User:Bookku/Indian sceptre

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  • Tamil sceptre செங்கோல் to English Sengol transliteration is also spelt as Senkol, Cenkol Cengol also check for Ch. ; talaikkol
  • राजदंड , राजदण्ड , Rajdanda
  • Sceptre, Scepter, staff, stake
  • This draft article needs help in updating from Tamil language sources from Google scholar or Google books and pre-2023 (per-controversy) reliable Tamil language media / news papers.
  • This draft article has been mostly updated for Tamil Nadu related sources since usage of sceptre remained for longer time in South India since they had free kingdoms longest time. This draft article needs help in expansion with regard to rest of India related sources and sceptre on Indian coinage.
A 6/7 century sculpture of Hindu deity Brahma from Hucchappayya gudi Aihole, presently located at CSMVS museum Mumbai

Indian sceptre is known as danda (दण्ड sanskrit) or Sengol (செங்கோல் Tamil). [1] Earliest ancient literary mentions of danda are found in Mahabharata where as mentions of Sengol are found in Tirukkural.[2][3][4]

Indian sceptre images are found on early Indian literature on governance, coinage, medieval sculptures and early modern paintings and murals. Mentions of Indian sceptres are found in Indian literature, culture and modern studies. Until India's independence sceptres were part of royal regalia of Indian princes as marker of their authority and justice. In modern political realms usage of sceptre has found some political following and apprehensions both.

Etymologies and mythology[edit]

According to dictionary of lexicographer V. S. Apte describes Sanskrit word 'danda' in Hindi as 'Yashtika', 'Tadan" and 'Rajchinha' as symbol of state's authority. [5]


According to P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, one of the word for 'king' in Tamil is 'Kon' கோன் is likely to be of pastoral origin which mean herdsman too.[6] Iyengar notes, word 'Kon' may be derived from 'kol' which is stake to control cattle and sheep ultimately became symbol of authority.[6] According to Alf Hiltebeitel, community name Konar is a regional name for Yadava, the caste to which Krishna belongs.[7] Several Vaishnavite texts associate Krishna with the Aayar caste, or Konar, most notably the Thiruppavai, composed by goddess Andal herself, most notably referring Krishna as the “Aayar kulathu mani vilakke”. The caste name is interchangeable with the names Konar and Kovalar being derived from Tamil word Kōn, which can mean "king" and "herdsmen".[8][9] The word might be derived from the from Tamil word kōl, a herdsman's staff.[8] The Tamil word kōl also means a king's sceptre.[10][11] (Refs in Para forked from article Konar (caste) still to be verified)

Etymology of ‘Sengol’ is said to be from Tamil word 'Senmai' meaning righteousness.[12] Alternatively spelt as senkol may have been derived from semmaiyana kol ( செம் ..) meaning a virtuous staff or It may may be shortened form of senkuthana kol ( .. ) meaning as a perpendicular staff. [13] According to C. Nagalingam of Sri Lanka's National Museum, it is quite possible that the idea of senkol ( செங்கோல் ) may have had it's origin in ship's mast since a ship's captain in Thondai Manaru had to have high sense of justice and his stake used to represent the same.[13]

‘Sengol’ finds mention in ancient Tamil literature like Purananooru, Kurunthogai, Perumpaanatrupadai, and Kalithogai. [14] According to Justice David Annousamy in his chapter 'Human rights and the Indian psych';Tirukkural a non-religious Tamil text (dated any thing before 5th century AD) lays down principles of right sceptre (Sengol) i.e. good justice, and also what will be termed as bad sceptre (ruler) [15]

Terence Day, says in early Indian literature, 'Danda' is personified and deified as lord of public order.[16] According to Terence Day, Krishna in Bhagavad Gita claims "..दण्डो दमयतामस्मि.." - of the punishers I am the sceptre-". [17] While referring to Indian indologist and Sanskrit scholar P.V. Kane, Day says, Nitisara (2.15) mentions that ".. 'dama' is called 'danda'- also as per Vijnanesvara in Mitaksara on Yajnvalkya, word 'dama' meaning punishment itself is the root of the word 'Danda'-; the king is called danda since control is centered in him, the rules and policy (niti) of danda are called dandaniti..".[16] According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, in Adiparva of Mahabharat (chapter 143), diplomat Kanika, on the topic of overcoming enemies, advises king Dhrtarastra that “.. Kings should ever be ready with upraised sceptre and they should ever extend their prowess carefully avoiding all faults of theirs; they should ceaselessly watch for the faults of other. .." [18] In Samudra Manthana (churning of milky ocean) version of Balakanda of Valmiki Ramayana, sage Dhanvantari appears with a Dadna staff and Kamandalu water pot.[19] [20][additional citation(s) needed] Mani, Vettam, and Veṭṭaṃmāṇi. Purāṇic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Purāṇic Literature. India, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975.





According to Day in Manusmruti (7.14) Danda is personified as Brahma's son where as, as per Mbh. Shantiparva Danda is manifestation of Brahma to establish duties and to protect the world; this 'Dadna' punishes all delinquent while protecting peace living persons, and in Manusmriti is described as "..Danda remains awake when everybody else is fast asleep hence wise call Danda as Dharma itself". Day says personification of Danda in Shantiparva of Mahabharata makes complete deification of the Danda sceptre. Shantiparva of Mahabharata (12.59.78) (in Kane's word) states that, "this world is led (on the right path) by danda (power of punishment, sanction) or this science carries (or sets forth) the rod of punishment; hence it is called dandaniti". [16] Day says in Adhyaya (Chapter) 121 of Shantiparva (Mbh.) Danda's attributes and powers are presented in form of duality, described as "..blessings and curse, .. righteousness and unrighteousness, desire and aversion, .. salvation and condemnation .. merit and demerit, .. virtue and vice, .. etc. etc."[16] According to Mahabharata 8.24.79 Brahmdanda is referred among Shiva's weapons.[21]


According to Peter Harvey, professor of Buddhist studies, in pre-Buddhist India, Vajra used to signify as powerful sceptre of Indra, the king of Vedic gods.[22] Harvey says Buddhism idealized mind to be like powerful Vajra for Arhats.[22] In Mahayana tenth stage of Buddhisatva is expected to be Vajra like meditative state, hence in Buddhism Vajra signified as spiritually awankened mind .[22] According to Upinder Singh, in early medieval period Vajrayana branch of Tantric Buddhism came ahead which had elements of meditation, magic and ritual; vajra-sceptre along with bell also formed important instruments in their tantric worship.[23] According to Axel Michaels in Buddhism Vajra-spectre denotes ever lasting strength of Buddha's teachings [24]


Application of Sceptre mythology for legitimization;

According to the Hindu, a story about the queen goddess Meenakshi of Madurai giving the sengol to the Tamil Nayaka kings is mentioned in texts called Puranas.[14] According to Gita V. Pai, to claim of being the legitimate inheritor of previous Pandya rulers and also the legitimate representative sharing sovereignty with the divine queen Minakshi of Madurai; Tirumala Nayaka introduced a ritual where in priests handed over a sengol sceptre from deity to the Tirumala to keep physically on his palace throne and return back the same next morning. [25] [26]

According to Anna Lise Seastrand, Golden Lotus pond wall surrounding the Meenakshi-Sundareshwara temple has 17th century murals, in spite of having some palimpsestic concerns, still significant to art historians for studies in art and history. Among murals at west side of Golden Lotus pond wall of Parrot Cage hall surrounding the Meenakshi-Sundareshwara temple in Madurai; an image, in the lowest register of the panel, depicts the queen regent Mangaammal (r. 1689- 1706) to have received the royal sengol from the goddess Meenakshi, through a male intermediary who stands before her, as metaphor of sovereignty being transferred from the goddess to the queen regent. Another image on opposite side balcony depicts one more king being handed over a sceptre by the goddess Meenakshi, Seastrand speculates that this image may be conversational indicating dynasty of rulers being handed over sceptre of devine authority from goddess Meenakshi. [27]

A mural painting of a sengol to a Tamil Nayaka king is displayed at 18th century Ramalinga Vilasam palace museum.(Link: Draft:Ramalinga Vilasam palace) [citation needed][28] [29]

In another early 18th century painting in Vilasam palace museum Muthu Vijaya Raghunath Sethupati is depicted with cenkol in his right hand while receiving three European probably Dutch envoys.[30] In another painting Muthu Vijaya Raghunath Sethupati is shown receiving cenkol from their tutelary deity Rajrajeshwari.[30]

  • Orr, Leslie C., and Leslie C. Orr Assistant Professor of Religion Concordia University, Quebec. Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God: Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu. Ukraine, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN: 9780195356724 - pp 61-62 and 220-221. Search talaikkol Sceptre ; https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/story-of-courtesans-urvashi-and-madhavi/article19055032.ece ; Talaikkol ref to be searched in shodhganga.; Pukārkkāṇṭam - Cilappatikāram; https://www.jstor.org/stable/41152424 ; Dikshitar, V. R. Ramachandra. War in Ancient India. India, Cosmo, 1999. p 165. ; Eraly, Abraham. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. India, Viking, Penguin Books India, 2011. p. 679
  • According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, Among the spoils of war winnners used to gather the king's umbrellas in the battle-field. Dikshitar says In the old Tamil literary works we are informed that often the umbrella sticks and the flag staff recovered from the enemy became the talaikkol used by dancing girls in Tamil Nadu. [31]


According to Gananath  Obeyesekere (Professor of Anthropology at Princeton University), Sinhalese poetical work Pandi Naluva (the beuty of Pandi's town) and Amarasaya (The taste of Ambrosia) describe kings person and city in detail, the King is described as 'sakviti' meaning chakravarti and sceptre and parasol etc are king's attributes.p335 [32]

TA:செல்லத்தம்மன், கண்ணகி கோயில் Chellathamman tantyutan - சூலாயுதம்  kulyutan p540 note 4

According to Roshen Dalal, Nandanar, a Nayanar saint, specially worshipped in the Tamil month of Purattasi in the Hindu sect of Shaivism, is depicted with a shaved head, folded hands with a kamandalu and a danda (staff). [33] verify According to art historian Grace Morley, philosopher Ramanuja's iconography shows him with a sceptre denoting his lordship.[34]



According to K.K. Rao in Global Encyclopaedia of the South Indian Dalit's Ethnography (Volume 2. 2006. Ed. Nagendra Kr Singh) a community named 'Koliyan ' also variously named as Vadirian or Vathiriayan mainly residing in Tiruneveli, Chidambarnar, Kanyakumari and Ramnathpuram districts of Tamil Nadu identifies themselves as keepers of Senkol of Chola dynasty and as per them word koliyan is derived from 'Senkol'. [35]


  • By Dr. G.P. Bhatt, Dr. N.A. Deshpande · 2013 The Padma-Purana Part 1: Ancient Indian Tradition and Mythology Volume 39. N.p., Motilal Banarsidass, 2013. ISBN: 9788120839069, 8120839064 Chapter 1-19.Stanza 304-306 P. 271
  • Puranas sceptre Padma-Purana; Agni Purana -Dr S.P. Bhagat · 2016, B.K. Chaturvedi · 2021; The Brahma Purana Part 1: ,The Bhagavata-Purana Page 190 Part 4: Page 1425 ; The Brahmanda Purana Part 3: Page 801 Ancient Indian Tradition and Ancient Indian Tradition and Ancient Indian Tradition and ... - J.L. Shastri · 2013; Markandeya Purana



*

Coinage[edit]

Coin of Machene, Queen of Maues. Obv. Tyche, wearing mural crown. Legend ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΘEOTPOΠOY MAXHNHΣ "Godlike Queen Machene". Rev. Zeus with Nike, legend "Rajatirajasa mahatasa Moasa" in Kharoshthi "Great king of kings, Maues". Maues/ Moga Era Coin P 375
Vima Takto
Kushan emperor
Bronze coin of Vima Takto, alias "Soter Megas" (r. c. 80–90 CE).

Obv: Bust of Vima Takto, with Greek royal headband and radiate, holding sceptre; three-pronged tamgha behind.

Rev: Mounted king with Greek royal headband, holding a sceptre. Three-pronged tamgha; corrupted Greek legend ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΩΝ ΣΩΤΗΡ ΜΕΓΑΣ "Basileu Basileuon Soter Megas": "The King of Kings, Great Saviour".
Reign80–90 CE
PredecessorKujula Kadphises
SuccessorVima Kadphises
HouseKushan

Sceptre are found on Indian coinage in reigns of Indo-Scythian Saka-Moga, Kushans (Huvishka,Vima Takto, Vima Kadphises), Samudragupta, Pandyans, Saptkarni. [citation needed]

The region in modern Afghanistan and Iran where the Saka moved to became known as "land of the Saka" or Sakastan.[36] This is attested in a contemporary Kharosthi inscription found on the Mathura lion capital belonging to the Saka kingdom of the Indo-Scythians (200 BC – 400 AD) in northern India,[36] The most famous Indo-Scythian king was Maues.[37] also called 𐨨𐨆𐨒 Mo-ga, Moga on the Taxila copper plate;[38] also called 𐨨𐨅𐨬𐨐𐨁 𐨨𐨁𐨩𐨁𐨐 Me-va-ki Mi-yi-ka, Mevaki Miyika in the Mathura lion capital inscription,[39][40]) was the first Indo-Scythian king, ruling from 98/85 to 60/57 BCE.[41] He invaded India and established Saka hegemony by conquering Indo-Greek territories.[42] The Sakas extend their power up to Mathura during his reign.[43] Maues issued joint coins mentioning a queen Machene ("ΜΑΧΗΝΗ"). Machene may have been a daughter of one of the Indo-Greek houses.[44]

According to Upinder Singh Indo-Scythian king was Maues.( 98/85 – 60/57 BCE) also named Moga on some of minted coins depicted the image of god Zeus having sceptre in his left hand and goddess of victory Nike on his right hand with descriptive text in Kharosthi script. [45]

In Samudragupta's regular coins he is shown with a long staff which may be a Sceptre or also a javelin or a spear too [46]

  • Upinder Singh , A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century (PB). India, Pearson India, 2009. ISBN: 9789332569966 pp XIII, ChapterEight: 369 , 375 [45], Ch.Nine 479,
  • The Journal Of The Numismatic Society Of India
  • Umakant Premanand Shah Shah, Umakant Premanand. Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana. India, Abhinav Publications, 1987. p 261.
  • Another coin of Huvishka holding a scepter, with, on the reverse, deity Serapis (ϹΑΡΑΠΟ, "Sarapo")
    Another coin of Huvishka holding a scepter, with, on the reverse, deity Serapis (ϹΑΡΑΠΟ, "Sarapo")
  • Coin of Huvishka. Obverse: ϷΑΟΝΑΝΟϷΑΟ ΟΟΗϷΚΙ ΚΟϷΑΝΟ (Shaonanoshao Ooishki Koshano, "King of kings, Huvishka the Kushan"). Reverse: Herakles with legend ΗΡΑΚΙΛΟ (Erakilo).
    Coin of Huvishka. Obverse: ϷΑΟΝΑΝΟϷΑΟ ΟΟΗϷΚΙ ΚΟϷΑΝΟ (Shaonanoshao Ooishki Koshano, "King of kings, Huvishka the Kushan"). Reverse: Herakles with legend ΗΡΑΚΙΛΟ (Erakilo).
  • Possible depiction of "Roma Aeterna". The legend has been variously read Riom (Greek: ΡΙΟΜ), or more recently Rishti (Greek: ΡΙϷΤ).
    Possible depiction of "Roma Aeterna". The legend has been variously read Riom (Greek: ΡΙΟΜ), or more recently Rishti (Greek: ΡΙϷΤ).

Sculpture[edit]

6th century Brahma on Cave 3 ceiling, Badami Hindu cave temple Karnataka

According to archaeologists Ch. Babjirao and E. Sivanagireddy, a carved sculpture of Sengol sceptre can be found in a Pattadakal Virupaksha temple dated around 745 CE.[1][47] Note: The comparative image can be observed in TV 9 Kannada news report. At, claimed to be 789 AD, Srivilliputhur Andal temple Emperuman Rangamannar stands with a Sengol in his right hand.[48] Exterior walls of 1117 CE Keshava temple of Belur depict Brahma with spectre in one of the hand.[49][50]

Mathura statue of Kanishka
The Kanishka statue in the Mathura Museum. Right hand of the statue holds a sceptre or mace.[51] There is a dedicatory inscription along the bottom of the coat.
The inscription is in middle Brahmi script:

Mahārāja Rājadhirāja Devaputra Kāṇiṣka
"The Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, Kanishka".[52]
Mathura art, Mathura Museum

According to German art historian Hermann Goetz, Chamba State now part of northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh, have had ancient wooden temple carvings of deities holding scepters. [53]

Sculptures of god Shiva depicted with 8 arms, dancing Sathura and Santhiya Thandavam as seen on the exterior facade of the Ganesha Sri Senpaga Vinayagar Temple in Singapore

Vadakkunnathan Temple , Thrissur has Nataraja mural painting holding a prominent long staff, according to Vijayaraghavan S. Nayar · 1998 this image has 18 hands where as later archeology study by Nambirajan, M., and Suresh, S.. suggests the Nataraja image to have 20 hands and these mural paintings are likely to be 350 years old. [54] [55]

* Ananda Coomaraswamy Coomaraswamy, Editor: Richard J. Cohen, Ananda Kentish. Essays on Jaina Art. India, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, ISBN: 9788173045349. 2003. Fig. 33 p 86.

Inscriptions[edit]

A royal charter issued by the Chera Perumal king of Kerala Bhaskara Ravi-varman, on a copper plate, to Joseph Rabban, a Jewish merchant magnate of Kodungallur any thing before 1000 CE mentions the king as sceptre wielder.[56][57] [58]


Literature[edit]

Silappatikaram in sculpture in Poompuhar museum.

The codes of the just and the cruel sceptre are found in the ancient Tamil work of Tirukkural, dated before 5th century CE. In its chapters 55 (Sengol) and 56 (Kondungol), the text deals with the just and the cruel sceptre, respectively, furthering the thought on the ethical behaviour of the ruler discussed in many of the preceding and the following chapters.[59] The ancient treatise says it was not the king's spear but the just sceptre, known as "Sengol" in Tamil, that bound him to his people—and to the extent that he guarded them, his own good rule would guard him.[60]

The Tamil language epic Silappatikaram - authored by the Sangam poet Ilango Adigal - depicts a tragedy of a miscarriage of justice by king Nedunjeliyan I mistakenly giving capital punishment to an innocent person for the theft he did not do. Died person's wife the protagonist Kannagi turns up at Nedunjeliyan I's court asking for justice; as the king realizes injustice has happened he dies broken heart along with his queen consort Kopperundevi. Due to curse of Kannagi capital city Madurai of Nedunjeliyan I. too burns. Finally goddess Minakshi pacifies anger of Kannagi. While this epic poem story takes shape in between the queen is depicted of having a bad dream in her sleep, in which king's sceptre fells down; since in Tamil literary and cultural simbolism of sceptre imposes responsibility of virtuous right justice on the King. [61][62] [63] [64]








Political culture and practices[edit]

Royal courts consisting of executive or administrative councils addressing issues of public concern and adjudicating cases, as well as ceremonial gatherings held by Indian Kings or of a princely state were called durbar.[65] [66] According to Jackson & Jaffer (2009, p. 82) Indian princes used to manifest their authority through grandeur display of 'sacred objects which included king's adornments like crowns, weapons etc and also royal regalia like thrones and sceptre in their durbar and processions rather than just pronouncements and edicts'. [67]

In modern era, Tamil political culture Sengol have had significant value. New rulers or politicians taking charge are presented or gifted with a ‘sengol’ as a reminder of “aanai” (order or decree) with an expectation of a just and fair rule.[68][69] According to Derrett and Duncan though role of sengol and concept of justice were vaguely understood, still was not impractical since historically subjects of the rulers were aware of kind of considerations to be expected beyond abstract principles of law [70]

While Udaiyan Setupathi of Ramnad principality got autonomy from their principal Nayaka kingdom of Madurai in 1605, Setupathis went on to acquire cenkol sceptre from priests of Rameshwaram to legitimize next step of claim to Kingship in 1608.[71]

In 1986 AIADMK Madurai conference M.G.Ramchandran and J. Jayalalithaa were photographed with a sengol;[72][73] Karunanidhi was also photographed with a sengol .[74][additional citation(s) needed] [75]

In Popular culture[edit]

Shearer, Alistair. The Story of Yoga: From Ancient India to the Modern West. United Kingdom, C Hurst & Company (Publishers) Limited, 2020. [76]

* Choondal, Chummar. Christian Theatre in India. India, Kerala Folklore Academy, 1984.

[77]

See also[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

  • Thirukural Transileration. N.p., Sura Books. Page 141
  • Thirukkural - Explained: திருக்குறள் உரைகள் தொகுப்பு. N.p., Mukil E Publishing And Solutions Private Limited, 2015. Couplet 390
  • Ravishankar, P. “VALLUVAR AND THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE.” The Indian Journal of Political Science, vol. 71, no. 1, 2010, pp. 115–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42748372.
  • Dimensions in Indian History. India, Anamika Publishers & Distributors, 2005.ISBN: 9788179750933
  • Agrawal, Vashudeva Sharan. Mata Bhoomi. India, Prabhat Prakashan, 2020. ISBN: 9789353229443
  • Miscellaneous Inscriptions from the Tamil Country. India, superintendent, Government Press, 1899.
  • Mishra, Kaushal Kishore. “THE STUDY OF ANCIENT INDIAN POLITICAL TRADITIONS.” The Indian Journal of Political Science, vol. 65, no. 1, 2004, pp. 9–20. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41855793. .
  • Oguibénine, Boris. Revue de l’histoire Des Religions, vol. 211, no. 1, 1994, pp. 121–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23671457. Language French confirm

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b "'Sengol, the Rajadanda, is a 1300 years old tradition'". The Hindu. 2023-05-27. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-06-11. .. The antiquity of Sengol, the Rajadanda, .. .. said archaeologists Ch. Babjirao and E. Sivanagireddy, .. the Sengol — originally called Nandi Dhwaja — is seen in the left hand of Siva-Nataraja sculpture carved on the southern wall of Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal, a world Heritage site in Karnataka. The temple was built in 745 CE by Lokamahadevi, queen of Badami Chalukyan Emperor Vikramaditya-II (733-45CE). It was regarded as symbol of power by many dynasties in subsequent periods in South India, they explained. ..
  2. ^ Garg, Sushma (2004). "Political Ideas of Shanti Parva". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 65 (1): 77–86. ISSN 0019-5510. .. The 59th chapter of Shantiparva deals with danda and dandniti. ..
  3. ^ Ravishankar, P. (2010). "Valluvar and the Concept of Governance". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 71 (1): 115–122. ISSN 0019-5510. .. ... great king who wields the scepter ("Sengol") for his subjects welfare, ..
  4. ^ Day, Terence Patrick (1982). The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature (SR/2 - 2006 ed.). Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 58, 60. ISBN 9780889208384.
  5. ^ Apte, Vaman Shivram (2007). Sanskrit-Hindi Kosh Raj Sanskaran (in Hindi). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Limited. pp. 445, 446. ISBN 9788120820975.
  6. ^ a b Srinivas Iyengar, Pillaipundagudi Tiruvenga (1995). History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 A.D (4. AES repr; Reprint der Aufl. Madras : C. Coomaraswamy Naidu ed.). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. pp. 10, . ISBN 978-81-206-0145-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  7. ^ Alf Hiltebeitel. The cult of Draupadī: Mythologies : from Gingee to Kurukserta, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe, 1991 - 487 pages. p. 91.
  8. ^ a b Allchin, Frank Raymond (1963). Neolithic Cattle-keepers of South India. Cambridge University. p. 101.
  9. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (1988). The Cult of Draupadi. University of Chicago Press. p. 35. ISBN 9780226340463.
  10. ^ Katir Makātēvan̲. Cultural heritage of ancient Tamils. Lakshmi Publications, 1981. p. 65.
  11. ^ N. Subrahmanian. Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils. Asia Pub. House, 1966. p. 71.
  12. ^ N., Sai Charan (2023-05-24). "The Sengol — A historic sceptre with a deep Tamil Nadu connection". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-06-12. .. 'Sengol' is derived from Tamil word 'semmai', which means righteousness. ..
  13. ^ a b C., NAGALINGAM (January 1955). NAYAGAM, THANI; S., Rev. Dr. XAVIER (eds.). "The Pallavas, their origin and their title " Videlvidugu "". Tamil Culture. , , 1955. p.255. VOL . IV : NO . 1. Academy of Tamil Culture (published JANUARY , 1955). ISBN 978-93-85165-04-7. .. The master of the ship is therefore an absolute ruler and the crew has to give him implicit obedience . The founda tion for this relationship lies in the high sense of justice of the master as also in his professional efficiency . He should maintain strict impartiality among his crew . .. In olden days it was not an unusual sight in Thondai manaru for one to see an old captain or a sailor seated on the sandy beach and hold forth on the subject of justice pointing to his walking stick planted perpendicularly in the sea sand . .. One wonders whether the idea of the sceptre which in Tamil is called senkol ( செங்கோல் ) had its origin in the ship s mast . The word senkol is explained by Tamil Scholars as semmaiyana kol ( செம் ..) which means a virtuous staff . It may well be that the word senkol is the shortened form of senkuthana kol ( .. ) which means a perpendicular staff . The special virtue or attribute of justice lies in its uprightness or standing without slanting to any side . .. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |access-date= and |publication-date= (help); line feed character in |quote= at position 62 (help); line feed character in |title= at position 28 (help)
  14. ^ a b N., Sai Charan (2023-05-24). "The Sengol — A historic sceptre with a deep Tamil Nadu connection". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-06-12. .. .. texts such as the Purananooru, Kurunthogai, Perumpaanatrupadai, and Kalithogai. A puranic story also mentions the deity Madurai Meenakshi Amman giving the sceptre to the Nayaka kings .... ..
  15. ^ Annousamy (Justice), David (2005). "Human rights and the Indian psych (Chapter 5)". In Suryanarayana Sastry, Tamma (ed.). India and human rights: reflections (1. publ ed.). New Delhi: Concept Publ. ISBN 978-81-8069-204-8. .. Thirukurral .. does not claim the authority of any religion; is based on reason. .. In part III of his book .. he deals with the relations between the king and the people. More particularly in three chapters devoted respectively to the kingly greatness, the right sceptre, and the cruel sceptre he enunciates the duties of the king and insists upon perfect justice and the necessity of rule of law. ..
  16. ^ a b c d Day, Terence Patrick (1982). The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature (SR/2 - 2006 ed.). Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 57–63. ISBN 9780889208384.
  17. ^ Day, Terence Patrick (1982). The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature (SR/2 - 2006 ed.). Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780889208384. ..though in Bhagavad Gita (10.38) it is simply niti -- tranlatable as statecraft -- and is presented as personalization of Krsna in the statement, "of punishers I am the sceptre" .. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |postscript= at position 73 (help)
  18. ^ Dikshitar, V. R. Ramachandra (1944). "VIII Diplomacy and war Section i: History of Diplomacy". War in Ancient India. MADRAS,'BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, LONDON: MACMILLAN. AND CO. LIMITED. pp. 302, . ISBN 9788170208945. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |chapter= at position 25 (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  19. ^ "Handbook of Hindu mythology". Choice Reviews Online. 41 (09): 41–5003a-41-5003a. 2004-05-01. doi:10.5860/choice.41-5003a. ISSN 0009-4978.
  20. ^ Williams, George M. (27 March 2008). Handbook of Hindu Mythology. USA: OUP USA. pp. 116. 117. ISBN 9780195332612.
  21. ^ Yokochi, Yuko (28 October 2013). The Skandapurāṇa III Adhyayas 34.1-61, 53-69: The Vindhyavāsinī Cycle. Brill. p. 84. ISBN 9789004269057. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |title= at position 21 (help)
  22. ^ a b c Harvey, Peter (2013). An introduction to Buddhism: teachings, history and practices (2. ed ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  23. ^ Singh, Upinder (2009). "10. Emerging regional configurations C.600 -1200 CE". A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson India. p. 606. ISBN 9789332569966. ..Tantric Buddhism was known as Vajrayana (Literally thunderbolt or diamond vehicle). The thunderbolt and diamond both symbolized power and strength, characteristic of a person who had attained siddhi (enlightenment). The Vajra-sceptre and bell were important paraphernalia of Vajrayana ..
  24. ^ Michaels, Axel (2021). "Nepal in history of South Asian religions -". In Jacobsen, Knut A. (ed.). Routledge handbook of South Asian religions. Routledge handbooks. Abingdon New York (N.Y.): Routledge. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-367-15077-8. .. From King Pratap Malla (1641-74) comes large vajra (Tibetan dorje) on a large mandala in the east dated 1667.. In Hindu mythology, vajra is a thunderbolt weapon of Indra, but in Buddhism, it is more of a diamond sceptre and symbol of indistructibility of Buddha's teachings.
  25. ^ Pai, Gita V. (30 November 2022). "Co-opting a local goddess in Madurai: From warrior queen to Siva's consort in political pawn (pp 53-90)". Architecture of Sovereignty Stone Bodies, Colonial Gazes, and Living Gods in South India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 63–66. ISBN 9781009174770. .. Tirumala (Nayaka) portrayed himself as legitimate inheritor of the Pandyan regent through seasonal temple rituals that performed an exchange of the sovereignty between the goddess and the king. Tirumala expanded the wedding festival by including a recreation of Minakshi"s royal coronation (pattabhishekam) in front of the goddess shrine ... and participating in it. The king arrived at the temple .. after the priests finished the puja (worship) and adorned Minakshi's portable metal image with her coronation crown and the royal scepter (cenkol) .. Echoing ceremonies in which Tirumala's Nayaka ancestors linked themselves to the Pandyan kings the supplanted, the priests Tirumala the cenkol, the symbol of Minakshi's divine rule. Tirumala carried the scepter to his palace .. and placed the scepter on his own throne. There the scepter was propitiated before returning to the temple the following morning. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help); line feed character in |title= at position 28 (help)
  26. ^ Seastrand,, Anna Lise (Oct 17 2022). Ray, Himanshu Prabha; Kulshreshtha, Salila; Suvrathan, Uthara (eds.). Methods for murals:Temple painting in southeastern india (Chapter 10). Taylor and Francis. ISBN 9781000785814. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |work= ignored (help); Check date values in: |access-date= and |publication-date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  27. ^ Seastrand,, Anna Lise (Oct 17 2022). Ray, Himanshu Prabha; Kulshreshtha, Salila; Suvrathan, Uthara (eds.). Methods for murals:Temple painting in southeastern india (Chapter 10). Taylor and Francis. pp. 189, 190. doi:10.4324/9781003097709. ISBN 9781000785814. .. murals that adorn the walls surrounding the .. temple pond at the Meenakshi-Sundareshwara temple in Madurai known as Golden Lotus tank..thought originally to have painted some time in 17th century... one example thought to date the reign of queen Mangaammal (r. 1689- 1706) remains on the west side of the temple tank, in what is known as the Parrot Cage hall, built in 1623. Although the paintings have been touched up over the years, the main image remains of great interest to the historians as it depicts the queen who ruled as regent when her infant grandson inherited the throne. In the lowest register of the panel. the goddess Meenakshi, seated in a throne, hands the royal sceptre to Mangammal through a male intermediary who stands before her, indicating transfer of soverginity from the goddess to the queen regent. .. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |work= ignored (help); Check date values in: |access-date= and |publication-date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  28. ^ Branfoot, Crispin (30 June 2018). Branfoot, Crispin (ed.). Performing kingship in the. USA: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 177. ISBN 9781838608972. Chapter 7 Heroic rulers and devoted servants, Performing kingship in the Tamil temples. " .. Sethupathis are evident not only in.. but also their increasing patronage of the great temple at Rameshwaram and the celebration of Navratri ('Nine nights') in 1670s. The later festival was the most important public royal ritual in the Vijayanagar empire and it's successor states, focusing on the reigning king and the annual revitalisation of his kingship and his realm. Emerging from beneath the shadow of subservience to the Madurai Nayakas, portraiture was used to declare the Sethupatis new royal status. Portaiture in the temple and palace project the king as a heroic ruler and devoted servant of God, as well as a ruler enjoying courtly life. .. All these aspects of early modern ideology in south India are presented in the wall paintings of Ramlinga Vilasam. These paintings date .. proabably c. 1715-1725... . Muthu Vijaya Ragunatha Sethupati (r.1710-25) .... . In Ina another scene he is shown seated with the royal sceptre (cenkol) in his right hand along with his wife to receive three Europeans - probably Dutch - envoys. .. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help); line feed character in |work= at position 44 (help)
  29. ^ Chauhan, Alind (2023-05-28). "Manu S Pillai on Sengol: For some, rediscovery is cultural renascence, for others, political Hinduisation of a national symbol". The Indian Express. Retrieved 2023-06-12. .. Among the Madurai Nayakas, for example, the sengol was placed before the goddess Meenakshi in the great temple on important occasions, and then transferred to the throne room, representing the king's role as a divine agent. It was also, therefore, a legitimising instrument: the Sethupatis of Ramnad, for instance, when they first attained kingly status in the seventeenth century acquired a ritually sanctified sengol from priests of the Rameswaram temple. It marked the ruler's accountability to the deity in the exercise of power, as well as his graduation from chiefly status to a more exalted kingly plane. .. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 227 (help)
  30. ^ a b Branfoot, Crispin (30 June 2018). Branfoot, Crispin (ed.). Heroic rulers and devoted servants, performing kingship in Tamil temple. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 177, 178. ISBN 9781838608972. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  31. ^ Dikshitar, V. R. Ramachandra (1944). "VIII Diplomacy and war Section i: History of Diplomacy". War in Ancient India. MADRAS,'BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, LONDON: MACMILLAN. AND CO. LIMITED. pp. 165, . ISBN 9788170208945. .. Besides flags, umbrellas ( chattra, atapatra) and fans were a part of the paraphernalia of the war chariot. The umbrella, which was a prominent feature of all festive occasions, was also seen in the field of action. It was often of white material, the stick some times being golden.40 Among the spoils of war one had to gather the umbrellas in the battle-field. In the old Tamil literary works we are told that often the umbrella sticks and the flag staff recovered from the enemy became the talaikkol used by dancing girls in Tamil India.41 This only indicates that the ancient Tamils attached as much importance to these paraphernalia as their northern brethren. .. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |chapter= at position 25 (help); line feed character in |quote= at position 54 (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  32. ^ Obeyesekere, Gananath (1987) [1984]. Written at The University of Chicago, 1984. The cult of the goddess Pattini (1. Indian ed ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 334–335, 540–541. ISBN 978-81-208-0213-1. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location (link)
  33. ^ Roshen Dalal (2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. pp. 68, 271, 281. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
  34. ^ Morley, Grace (2005). Sengupta, Arputha Rani (ed.). God & King, the Devarāja Cult in South Asian Art and Architecture Proceedings of the Seminar, 2001. New Delhi, India: National Museum Institute. p. 21. ISBN 9788189233266. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |title= at position 66 (help)
  35. ^ Rao, K.K. (2006). Singh, Nagendra Kr (ed.). Koliyan Dalit Community of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Vol. 2. New Delhi, India: Global Vision Publishing House. pp. 355–356. ISBN 978-81-8220-167-5. The koliyanm also known as Vadiriyan or Vathiriayan inhibit the Tiruneveli, Chidambarnar, Kanyakumari and Ramnathpuram districts of Tamil Nadu. Thurston (1909) quoting 1901 Census report, writes that the Koliyan are a weaver caste, the member of which were originally Paraiyans, .. . They say that they were persons who used to keep the Senkol (Pole of justice) of the kings of Chola dynasty, and thus word Koliyan is derived from Senkol. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  36. ^ a b Bailey 1983.
  37. ^ Bivar, A. D. H. "KUSHAN DYNASTY i. Dynastic History". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved August 31, 2018.
  38. ^ Konow 1929, pp. xxix, 23-29, 45.
  39. ^ Konow 1929, pp. 30-49, PLATE VIII.
  40. ^ Thomas, F. W. (1907–1908). Hultzsch, E.; Konow, Sten (eds.). Epigraphia Indica. Vol. 9. Kolkata: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. pp. 135-147.
  41. ^ Gazerani 2015, p. 15.
  42. ^ The Grandeur of Gandhara, Rafi-us Samad, Algora Publishing, 2011, p.64-67 [1]
  43. ^ Sagar, Krishna Chandra (1992). Foreign Influence on Ancient India. Northern Book Centre. ISBN 9788172110284.
  44. ^ RC Senior "Indo-Scythian coins and history", Vol IV, p.xxxvi.
  45. ^ a b Singh, Upinder (2009). "8. Interaction and innovation c. 200 BCE - 300 CE". A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson India. p. 375. ISBN 9789332569966. .. Scytho-Parthian .. An inscription at Taxila mentions a Shaka king named Moga and his kshatrapa (governor) Patika. Moga is identified with Maues or Moa .. One series of silver coin show, Greek god Zeus with a sceptre in his left hand, with Nike, goddess of victory, on his right hand palm. ..
  46. ^ Singh, Upinder (2009). "9. Aesthetics and Empire c. 300 - 600 CE". A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson India. p. 479. ISBN 9789332569966. .. In the 'standard type', which is the most frequent, he [Samadragupta] holds a long staff (this may actually represent a spear, javelin, or sceptre) in his left hand and offers oblations into a fire altar with his right; the garuda standard appears to the left. ..
  47. ^ Bhandare, Shalaka Pravinkumar (30 November 2020). "A Comparative Study of Nataraja Icons at the Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal and the Kailasa Cave Temple, Ellora" (PDF). Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology (8.2): 492, 493. ISSN – 5463 2347 – 5463. Retrieved 2023 June 27. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  48. ^ Dr. S., Petchimuthu (31 January 2023). "7. A historical sketch of Srivilliputhur Andal temple". In Reddy, E. Sivangi (ed.). Kalyana Mitra:. New Delhi . London: Blue Rose Publishers. p. 194. .. The Andal temple is situated to southwest of Sri Vetapattrasayanar temple. .. The temple initially established by Periyazhwar was latter developed by Pandya King Vallabhdevi Pandyan and is said to have been built around 789 A.D. In this Sannidhi Sri Andal Rangmannar and Garudazhwar (Periyazhwar) are on the same throne (Simmasanam) Andal with a Kizhi (Parrot) is on the extreme left Emperuman Rangamannar stands with the 'Senkol' in his right hand and his left hand points at his thiruvadi, .. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |work= ignored (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help); line feed character in |work= at position 25 (help)
  49. ^ Bharne, Vinayak; Krusche, Krupail (18 September 2014). "Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India". Religious Studies Review. 41 (1). Newcastle upon Tyne, UK:: Cambridge Scholars Publishing: 5. doi:10.1111/rsr.12202. ISBN 9781443867344. ISSN 0319-485X. Figure 1.3 right Sculpture of Brahma on exterior walls of Keshava Temple at Belur from 1117 CE. Brahma is seen here with a scepter. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  50. ^ Owen, Lisa N. (2015-03). "Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India. By Vinayak Bharne and Krupali Krusche. , . Pp. xix + 295; illustrations, maps". Religious Studies Review. 41 (1). Newcastle upon Tyne, UK:: Cambridge Scholars Publishing: 33–34. doi:10.1111/rsr.12202. ISSN 0319-485X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  51. ^ Singh, Upinder (2009). "8. Interaction and innovation c. 200 BCE - 300 CE". A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson India. p. 369. ISBN 9789332569966. .. His right hand held a long sceptre or mace and his left hand firmly clasped the ornamental hilt of his sword .. A brahmi inscription at the base indicate that this was a stone portrait of Kanishka
  52. ^ Puri, Baij Nath (1965). India under the Kushāṇas. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
  53. ^ Goetz,, Hermann (1955). "THE EARLY TEMPLES AND IMAGES OF THE FORMER CHAMBA STATE (Chapter 5)". The Early Wooden Temples of Chamba. Brill. pp. 95–101. .. The crowned, four-armed deity sitting cross-legged, on a ram, in the left chapel, holds two tridents, a sceptre and a water vessel; the central one, over seven rearing horses, is the sungod Surya, holding a sceptre and a vessel; the crowned figure in the right chapel again sits on a lion, holding sword and sceptre, shield and water vessel in its four hands .. {{cite book}}: |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help); line feed character in |chapter= at position 44 (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  54. ^ S. Nayar ·, Vijayaraghavan (1998). Vatakkunathan Temple Complex, Trichur An Integrated Study. Manan Prakashan. p. 80. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |title= at position 38 (help)
  55. ^ Nambirajan, M.; Suresh, S. (2015). Kerala murals. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi: The Director General, Archaeological Survey of India. ISBN 978-93-5086-488-3.
  56. ^ Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 136, 144.
  57. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013), Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, pp 451-52.
  58. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (1972). Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala. Kerala Historical Society.
  59. ^ Pope, George Uglow (1886). The Sacred Kurral of Tiruvalluva Nayanar (PDF) (First ed.). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600223.
  60. ^ Sundaram, P. S. (1990). Tiruvalluvar: The Kural (First ed.). Gurgaon: Penguin Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-01-44000-09-8.
  61. ^ Umamaheshwari, R. (2018-01-25). Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. Springer. ISBN 978-81-322-3756-3.
  62. ^ Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01227-1.
  63. ^ Adigal, Ilango (2004) [?'th Century]. "Canto 20 Demand for Justice". The Cilappatikāram The Tale of an Anklet. Translated by R., Parthasarathy. Penguin Books. p. 186. ISBN 9780143031963. .. "Friend in a dream I saw the scepter Tumble down with the parasol .. "The upright scepter, the white parasol Fall upside down on the solid earth. .. Some evil is about to happen, I must tell the king, thus spoke the great queen. .." {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  64. ^ Pandian, E.T. Jacob (1977). "The goddess of chastity and the politics of ethnicity in the Tamil society of South Asia". In Karigoudar, Ishwaran (ed.). Contributions to Asian studies. 10. Vol. 10. Brill. pp. 56–62. ISBN 978-90-04-04926-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  65. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Durbar". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 697.
  66. ^ Chisholm 1911.
  67. ^ Waghorne, Jonne Punzo (2009). "The power of public splendour". In Jackson, Anna; Jaffer, Amin; Ahlawat, Deepika (eds.). Maharaja: the splendour of India's royal courts ; [... published to coincide with the exhibition 'Maharaja: The Splendour of India's Royal Courts' at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London 10 October 2009 - 17 January 2010, Kunsthalle der Hypo-Kulturstiftung, Munich 12 February - 23 May 2010]. New Dehli: Roli Books Luster Press. pp. 82, 83. ISBN 978-81-7436-728-0. .. The Durbar articulated power more through sacred objects than pronouncements and edicts .. From magnificent jewellery, turbans, robes, shoes swords and daggers that adorned the king to the thrones, canopies, fans and staffs which surrounded him, all elements were carefully crafted for display in durbar. .. Royal regalia (called lawajama in North India and biruthus in the south) held in the hands of special palace attendants who, .., .., always appeared behind or beside the Maharaja ..
  68. ^ N., Sai Charan (2023-05-24). "The Sengol — A historic sceptre with a deep Tamil Nadu connection". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-06-12. .. Sengol had an important place in Tamil culture. When a new king is crowned, he would be presented with a 'sengol' during the coronation by the high priest as a symbol of transfer of power. The Sengol reminds the recipient that he has the "aanai" (order or decree) to rule justly and fairly. ..
  69. ^ Padmanabhan, Keshav (2023-06-03). "Everyone now wants a 'Parliament-style' sengol. This Tamil Nadu jeweller is swamped with inquiries". ThePrint. Retrieved 2023-06-12. .. Silver Shop Jewellers have always stocked the sceptre .. as it is common for us to sell them to political parties whose workers give it to a party leader in Tamil Nadu," .. According to Kovai Sathyan, .. in Tamil Nadu, politicians gift sengols to each other. .. "Sengol does not represent any religion. It's a symbol to uphold justice, given to people in power to remind them to ensure justice," .. "Chief ministers and even mayors in Tamil Nadu have been given Sengols in the past. It's common to remind them that the sengol does not bend, but remains straight in its pursuit of justice."
  70. ^ Derrett, M.; Duncan, J. (31 October 2008). Zurndorfer, Harriet; Gommans, Jos (eds.). Law and the social order in India before the Muhammaddan conquests. Brill. p. 356. ISBN 9789047412090. .. Sanatan Dharma, the aram of Tamils and their senkol (the straight sceptre), nyaya (justice / equity) and similar terms were vaguely apprehended but not impractical. The subject knew that every decision demanded the consideration of more than abstract principles of law .. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  71. ^ Vink, Marcus Paulus Maria (2015). Encounters on the opposite coast: the Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the seventeenth century. European expansion and indigenous response. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-27263-7.
  72. ^ "MGR passed the baton to Jaya at Madurai mega conference". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  73. ^ Chakravarty, Praveen (2023-05-25). "Laud Modi govt for bringing Sengol to new Parliament. Now it must make Murmu hand it over too". ThePrint. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  74. ^ B., Jeyamohan (2023-06-20). "What place does a sceptre have in a democracy?". frontline.thehindu.com. Retrieved 2023-06-22. .. Those in power press such myths ingeniously into service to strengthen their hands. One recalls how Karunanidhi was addressed as "Chola" and M.G.R. as "Chera". M.G.R. presented a sceptre to Jayalalithaa; Karunanidhi too has been photographed with a sceptre in hand. The same story is repeating itself with the sceptre today. ..
  75. ^ Ajju (2018-08-09). "கலைஞரின் நிழல்..! யார் இந்த "நித்யானந்தன்" என்கிற நித்யா..? ஒரு சின்ன ஃப்ளாஷ்பேக்!". Tamil Behind Talkies (in Tamil). Retrieved 2023-06-30.
  76. ^ Shearer, Alistair (2020). The story of yoga: from ancient India to the modern west. London: Hurst & Company. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-78738-192-6.
  77. ^ Banerjee, Milinda (25 January 2018). The Mortal God Imagining the Sovereign in Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 167, 187, 197–201, 230, 365. ISBN 9781316996386. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |title= at position 17 (help)

Further reading[edit]

  • Dallapiccola, Anna Libera. South Indian Paintings: A Catalogue of the British Museum Collection. India, British Museum Press, 2010. Chenkol
  • Sharma, Mahesh. Western Himalayan Temple Records: State, Pilgrimage, Ritual and Legality in Chambā. Netherlands, Brill, 2009. ISBN: 9789047430377
  • Meister, Michael W.. Temples of the Indus: Studies in the Hindu Architecture of Ancient Pakistan. Netherlands, Brill, 2010.ISBN: 9789004190115
  • Bhāratī: Bulletin of the College of Indology. India, The College, 1983. Pages 11 and 19
  • Crispin Branfoot (2008) Imperial Frontiers: Building Sacred Space in Sixteenth-Century South India, The Art Bulletin, 90:2, 171-194, DOI: 10.1080/00043079.2008.10786389
  • P. Ravishankar VALLUVAR AND THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE The Indian Journal of Political Science Vol. 71, No. 1 (JAN. - MAR., 2010), pp. 115-122 (8 pages) https://www.jstor.org/stable/42748372
  • R. CHANDRAMOULISWAR THEORY OF GOVERNMENT IN THE KURAL The Indian Journal of Political Science Vol. 11, No. 3 (July—September—1950), pp. 1-18 (18 pages) https://www.jstor.org/stable/42743290
  • SJ MANGALAM . ROMAN COINS FROM MAHARASHTRA · 1990. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931391
  • Pant, Gayatri Nath. (doctorate on 'Ancient Indian Arms' )Studies in Indian Weapons and Warfare. India: Army Educational Stores, 1970. https://archive.org/stream/dli.ministry.27123/ignca-613-rb_djvu.txt also G.N. Pant Sainik Samachar. India, Director of Public Relations, Ministry of Defence, 1970.
  • Shastri, Ajay Mitra. Excavations at Bhokardan (Bhogavardhana), 1973. India, Nagpur University, 1974. Page 76
  • Moraes, George M.. The Kadamba Kula: A History of Ancient and Mediaeval Karnataka. India, Asian Educational Services, 1990. Page 261
  • https://www.jstor.org/stable/24734812
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  • V., Ganapathi (2002). "Indian Sculpture & Iconography Forms & Measurements". Sri Aurobindo Society: 192. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); line feed character in |title= at position 31 (help) on archive.org
  • Brown, Percy. Indian Painting. Reprint?: United States, Creative Media Partners, LLC, 2018. ISBN: 9780342927098
  • Havell, Ernest Binfield. Indian Sculpture and Painting. United Kingdom, John Murray, 1928.
  • Miśra, Yugala Kiśora. National Seminar on Jainology. India, Prākr̥ta, Jainaśāstra, aura Ahiṃsā Śodha-Saṃsthāna, 1992.
  • Parimoo, Ratan. Essays in New Art History: Photographs and drawings. India, Books & Books, 2000. Page 141 Brahma  in Hucchappayya gudi
  • Michell, George, and Surendra Kumar. Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal. India, Jaico Publishing House, 2016. ISBN: 9788184956009, 8184956002
  • Gupte, Ramesh Shankar. The Art and Architecture of Aihole: A Study of Early Chalukyan Art Through Temple Architecture and Sculpture. India, D.B. Taraporevala, 1967.
  • Varadpande, Manohar Laxman . Ancient Indian And Indo-Greek Theatre. India, Abhinav Publications, 1981. ISBN: 9788170171478, 8170171474 p 59 - talaikkol.
  • The Illustrated Weekly of India. India, Published for the proprietors, Bennett, Coleman & Company, Limited, at the Times of India Press, 1965. p 41 talaikkol
  • Sadasivan, K.. Devadasi System in Medieval Tamil Nadu. India, CBH Publications, 1993. ISBN: 9788185381329 . Manavalanagar - Tiruvallur Siva bronze image holding talaikkol
  • Routledge Handbook of South Asian Criminology. United States, Taylor & Francis, 2019. ISBN: 9781000300888, - Kural spectre Danda
  • The Madras journal of literature and science. N.p., n.p, 1845. No. 31 December 1844 - Analysis of copper grant in Jews of Cochin -FW Elis page 2
  • Saiva Siddhanta. Volume 4 . India, Saiva Siddhanta Mahasamajam., 1969. Page 67 ".. Another Chola inscription reads as பூமாது புணர புவிமாது விளங்க நாமாது வளர செயமாது விரும்ப மணிமுடி சூடி செங்கோல் நின்று திசை தொறும் வளர வேங்கலி ... the University of Michigan-Digitized: 22 June 2009
  • Select Inscriptions of Tamilnadu. India, Department of Archaeology, 2006. pp 42, 210, 232 Editor: Ti. Śrī Śrītar Compiler: N. Marxia Gandhi Contributor: Tamil Nadu (India). Department of Archaeology
  • Kanak Danda - Golden sceptre was one of insignia of Chalukyas of Kalyan Walter Elliot Numismatic Gleanings No. 2 · Issue 2 April-September 1858 Page 83; Balfour, Edward. The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia. Austria, Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt, 1885. p 489. Need ref of officially qualified academic.
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  • D.C. Sircar Studies in Indian Coins. India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Limited, 2008. p 108, 362 363 365 366 368 371 372 sceptre ISBN: 9788120829732, 8120829735 Published: 2008 First Ed 1968
  • Indian Culture. India, Indian Research Institute., 1943. p 119 golden sceptre

Categories to be added[edit]

Category:Formal insignia Category:Regalia Category:Symbols of Asia Category:Asian art Category:Indian art Category:South Asian culture

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