Prague-Magdeburg-Verdun were Pagan Slavs, who in contrast to Christians were legitimate for other Christians to enslave and sell as slaves to Muslims; according to Liutprand of Cremona, these slaves were trafficked to slavery in al-Andalus via Verdun, were some of them were selected to undergo castration to become eunuchs for the Muslim slave market in al-Andalus.

===Poles Slaves were also provided by the Slavs themselwes as war captives during the unification of Poland under Mieszko I. To sustain this military machine and meet other state expenses, large amounts of revenue were necessary. Greater Poland had some natural resources used for trade, such as fur, hide, honey and wax, but those surely did not provide enough income. According to Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, Prague in Bohemia, a city built of stone, was the main center for the exchange of trading commodities in this part of Europe.

From Kraków, the Slavic traders brought tin, salt, amber and whatever other products they had, most importantly slaves; Muslim, Jewish, Hungarian and other traders were the buyers of the Prague slave market. The Life of St. Adalbert, written at the end of the 10th century by John Canaparius, records the fate of many Christian slaves sold in Prague as the main curse of the time. Dragging of shackled slaves is shown as a scene in the bronze 12th-century Gniezno Doors. It may well be that the territorial expansion financed itself by being the source of loot, of which the captured local people were the most valuable part. The scale of the human trade practice is arguable, however, because much of the population from the defeated tribes was resettled for agricultural work or in the near-gord settlements, where they could serve the victors in various capacities and thus contribute to the economic and demographic potential of the state. Considerable increase of population density was characteristic of the newly established states in eastern and Central Europe. The slave trade not insufficient to meet all revenue needs, the Piast state had to look for other options.

Mieszko thus strove to subdue Pomerania at the Baltic coast. The area was the site of wealthy trade emporia, frequently visited by traders, especially from the east, west and north. Mieszko had every reason to believe that great profits would have resulted from his ability to control the rich seaports situated on long distance trade routes such as Wolin, Szczecin and Kołobrzeg.

==Trade

See also: Al-Andalus slave trade

Traditionally, the slave traders aquiring the slaves in Prague and transporting them to the slave market of al-Andalus are said to have been dominated by the Jewish Radhanite merchants. Pope Gelasius (492) permitted Jews to transport slaves from Gaul to Italy on the condition that they were Pagans, and by the time of Pope Gregory the Great (590-604), Jews were a dominating actor in the slave trade.

While Christians were not allowed to enslave Christians and Muslims not allowed to enslave Muslims, Jewish slave traders had the advantage to move freely across religious borders, and supply Muslim slaves to the Christian world and Christian slaves to the Muslim world. as well as Pagan slaves to both. The Moorish Jewish merchant Ibrahim Ibn Jakub of Cordoba has described the trade in Slavic slaves as one of the goods exported from Prague to al-Andalus by Jewish and Muslim merchants. Ibrahim Ibn Jakub, who likely visited Prague in 961, described how slave traders visited the Prague slave market from Krakow and Hungary to buy slaves. According to Abraham ibn Ya'ḳub, Byzantine Jews regularly bought Pagan Slavs at the Prague slave market.

In contrast to the viking slave trade with saqaliba slaves to the Middle East via the Khazar slave trade and the Volga Bulgarian slave trade to slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate via the Samanid slave trade in Central Asia, there are no Arab silver dirham hoards from the saqaliba slave trade in Prague, and the slave traders in Prague would have been payed by Frankish or Jewish middlemen with luxury goods. Marek Jankowiak argues that one payment used by Jewish merchants who bought slaves at the market in Prague in the 9th and 10th-century for the Moorish slave market was small pieces of cloth, which were used as an exchange rate for silver.

The slaves were transported from Prague to Al-Andalus via France. While the church discouraged the sale of Christian slaves to Muslims, the sale of Pagans to Muslims was not met with such opposition. Louis the Fair granted his permission to Jewish merchants to traffick slaves through his Kingdom provided they were non-baptized Pagans.

The Prague slave trade was connected to merchants from Mainz and Verdun and other Western Frankish cities, through which the slaves were trafficked toward al-Andalus; these merchants were often but not always Jewish. The Jews of Verdun are noted to have bought slaves and sold them off to al-Andalus, and many Moorish Jews profited of the slave trade. Both Christians and Muslims were prohibited from performing castrations, but there was no such ban for Jews, which made it possible for them to meet the great demand for eunuchs in the Muslim world.

==Slave market {{See also|History of slavery in the Muslim world|History of concubinage in the Muslim world|Islamic views on concubinage|Ma malakat aymanukum|Qiyan|Jarya|Abd (Arabic)|Slavery in Al-Andalus|Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate}

The most lucrative slave market was the Islamic slavery in Al-Andalus. The Arabic Caliphate of Córdoba referred to the forrests of Central and Eastern Europe, which came to function as a slave source supply, as the Bilad as-Saqaliba ("land of the slaves"). The Prague slave market was a part of a big net of slave trade in European saqaliba slaves to the Muslim world. Ibn Hawqal wrote in the 10th-century:

‘The country [of the Saqaliba] is long and wide....Half of their country...is raided by the Khurasanis [Khorezm] who take prisoners from it, while its northern half is raided by the Andalusians who buy them in Galicia, in France, in Lombardy and in Calabria so as to make them eunuchs, and thereafter they ferry them over to Egypt and Africa. All the Saqaliba eunuchs in the world come from Andalusia....They are castrated near this country. The operation is performed by Jewish merchants.'

In Islamic lands, the slave market had specific requirements. Female slaves were used for either domestic or sexual slavery as concubines. Male slaves were used for one of two categories: either for military slavery or as eunuchs. The latter category of male slaves were subjected to castration for the market. Many male slaves selected to be sold as eunuchs were subjected to castration in Verdun. Most saqaliba slaves would have been prebubescent children when castrated.

In Moorish al-Andalus, European saqaliba-slaves were considered as exotic display objects with their light hair, skin and eye colors. Female saqaliba slaves were sought after as either enslaved maidservants or for sexual slavery as harem concubines. Male saqaliba slaves were either castrated and sold as eunuchs, or kept intact and sold for use for military slavery as slaves soldiers; male saqaliba slaves were also used for a number of domestic and bureucratic positions. The nature of the market for saqaliba slaves meant that most saqaliba slaves would have been prebubescent children when enslaved.

White European slaves were viewed as luxury goods in Al-Andalus, where they could be sold for as much as 1,000 dinars, a substantial price. Saqaliba slaves were viewed as luxury goods and often used as urban domestic staff and in the Royal Palace; during the reign of the Umayyad Caliphs Abd al-Rahman III (912-961) and al-Hakam II (961-976), between 3750 and 6087 saqaliba slaves were listed to have lived in the Royal Palace of Madinat al-Zahra as slave concubines or eunuchs, and hundreds of slaves are estimated to have been imported every year.

The slaves were not always destined for the al-Andalus market; similar to Bohemia in Europe, al-Andalus was a religious border state for the Muslim world, and saqaliba slaves were exported from there further to the Muslim world in the Middle East.

The Duchy of Bohemia and the Caliphate of Córdoba were both dependent on each other because of the from the slave trade; the Caliphate of Córdoba was dependent on enslaved bureaucrats and slave soldiers to build and manage their centralised state, while the new state of the Duchy of Bohemia built their economic prosperity in the profit earned by the slave trade with the Caliphate.

==End of the slave trade {{See also|Venetian slave trade} The saqaliba slave trade from Prague to al-Andalus via France lost its religious legitimacy when the Pagan Slavs of the North started to gradually adopt Christianity from the late 10th-century, which made them of bounds for Christian Bohemia to enslave and sell to Muslim al-Andalus. The Prague slave trade were not able to legitimately supply their slave pool after the Slavs gradually adopted Christianity from the late 10th-century onward. Christian Europe did not aprove of Christian slaves, and as Europe adopted Christianity almost entirely by the 11th-century slavery died out in Western Europe North of the Alps in the 12th- and 13th-centuries.

The disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba in the early 11th-century, which was completed by 1031, corresponded to a period of instability in the Duchy of Bohemia in parallell with the end of the slave trade between Bohemia and the Caliphate.

==See also

• [[Slavery in Al-Andalus]
• [[Russian conquest of Bukhara]
• [[Slavery in Central Asia]
• [[Crimean slave trade]
• [[Khivan slave trade]
• [[Turkish slaves in the Delhi Sultanate]

==References

[[Category:European slave trade [[Category:Slavery in al-Andalus] [[Category:History of Prague] [[Category:Duchy of Bohemia] [[Category:Slave raids] [[Category:Viking Age slave trade]

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{{slavery} [[File:Califato de Córdoba - 1000-en.svg|thumb|Califato de Córdoba - 1000-en [[File:Radhanite1.jpg|thumb|The Radhanite trade routes. [[File:Salon Rico 1.jpg|thumb| Madinat al-Zahra. [[File:Targ niewolnikow w Kordowie.jpg|thumb|Slavic and Black slaves in Córdoba; illustration from the Cantigas de Santa Maria

Slavery in al-Andalus refers to the slavery in the Islamic states in Al-Andalus in the Iberian Peninsula in present day Spain and Portugal between the 8th-century and the 15th-century. This includes the Emirate of Córdoba (756–929), the Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031), the Almoravid rule (1085–1145), Almohad rule (1147–1238) and the smaller Taifa principalities, notably the Emirate of Granada (1232–1492).

==Background

Slavery existed in Muslim al-Andalus as well as in the Christian kingdoms, and both sides of the religious border followed the custom of not enslaving people of their own religion. Consequently, Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, while Christians and other non-Muslims were enslaved in al-Andalus.

The Moors imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the end of the Reconquista in the late 15th century. European slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain as well as Eastern Europe and referred to as Saqaliba. Saqaliba slavery in al-Andalus was especially prominent in the Caliphate of Córdoba, where white female slaves constituted a big part of the slave concubines of the royal harem, and white male slaves constituted most of the administrative personnel in the courts and palaces.

==Slave trade {{See also|Bukhara slave trade|Radhanite|Prague slave trade}

Al-Andalus, the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula (711–1492) imported a large number of slaves to its own domestic market, as well as served as a staging point for Muslim and Jewish merchants to market slaves to the rest of the Islamic world.

An early economic pillar of the Islamic empire in Iberia (Al-Andalus) during the eighth century was the slave trade. Due to manumission being a form of piety under Islamic law, slavery in Muslim Spain couldn't maintain the same level of auto-reproduction as societies with older slave populations. Therefore, Al-Andalus relied on trade systems as an external means of replenishing the supply of enslaved people.

Islamic law prohibited Muslims from enslaving other Muslims, and there was thus a big market for non-Muslim slaves in Islamic territory. The Vikings sold both Christian and Pagan European captives to the Muslims, who referred to them as saqaliba; these slaves were likely both Pagan Slavic, Finnic and Baltic Eastern Europeans as well as Christian Western Europeans. Forming relations between the Umayyads, Khārijites and 'Abbāsids, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards Al-Andalus served as a highly lucrative trade configuration.

The archaeological evidence of human trafficking and proliferation of early trade in this case follows numismatics and materiality of text. This monetary structure of consistent gold influx proved to be a tenet in the development of Islamic commerce. In this regard, the slave trade outperformed and was the most commercially successful venture for maximizing capital. This major change in the form of numismatics serves as a paradigm shift from the previous Visigothic economic arrangement. Additionally, it demonstrates profound change from one regional entity to another, the direct transfer of people and pure coinage from one religiously similar semi-autonomous province to another.

===Prague slave trade {{See also|Prague slave trade|Saqaliba}

The slave market of Prague was one route for saqaliba slaves to al-Andalus. Similarly to al-Andalus, the Duchy of Bohemia was a state in a religious border zone, in the case of Bohemia bordering to Pagan Slavic lands to the North, East and South East.

The Arabic Caliphate of Córdoba referred to the forrests of Central and Eastern Europe, which came to function as a slave source supply, as the Bilad as-Saqaliba ("land of the slaves"). Bohemia were in an ideal position to become a supply source for Pagan saqaliba slaves to al-Andalus. The slaves were aquired through slave raids toward the Pagan Slavic lands North of Prague.

The Prague slave trade adjusted to the al-Andalus market, with females required for sexual slavery and males required for either military slavery or as eunuchs. Male slaves selected to be sold as eunuchs were subjected to castration in Verdun.

Traditionally, the slave traders aquiring the slaves in Prague and transporting them to the slave market of al-Andalus are said to have been dominated by the Jewish Radhanite merchants. How dominating the Jewish merchants were is unknown, but Jewish slave traders did have an advantage toward their non-Jewish colleagues, because they were able to move across the Christian-Muslim lands, which was not always to case for Christian and Muslim merchants, and act as mediators between Christian and Muslim commercial markets. While Christians were not allowed to enslave Christians and Muslims not allowed to enslave Muslims, Jews were able to sell Christian slaves to Muslim buyers and Muslim slaves to Christian buyers, as well as Pagan slaves to both. In the same fashion, both Christians and Muslims were prohibited from performing castrations, but there was no such ban for Jews, which made it possible for them to meet the demand for eunuchs in the Muslim world.

The slaves were transported to Al-Andalus via France. While the church discouraged the sale of Christian slaves to Muslims, the sale of Pagans to Muslims was not met with such opposition. White European slaves were viewed as luxury goods in Al-Andalus, where they could be sold for as much as 1,000 dinars, a substantial price. The slaves were not always destined for the al-Andalus market; similar to Bohemia in Europe, al-Andalus was a religious border state for the Muslim world, and saqaliba slaves were exported from there further to the Muslim world in the Middle East.

The saqaliba slave trade from Prague to al-Andalus via France became defunct in the 11th-century, when the Pagan Slavs of the North started to gradually adopt Christianity from the late 10th-century, which prohibited Christian Bohemia to enslave and sell to Muslim al-Andalus.

===Slave raids to Christian Iberia

Al-Andalus was described in the Muslim world as the "land of jihad", a religious border land in a state of constant war with the infidels, which by Islamic Law was a legitimate zone for enslavement, and slaves were termed as coming from three different zones in Christian Iberia: Galicians from the North West, Basques or Vascones from the Central North, and Franks from the North East and France.

The medieval Iberian Peninsula was the scene of episodic warfare among Muslims and Christians. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on Lisbon in 1189 the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of Córdoba took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon Silves in 1191.

In the Almohad raid to Evora in Portugal in 1181-82, 400 women were taken captives and put for sale in the slave market of Seville.

These raiding expeditions also included the Sa’ifa (summer) incursions, a tradition produced during the Amir reign of Cordoba. In addition to acquiring wealth, some of these Sa’ifa raids sought to bring mostly male captives, often eunuchs, back to Al-Andalus. They were generically referred to as Saqaliba, the Arab word for Slavs. Slavs’ status as the most common group in the slave trade by the tenth century led to the development of the word “slave.”

During the Sack of Barcelona (985) by the Córdoban general, Almanzor, the entire garrison was slain, and the inhabitants were either killed or enslaved.

===Saracen piracy

Moorish Saracen pirates from al-Andalus attacked Marseille and Arles and established a base in Camargue, Fraxinetum or La Garde-Freinet-Les Mautes (888-972), from which they made slave raids in to France; the population fled in fear of the slave raids, which made it difficult for the Frankish to secure their Southern coast, and the Saracens of Fraxinetum exported the Frankisk prisoners they captured as slaves to the slave market of the Muslim Middle East.

The Saracens captured the Baleares in 903, and made slave raids also from this base toward the coasts of the Christian Mediterranean and Sicily.

While the Saracen bases in France was eliminated in 972, this did not prevent the Saracen piracy slave trade of the Mediterranean; both Almoravid dynasty (1040-1147) and the Almohad Caliphate (1121–1269) aproved of the slave raiding of Saracen pirates toward non-Muslim ships in Gibraltar and the Mediterranean for the purpose of slave raiding.

===Trans-Saharan slave trade

Along with Christians and Slavs, Sub-Saharan Africans were also held as slaves, brought back from the caravan trade in the Sahara. The Ancient Trans-Saharan slave trade trafficked slaves to Al-Andalus from non-Muslim Pagan Sub-Saharan Africa.

Forming relations between the Umayyads, Khārijites and 'Abbāsids, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards Al-Andalus served as a highly lucrative trade configuration.

===Viking slave trade

According to Roger Collins, although the role of the Vikings in the slave trade in Iberia remains largely hypothetical, their depredations are clearly recorded. Raids on Al-Andalus by Vikings are reported in the years 844, 859, 966 and 971, conforming to the general pattern of such activity concentrating in the mid ninth and late tenth centuries.

The vikings performed slave raids toward the Christian parts of Iberia as well. It is known that the vikings sold people they captured in their raids in Christian Europe to the Islamic world via Arab merchants in Russia along the Volga trade route, slaves who were trafficked to the Middle East via Central Asia and was an important slave supply source to the Bukhara slave trade. However, it is not confirmed if the vikings sold the captives from their raids in Christian Iberia directly to Muslim Iberia.

The vikings did provide slaves to al-Andalus via the Norse Kingdom of Dublin. Slaves captured primarily in the British islands and put on sale in Dublin, which was one of the biggest slave markets in Europe in the 9th- and 11th-centuries, are known to have been sold all over Europe; one of the most lucrative trades for vikings as well as other traders operating from Irish ports such as Dublin were the slave trade to Islamic Iberia.

==Slave market

The slave market in the Muslim world prioritized women for the use of domestic servants and concubines (sex slaves) and men as eunuchs, laborers and slave soldiers. Children were the preferred category on the slave market because they could be trained and raised to fill the function selected for them from childhood. Common slave names were adjusted to the tasks selected for the slave children, such as Mujahid ('warrior'), Muqatil ('fighter') for slave soldiers; or Anbar ('amber'), Zuhayr ('radiant'), Kharyan ('blessing'), wathiq ('trusthworthy') or jumn ('pearl') for bureaucrats.

The slaves of the Caliph were often European saqaliba slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. The Saqaliba were mostly assigned to palaces as guards, concubines, and eunuchs, although they were sometimes privately owned. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number of tasks, such as offices in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of harem guards, they were castrated), female saqaliba were placed in the harem. The Sub-Saharan African Pagans were often given more laborous chores than the saqaliba-slaves.

===Female slaves {{See also|History of concubinage in the Muslim world|Islamic views on concubinage|Ma malakat aymanukum|Circassian slave trade}

In the Islamic world, female slaves were targeted for either use as domestic house slave maidservants, or for sexual slavery in the form of concubinage. In certain Islamic periods such as Al-Andalus, female slaves could also be selected for training as slave artists, known as qiyan.

Domestic slavery was a common enslavement for women in the Muslim world. Since free Muslim women were expected to live in gender segregated seclusion in as high degree as possible, they generally did not work as maidservants, which created a high demand for domestic female slaves in the Muslim world.

Female slaves in al-Andalus could also be used as slave artists. The Caliphate of Cordoba continued the tradition of the Umayyad Caliphate to instruct a category of female slaves to become entertainers; qiyan. The female qiyan slave entertainer, often referred to as "singing slave girls", were instructed in a number of accomplishments, such as poetry, music, recitating akhbar (accounts or anecdotes), calligraphy and shadow puppetry.

Qiyan-slave-girls were initially imported to al-Andalus from Medina. Qiyan slave-girls are noted to have been first imported to al-Andalus during the reign of al-Hakam I (r. 796-822). However, qiyan soon started to be trained in Cordoba and from 1013 in Seville; it is however unknown if the tradition was preserved in the Emirate of Granada. Qiyan-slaves were selected to be trained for this function as children, and underwent a long training to fit the demands. During reign of the Caliph al-Amin (r. 809-813) in Bahgdad, there was a category known as ghulamyyat, slave-girls dressed as boys, who were trained to perform as singers and musicians and who attended the drinking parties of the sovereign and his male guests, and this custom is known in al-Andalus in the reign of Caliph al-Hakam II (r. 961-976).

In al-Isbahani's Kitab al-Aghani, Ibrahim al-Mawsili noted that originally slave girls with dark complexion had been selected to be trained as qiyan, because they were viewed as unattractive, but that this custom had changed and white slave-girls, who where considered more beautiful and were therefore more expensive, had started to be trained as qiyan to increase their market value even more:

"People did not use to teach beautiful slave-girls to sing, but instead only taught light brown and black [slave girls to sing]. The first person to teach expensive [fair-skinned] slave-girls to sing was my father. He achieved the highest level [of training] of female singers, and thereby raised their value".

The qiyan-slaves were not secluded from men in harem as free women or slave concubines, but in contrast performed for male guests - sometimes from behind a screen and sometimes visible - and are the perhaps most well documented of all female slaves. While trained qiyan-slaves were sexually available to their enslaver, they were not categorized or sold as concubines and, with their training, were the most expensive female slaves.

The writer Al-Jahiz: "the singing-girl is hardly ever honest in her passion or sincere in her affection, for she, by training and by disposition, sets traps and snares for her admirers in order that they may plung into her toils [lit. "noose"]", and "for the most part singing-girls are insicere and given to employing deciet and treachery in squeezing out the property of the deluded victim and then abandoning him", and that their enslaver used them to assemble gifts from male guests who came to him to see and hear his qiyan slave-girl.

Another category was that of sexual slavery. Islamic law prohibited a man from having sexual intercourse with any woman except his wife or his female slave. Female slaves were used for both prostitution as well as private concubines. Islamic Law formally prohibited prostitution. However, since Islamic Law allowed a man to have sexual intercourse with his female slave, prostitution was practiced by a pimp selling his female slave on the slave market to a client, who returned his ownership of her to her former owner (the pimp) on the pretext of discontent after having had intercourse with her, which was a legal and accepted method for prostitution in the Islamic world.

While slaves could be of different ethnicities, this did not exclude enslavers from categorizing slaves by their ethnic origin in to racial stereotypes. Ibn al-Khaṭīb classified female sex slaves by racial stereotypes:

"The Arabic women from the desert [are] well experienced, the houris of paradise with red colors, thin and slim waists, adorned necks, honey-colored lips, big eyes, characteristic perfume suitable for all natures, gentle movements, courteous spirits, kind meanings, dry vulvas, soft kisses, and a straight nose. The Maghribī women, with black hair, a kind face, sweet smile, honey-colored and very red lips with a dark shade, and wrists whose beauty is perfected by mirrors and the indigo drawing of the tattoo. The Christians, of diaphanous whiteness, movable breasts, thin bodies, balanced fat, superb flesh in a narrow build of brocades, bodies and backs embellished with beautiful jewels and gorgeous beads; they stand out for the peculiarity of being foreign and for how they blandish [...]."

The slave traders were known to prepare their slave girls in order to aquire the highest price for them at the slave market. A 12th-century document described how slave traders smeared female slaves of dark complexion with ointments and dyed the hair of brunettes "golden" (blonde) in order to appear lighter, and how they instructed slave girls to flirt to attract buyers. al-Saqati noted how slave traders dressed slave-girls in transparent clothing on public display in order to attract customers and adjusted the color of their clothing; black slave girls were dressed in yellow or red, while white girls where dressed in rose color (pink).

Female slaves were visible in public; while free Muslim women were expected to veil in public to signal their modesty and status as free women, slave women were expected to appear unveiled in public to differentiate them from free and modest women. Ibn Habib noted how Free Muslim women were prohibited from wearing revealing and transparent clothing, but that such clothing were worn in an intimate context; the Libro de los juegos claimed that Muslim women wore transparent tunics, which has been intepreted as the supposed freedom of Andalusian women, but such clothing was likely worn by slave women rather than Muslim women.

The use of female sex slaves of foreign ethnicity had unwanted consequences in the racialized society of al-Andalus, where Arab Muslims were considered to be the most high status ethnicity in the racial hierachy, followed by Berber Muslims, Christians, Jews and slaves. In order to achieve the status and privileges reserved for ethnic Arabs, such as tax reduction, many Andalusians forged their genealogy to appear pure blood Arab. The fact that the rulers of al-Andalus preferred and could afford to buy white European female sex slaves had the unwanted consequence that many Caliphs, who were sons of European slave concubines, became lighter in color for each generation; many Caliphs had fair complexion and blue eyes, and dyed their hair black in order to appear more stereotypically Arab.

====Royal harem {{See also|Abbasid harem|Safavid harem|Mughal Harem|Qajar harem|Ottoman Imperial Harem}

The harem system that developed in the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphate, illustrated by the Abbasid harem, was reproduced by the Islamic realms developing from them, such as in the Emirates and Caliphates in Muslim Spain, Al-Andalus, which attracted a lot of attention in Europe during the Middle Ages until the Emirate of Granada was conquered in 1492.

The most famous of the Andalusian harems was perhaps the harem of the Caliph of Cordoba. Except for the female relatives of the Caliph, the harem women consisted of his slave concubines. The slaves of the Caliph were often European saqaliba slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number offices such as: in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of harem guards, they were castrated), but female saqaliba were placed in the harem.

The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem of Abd al-Rahman I consisted of 6,300 women. The saqaliba concubines were appreciated for their light skin. The concubines (jawaris) were educated in accomplishments to make them attractive and useful for their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine. A jawaris concubine who gave birth to a child acknowledge by her enslaver as his attained the status of an umm walad, and a favorite concubine was given great luxury and honorary titles such as in the case of Marjan, who gave birth to al-Hakam II, the heir of Abd al-Rahman III; he called her al-sayyida al-kubra (great lady).

However, concubines were always slaves subjected the will of their master. Caliph Abd al-Rahman III is known to have executed two concubines for reciting what he saw as inappropriate verses, and tortured another concubine with a burning candle in her face while she was hold be two eunuchs after she refused sexual intercourse. The concubines of Abu Marwan al-Tubni (d. 1065) were reportedly so badly treated that they conspired to murder him; women of the harem were also known to have been subjected to rape when rivaling factions conquered different palaces. Several concubines were known to have had great influence through their masters or their sons, notably Subh during the Caliphate of Cordoba, and Isabel de Solís during the Emirate of Granada.

The Royal Nasrid Harem of the Emirate of Granada (1238-1492) was modelled after the former Royal Harem of Cordoba. The rulers of the Nasrid dynasty normally married their cousins, (al-hurra), who became their legal wives (zawŷ), but additionally bought enslaved concubines (ŷawārī, mamlūkāt); the concubines were normally Christian girls (rūmiyyas) kidnapped in slave raids to the Christian lands in the North. A concubine who gave birth to a child who was recognized by her enslaver as his, was given the status of ummahāt al-awlād, which meant she could no longer be sold and would be free (hurra) after the death of her enslaver. The mothers of both Yusuf I and Muhammad V had been captured Christian women, as had Rīm, enslaved by Yusuf I of Granada, and mother of Ismail II of Granada.

===Male slaves

In the Islamic world, male slaves could be used for a number of chores, but the main tasks were two. Either they were targeted for military slavery as slave soldiers; or they were subjected to castration and selected to serve in administration in our outside of the harem, tasks for which they were expected to be eunuchs.

Male slave children were normally taught Arabic and converted to Islam, and then selected to be trained in a future function chosen for them.

Non-castrated male children could be selected for military slavery: slave soldiers were an important part of Andalusian military. Free Arab soldiers were distrusted by the Islamic rulers and the custom of having a slave army is known in al-Andalus from at least Caliph Abd al-Rahman III's reign; as slaves, they were seen as more trustworthy, being dependent on the protective patronage of the ruler. The Caliph al-Hakam (r. 796-822) are known to have had a personal guard of "mutes" slave soldiers, called mute because they were not taught Arabic and thus unable to communicate.

A ready market, especially for men of fighting age, could be found in Umayyad Spain, with its need for supplies of new mamelukes.

Al-Hakam was the first monarch of this family who surrounded his throne with a certain splendour and magnificence. He increased the number of mamelukes (slave soldiers) until they amounted to 5,000 horse and 1,000 foot. ... he increased the number of his slaves, eunuchs and servants; had a bodyguard of cavalry always stationed at the gate of his palace and surrounded his person with a guard of mamelukes .... these mamelukes were called Al-haras (the Guard) owing to their all being Christians or foreigners. They occupied two large barracks, with stables for their horses.

During the reign of Abd-ar-Rahman III (912–961), there were at first 3,750, then 6,087, and finally 13,750 Saqaliba, or Slavic slaves, at Córdoba, capital of the Umayyad Caliphate. Ibn Hawqal, Ibrahim al-Qarawi, and Bishop Liutprand of Cremona note that the Jewish merchants of Verdun specialized in castrating slaves, to be sold as eunuch saqaliba, which were enormously popular in Muslim Spain.

Male children could be trained to fill numerous domestic and other tasks, such as being in charge of offices of the Palace kitchen, the falconry, mint, and textile workshops, and in the libraries; the brother of the slave concubine Subh are known to have been placed in the Royal workshop. Male children could also be selected to be trained to serve the diwan as administrative state bureaucrat offices.

Castrated children could be selected to serve as guards or other functions inside a harem.

See also

• [[Radhanite
• [[Tribute of 100 virgins
• [[Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
• [[Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
• [[Crimean slave trade
• [[Barbary slave trade
• [[History of slavery in the Muslim world
• [[History of concubinage in the Muslim world
• [[Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people

References

• Muhammad Abdullah Enan, The State of Islam in Andalusia, Vol. I: The 'Amarite state.[9]
• Carlos Dominguez, Leader of the Jihad: Almanzor against the Christian Kingdoms.[10]
• Simon Barton, Conquerors, Brides, and Concubines, Interfaith Relations and Social Power in Medieval Iberia.[11]

[[Category:Slavery in Spain [[Category:Slavery in Portugal [[Category:Islam and slavery [[Category:Slavery in al-Andalus [[Category:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate [[Category:Slave raids