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The Venezuelan opposition is a political umbrella term given to those who oppose the Bolivarian Revolution and its leaders, Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro and which is made primarily of right-wing groups.^[1]^{[needs update]}^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^{[needs update]}^[8]^{[needs update]}^[9]^{[excessive citations]} Actions between the opposition and the Bolivarian government resulted with increased political polarization in Venezuela; the opposition would at times participate in undemocratic efforts to overthrow the government while the government would respond to these actions by justifying their own consolidation of power.^{[dubious – discuss]}^{[unbalanced opinion?]}^[10] Countering the opposition by the Venezuelan government grew more severe over time, with low levels of repression initially occurring under Chávez and drifting towards authoritarianism during the presidency of Maduro following the 2014 Venezuelan protests of the La Salida movement.^[11]

History

Chávez presidency

Since Hugo Chávez was elected president in the 1998 Venezuelan presidential election, the elite in Venezuela lost their power and consolidated in opposition against him.^[12] Following Chávez's rise to the presidency, he described the 1961 Constitution of Venezuela as "moribund" upon swearing in and began to dismantle the oligarchy that had previously existed in Venezuela's political system as a result of the Puntofijo Pact.^[12] The opposition to Chávez primarily consisted elite individuals who controlled Venezuela prior to his election.^[13]

1999 Venezuelan Constituent Assembly election

Opposition parties in the 1999 elections for the constituent assembly participated in a divided approach instead of unifying under a single group, resulting with Chávez and his Fifth Republic Movement establishing near total control of the assembly.^[14] After creating the 1999 Venezuela Constitution in about three months, with little influence from the opposition, the constituent assembly provided expanded powers to the presidency through the new charter, making groups opposed to the presidency more politically vulnerable.^[14]

2002 Venezuelan coup attempt

Between 2001 and 2003, the opposition appeared to hold the most power in Venezuela, with multiple chavistas defecting to join the opposition.^[15] The opposition had access to multiple institutions including the legislature, the media, the petroleum industry and the military.^[11] Venezuelan business, media outlets and non-governmental organizations began to generate dissent against Chávez.^[15]

When Chávez attempted in November 2001 to restructure the state-run oil industry, PDVSA, he faced his first critical conflict as the company and its leaders operated as a state-within-a-state, personally profiting from Venezuelan oil sales.^[12]^[16] Chávez's restructuring of PDVSA and his large popular support resulted with the opposition participating in insurrection.^[12] The opposition then attempted to remove Chávez from the presidency in through a coup d'état.^[12]^[17] Planning for a coup had been evolving for about two years.^[18] Various groups openly discussed a coup against Chávez, including with American diplomats,^[15]^[19]^[20] with the opposition calling on the military to remove Chávez.^[21] A report by the Central Intelligence Agency on 6 April 2022 with the title "Conditions Ripening for Coup Attempt" concluded that the opposition was planning a coup against Chávez and that protests would be used as a platform to initiate the plot.^[22] Dominguez compared the actions of the opposition during the 2002 coup to those taken by the right-wing opposition that participated in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, writing that both groups formed coalitions said to be promoting democracy, they relied on American support and the use of private media to establish support.^[12] On the day of the coup attempt, 11 April 2002, opposition protesters marched in Caracas, with numbers estimated to be up to one million people.^[23]^[24] A confrontation between opposition marchers and Chávez supporters led to gunfire, which resulted to deaths on both sides. Chávez was forced to resign the presidency and was arrested.^[25]^[26] Businessman Pedro Carmona subsequently declared himself president, with Carmona decreeing that the 1999 Venezuelan Constitution was invalid and dissolving the National Assembly and Supreme Court.^[25] A letter signed by Chávez was later leaked from prison saying that he did not resign and popular protests forced Carmona to abandon his efforts, with Chávez being reinstalled as president.^[27]

The attempt to overthrow Chávez was politically devastating for the opposition and led to increased political polarization.^[15] Actions taken by the opposition reinforced Chávez's confrontational behavior, resulting with the government pushing the opposition to extreme positions and then later justifying its own actions.^[15] Venezuela's armed forces would be purged by the Chávez government in 2002.^[11]

General strike

The Venezuelan opposition also attempted to oust Chávez with the a general strike from late 2002 into 2003.^[16]^[17] Coordinadora Democrática (CD), which led the strike, was led by Antonio Ledezma.^[28] CD refused to recognize the 1999 constitutional mandate that a president could be recalled halfway through their tenure and demanded the immediate removal of Chávez.^[15] The leaders of PDVSA thought that the Chávez government would fall if the general strike persisted, with the strike proving detrimental to Venezuela's fleet of oil tankers and its computers the petroleum industry.^[16] As a result of the opposition strike, shortages of goods began, blackouts occurred and transportation was halted, though Chávez maintained the presidency.^[16] Actions taken by the opposition during the strike again hurt its popularity, according to Corrales and Penfold,^[15] with the two saying that the government would counter the opposition with government spending and penalizing the opposition.^[29]

2004 recall attempt

In 2004, another attempt by the opposition to remove Chávez was through a recall referendum.^[17] After the general strike failed, CD began negotiating more with the Chávez government and reached an agreement that a recall election would be held.^[30] Cuban exile Roberto Alonso, an anti-Castro leader of the Venezuelan opposition group Bloque Democrático, created a protest tactic known as the guarimba as a way to remove Chávez after seeing the failed 2002 coup.^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34] In an effort to create "total anarchy", Alonso partnered with the opposition to spring guarimba protests on 5 March 2004 and have a military coup remove Chávez two days later.^[32] Thousands of protesters blocked streets in Venezuela after the signature collection for the referendum was declared fraudulent, though the demonstrations subsided when the opposition and government agreed on how to proceed with the recall referendum.^[32] In May 2004, a ranch belonging to Alonso was raided during the Daktari Ranch affair and hundreds of Colombian paramilitaries were arrested in relation to an alleged plot to overthrow the Chávez government.^[12]^[32]

Nearly sixty percent of voters refused to recall Chávez in the referendum in August 2004. CD rejected the results of the election and dissolved later that year.^[30] During the lull in conflict, Chávez used the peacetime to consolidate power and place more obstacles against the opposition.^[10] The 2005 Venezuelan parliamentary election was boycotted by the opposition a year later.^[12]

2006 presidential elections

After the opposition boycotted and lost all seats in the National Assembly of Venezuela, the chavista legislators began to consolidate power, resulting with the opposition participating in elections once more and consolidating their actions.^[11] Some party leaders made an informal agreement to choose Manuel Rosales of A New Era as a candidate due to his opinion polling support, though the opposition as a whole did not consolidate as they did not see Chávez as a threat.^[11]

2007 protests and 2009 referendum

Three actions by Chávez to consolidate power resulted with a joint opposition coalition and an opposition student movement; the shut down of RCTV, the 2007 Venezuelan constitutional referendum to turn Venezuela into a socialist nation and the 2009 Venezuelan constitutional referendum which proposed indefinite re-election of the officeholders.^[11]^[17] The 2007 Venezuelan RCTV protests and the 2007 Venezuelan referendum protests occurred as a result. Following its failed confrontational approach in the early 2000s, the opposition began to support participation in elections and created the Democratic Unity Roundtable (MUD) in 2008, which resulted in some electoral success.^[17] Opposition leaders said that the formation of MUD was in response to their perception of increased repression from the Chávez government.^[11]

2012 and 2013 presidential elections

By the time of the 2012 Venezuelan presidential election, moderate opposition presidential candidate and founder of Justice First Henrique Capriles had begun to appeal to disillusioned chavista voters and became a true contender against Chávez, though he was not elected.^[35]^[36]

Maduro presidency

Following the death of Hugo Chávez, Capriles led a strong presidential campaign^[36] and was narrowly defeated by Nicolás Maduro in the 2013 Venezuelan presidential election, with the opposition becoming more confrontational with the government once more following the failure of their electoral strategy.^[17] Maduro did not have the charisma of his predecessor and as a result, began to lose support among his base.^[37]

La Salida protests

After continuous electoral losses, the opposition's consolidation broke when some groups took individualized actions.^[11] In February 2014, amid an economic decline and concerns about insecurity, Popular Will founder Leopoldo López led the La Salida movement of the opposition in an effort to remove Maduro from office.^[35]^[38]^[39] During the protests, the opposition adopted similar tactics used during the 2002 coup attempt and the general strike shortly after, while also adopting the guarimba strategy used in 2004 in order to oust Maduro.^[13]^[40] After protests turned violent, on 18 February 2014 López turned himself in and was imprisoned.^[41]^[42] Tensions among the opposition were exposed as a result of La Salida and it weakened the MUD.^[11] From this point, the Maduro government grew more repressive towards to opposition.^[11]

2015 legislative elections and National Assembly control

In the 2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election, the opposition consolidated its strategy and won a majority in the National Assembly of Venezuela.^[36] The lame duck chavista National Assembly would pack the Supreme Tribunal of Justice prior to its departure.^[43]^[44] In 2017, Maduro would bypass the opposition-led National Assembly by creating the 2017 Constituent National Assembly of Venezuela, leading to the 2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis since the constitutional body held more authority than the National Assembly.^[37]

Presidential crisis

Popular Will politician Juan Guaidó was named president of the opposition-led National Assembly in December 2018 and began to form a transitional government^[45]^[46] after the opposition refused to recognize the 2018 Venezuelan presidential election, which was described by the opposition and its supporters as fraudulent. In 2019, the Venezuelan presidential crisis began when Guaidó declared himself president of Venezuela on 23 January 2019 with the assistance of the United States after he and his mentor Leopoldo López proposed the plan to American government.^[47] The United States government, European allies and Latin American supporters of the opposition quickly recognized Guiadó as president of Venezuela.^[47] The United States would institute sanctions on Venezuela in an attempt at regime change,^[48]^[49]^[50] with Guaidó supporting the sanctions and demanding the European Union to place its own sanctions against the Maduro government.^[51] Guaidó was seen in photographs with right-wing Colombian paramilitaries which raised concerns about his links to the groups, though the opposition has denied relations with guerillas.^[52]

On 30 April 2019, Guaidó attempted to overthrow Maduro with a group of military defectors in an event variably described between a coup attempt^[53] and an attempted uprising.^[54] The unrest allowed Guaidó's mentor, Leopoldo López, to escape from house arrest.^[55] Guaidó was only supported by a few dozen National Guardsmen and the attempted ousting of Maduro failed.^[56]

A year later in May 2020, a group of Venezuelan military defectors led by former United States Army Special Forces soldier Jordan Goudreau again tried to forcibly overthrow Maduro. The plot and its participants were intercepted by the Maduro government prior to its full implementation, with two boats of dissident fighters being captured by Venezuelan authorities.^[57] Six of the opposition fighters were killed during their attempted landing.^[58] Following the event, a signed contract between representatives of the Guaidó government and the operation's organizer Silvercorp USA was unveiled^[59] and support for Guaidó dropped.^[60] In July 2020, the Venezuelan government described Popular Will, the party of Guaidó and López, as a terrorist organization following the attempted overthrow of Maduro.^[61]^[62]

In December 2022, three of the four main opposition political parties (Justice First, Democratic Action and A New Era) backed and approved a reform to dissolve the interim government and create a commission of five members to manage foreign assets, as deputies sought a united strategy ahead of the next Venezuelan presidential election scheduled for 2024,^[63]^[64] stating that the interim government had failed to achieve the goals it had set.^[65]

2024 Venezuelan presidential election

In the 2023 Unitary Platform presidential primaries, the Venezuelan opposition selected María Corina Machado as their candidate for the 2024 presidential elections.^[66] Described as a radical and a right-wing politician,^[67]^[68]^[69] she is a supporter of capitalism and believes that "being rich is good"; she criticized Hugo Chávez, saying that "Chávez was the president of the poor, yes, very poor that he loved them, because there is no more effective way to control a society than to subject it to dependency. Dying with outstretched hand."^[70] She was disqualified from holding office in Venezuela in June 2023, in relation to her support of Guaidó and sanctions on Venezuela.^[71]^[72]^[73]

Function

Coordination

The temporary coalition of Coordinadora Democrática (CD) lacked cohesion and was dominated by business and media groups, resulting with divided decision making.^[11] With the formation of the Democratic Unity Roundtable (MUD), the opposition coalition created a set of rules regarding decisions, including decisions being made by a majority of 3/5ths of members or 70% of the popular vote during election processes, the process to determine a joint candidate either through majority or a primary election and a unified policy framework.^[11] Such coordination resulted with a more unified long-term strategy as opposed to short-term individualized interests.^[11]

Strategies

According to Corrales and Penfold, different groups of the opposition utilized three strategies; electoral participation, electoral abstention and a combative approach.^[74] Corrales and Penfold explained that the opposition would react to actions taken by the government by first protesting, then attempting to overthrow the government, and later by becoming more electorally involved.^[10] Jiménez states that the opposition would take reactionary actions, including coup attempts and general strikes, when opponents were not consolidated in a joint cause.^[11] Since the foundation of MUD, the opposition adopted the strategy of contesting every election.^[11]

Following the opposition's loss in the 2013 presidential elections, some opposition groups alleged that Maduro was born in Colombia without providing any proof, saying that this would disqualify him from holding the presidential office in Venezuela.^[75]^[76] The Associated Press described the tactic as an attempt to "push the embattled socialist leader from office at any cost."^[76] The strategy was compared to the birther conspiracy, a fringe theory that targeted Barack Obama in a similar way.^[75]^[76]^[77] A document obtained by a Panamanian politician and promoted by some members of the opposition was declared as falsified.^[77]

During the presidential crisis, the opposition under Guaidó held three strategies to obtain power; protests, a military coup and foreign intervention.^[78]

International support

The United States has provided funding for opposition groups.^[12]^[79] Prior to the 2002 coup, the National Endowment for Democracy funded the opposition's Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela and the Venezuelan Federation of Chambers of Commerce, two groups that participated in the attempted overthrow of Chávez.^[12] During the 2002 to 2003 general strikes, United States Agency for International Development (USAID) funded Coordinadora Democrática.^[12] According to The Guardian, in the decade preceding 2014, there was "extensive US government funding of Venezuelan opposition groups."^[79] Student movements belonging to the opposition were also provided funds by the USAID.^[80]

Members of the Venezuelan opposition have also joined the Madrid Forum, an anti-leftist organization founded by the Disenso Foundation think tank of the far-right Spanish political party Vox.^[81]

Demographics

Members of the opposition, Dominguez says, mainly comprises members of the old aristocracy, business groups and university students.^[12] Opposition groups typically support right-wing politics^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] and opposition parties often ignored their ideological backgrounds in order to form a united opposition.^[11] According to Gott, Maher and MacLeod, members of the Venezuelan opposition are primarily middle and upper class individuals who were white.^[13]^[16]^[82]^[83] MacLeod notes that Hugo Chávez was the first non-white president of Venezuela in recent history and that since his election, Venezuela experienced class and racial conflict.^[13] Gott would elaborate on race, saying that racism in Venezuela primarily used by white opposition supporters would be used against Chávez and his supporters.^[16] Lupien writes that the opposition was shown as being "light-skinned" and "decent" while chavistas were called "thick-lipped" and "monkeys."^[84] Further protests against Nicolás Maduro mainly comprised middle class and wealthy students who demonstrated in affluent communities.^[79]^[80] As conditions worsened during the crisis in Venezuela, some lower class citizens began to oppose the Maduro government.^[85]

Organization

Leadership

Prominent Venezuelan opposition leaders Leopoldo López and María Corina Machado, presenting La Salida. Juan Guaidó is behind.

Leadership of the Venezuelan opposition was an important aspect of the movement since their parties did not focus on policy and instead on the personality of who led.^[36] Until the Venezuelan presidential crisis beginning in 2019, the Venezuelan opposition was primarily led by wealthy professionals who were prominent prior to the government of Hugo Chávez.^[86] In 2002, Pedro Carmona and Carlos Ortega briefly provided leadership for the opposition. Henrique Capriles, a moderate opposition politician, served as its leader briefly during his candidacies in the 2012 and 2013 presidential elections. Following the opposition winning the majority in the 2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election, the National Assembly of Venezuela assumed leadership of the opposition. Juan Guaidó was the leader of the opposition during the presidential crisis, though he lost support as the opposition failed to achieve its objectives under his mandate.^[87] Into the 2024 presidential elections, María Corina Machado was chosen as leader of the opposition.^[66]

Media

Prior to the rise of Chávez, private Venezuelan media relied on government approval to grant licenses for their existence, with media heads and government officials establishing close relationships.^[13] As a result of this relationship, the private media maintained support for the elite that were opposed to Chávez.^[13] After Chávez maintained election victories that were validated by international observation, opposition media attempted to describe their efforts as actions to defend democracy from a populist leader supported by irrational supporters.^[84] The Venezuelan opposition is supported by private media in the country according to Dominguez and MacLeod; the former says that outlets portray the opposition as seeking liberty while depicting the Bolivarian government as authoritarian^[12] while the latter says that international media formed close relationships with Venezuela's elite and projected the opposition as "civil" while painting Chávez supporters as "thugs."^[16]

During the 2002 coup attempt, private media groups, including Globovisión, supported the opposition's actions.^[84]^[88] The media described Chávez supporters as "lowlifes", "satanic" and "Taliban."^[84] Media mogul Gustavo Cisneros and owner of Venevisión was a prominent opposition media leader during the Chávez presidency until a meeting between him and Chávez was mediated by former president Jimmy Carter.^[89]

Various media outlets have been described as supporting the opposition, including Efecto Cocuyo,^[90]^[91]^[92] El Nacional,^[91]^[93]^[94] El Pitazo,^[90]^[95] La Patilla,^[96] Runrunes^[91]^[97]^[98]^[99]^[100] and Tal Cual.^[101]^[102]^[103]

Between 1998 and 2014, independent television channels decreased from 88% to 46%.^[104] Human Rights Watch has said that Chávez and Maduro both increased censorship in Venezuela in an effort to silence critics.^[105]^[106]

Parties

Democratic Unity Roundtable

	Acronym	Leader	Main ideology	International Associations
Justice First Primero Justicia	PJ	Henrique Capriles Radonski	Humanism	None
A New Era Un Nuevo Tiempo	UNT	Manuel Rosales	Social democracy	Socialist International
Popular Will Voluntad Popular	VP	Leopoldo López	Progressivism Social democracy	Socialist International
Radical Cause La Causa Radical	LCR	Andrés Velásquez	Laboriousm	None
Progressive Movement of Venezuela [es] Movimiento Progresista de Venezuela	MPV	Simón Calzadilla	Progressivism	None
Project Venezuela Proyecto Venezuela	PRVZL	Henrique Salas Feo	Liberal conservatism	IDU, UPLA
Clear Accounts [es] Cuentas Claras	CC	Vicencio Scarano	Progressivism	None
Progressive Advance Avanzada Progresista	AP	Henri Falcón	Democratic socialism^{[citation needed]}	None
Fearless People's Alliance Alianza Bravo Pueblo	ABP	Antonio Ledezma	Social democracy	None
Emergent People [es] Gente Emergente	GE	Julio César Reyes [es]	Social democracy	None
National Convergence Convergencia Nacional	CN	Juan José Caldera [es]	Christian democracy	ODCA (observer)
Movement for a Responsible, Sustainable and Entrepreneurial Venezuela Movimiento por una Venezuela Responsable, Sostenible y Emprendedora	MOVERSE	Alexis Romero	Green politics	None
Ecological Movement of Venezuela Movimiento Ecológico de Venezuela	MOVEV	Manuel Díaz	Green politics	Global Greens

Student groups

Movimiento Estudiantil (Venezuela)

Legal issues

Various individuals in the Venezuelan opposition have faced legal issues in Venezuela, being politically disqualified or criminally charged and imprisoned by the Venezuelan government.

Criminally charged


individual	Charges	Sentence	Status	Notes
Juan Guaidó	Money laundering, treason, and usurping public functions^[107]	Awaiting trial	Fugitive	The Venezuelan government charged and called for the issuing of an Interpol notice while Guaidó lived in exile in the United States.^[107]
Antonio Ledezma	Treason^[108]	Awaiting trial	Fugitive	Charged with treason related to the Golpe Azul incident.^[108] Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch criticized his detention.^[109]^[110] Escaped custody and is in exile in Spain.^[108] The Venezuelan government has filed an extradition request.^[108]
Leopoldo López	Arson and criminal conspiracy	13 years, 9 months^[111]	Fugitive	Charged for his leading of La Salida. Charges of homicide and terrorism were initially dropped.^[112] Various human rights groups criticized his imprisonment. Groups of individuals affected by the protests called for charges of homicide against López.^[113] Escaped house arrest during the 2019 Venezuelan uprising attempt.^[114] Lives in exile in Spain.^[115]
Juan Requesens	Attempted assassination, attempted murder, criminal conspiracy, illegal possession of a weapon, incitement, terrorism and treason^[116]	8 years^[117]	Released	Charged for allegedly participating in the Caracas drone attack. Member states of the Lima Group criticized his arrest.^[118] In August 2020, he was temporarily released from prison.^[119] In 2022, he was formally charged.^[117] Placed on house arrest, he was released in October 2023 in a deal made with President Joe Biden, in which he agreed to ease some sanctions on Venezuela.^[120]
J. J. Rendón	Foreign conspiracy, terrorism and treason^[121]	Awaiting trial	Fugitive	Charged for his alleged participation in Operation Gideon after signing the Guaidó administration–Silvercorp agreement.^[121]
Sergio Vergara	Foreign conspiracy, terrorism and treason^[121]	Awaiting trial	Fugitive	Charged for his alleged participation in Operation Gideon after signing the Guaidó administration–Silvercorp agreement.^[121]

Disqualified

Individuals


Individual	Term	Notes
Henrique Capriles	Disqualified until 2032^[122]	Due to alleged administrative irregularities including accepting foreign funds while serving as governor.^[122]
María Corina Machado	Disqualified until 2038^[123]	Due to supporting United States sanctions on Venezuela and opposition leader Juan Guaidó's claim to presidency.^[123] Her disqualification was rejected by the European Union and the United Nations, with nations including Colombia, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States also criticizing the ruling.^[124]

Entities


Entity	Date of disqualification	Notes
Popular Will	2017	Disqualified since 2017.^[61]^[62] Described as a terrorist organization by the Venezuelan government in 2020.^[61]^[62]

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[49] Galbraith, Jean (July 2019). "United States Recognizes the Opposition Government in Venezuela and Imposes Sanctions as Tensions Escalate". American Journal of International Law. 113 (3): 601, 608. doi:10.1017/ajil.2019.41. In a campaign designed to oust Maduro from power, the United States has encouraged foreign governments and intergovernmental organizations to recognize Guaidó and has imposed a series of targeted economic sanctions to weaken Maduro's regime. ... the Trump administration has consistently exempted humanitarian assistance and insisted that the sanctions 'do not target the innocent people of Venezuela. Despite this assertion, Venezuela's economic situation has worsened severely under the prolonged sanctions, and the humanitarian crisis remains devastating.

[AHUMADA-50] Ahumada Beltrán, Consuelo (September 2021). "La paz de Colombia en un incierto entorno internacional". Controversia (217): 66–68. doi:10.54118/controver.vi217.1236.

[51] Neumann, William (2022). Things are never so bad that they can't get worse: inside the collapse of Venezuela. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press. pp. 224–227. ISBN 9781250266163.

[52] "A Glut of Arms: Curbing the Threat to Venezuela from Violent Groups". International Crisis Group. 2020-02-20. Retrieved 2023-11-18.

[COUPmed-53] • "Venezuela Crisis: Guaidó Calls for Uprising as Clashes Erupt". The New York Times. 30 April 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2023. Venezuelan military personnel who had participated in the coup attempt had since sought asylum in the Brazilian Embassy in Caracas
Fox, Michael (2 May 2019). "Once Again, Mainstream Media Get It Wrong on Venezuela". The Nation. Retrieved 1 June 2023. Foreign outlets, dutifully supporting Trump administration calls for regime change, reported that a widespread uprising was underway, even though Juan Guaidó's coup attempt had little support.

Riley-Smith, Ben; Herbert, Samantha (1 May 2019). "Maduro vows retaliation for coup attempt as he denies attempts to flee to Cuba". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 1 June 2023.

"Here's what Barr left out in his summary of Mueller's findings". NBC News. 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2023. If it walks like a coup and quacks like a coup, then it sure looks a coup – backed by the Trump administration. ... Juan Guaido, flanked by his political mentor Leopoldo Lopez and a handful of soldiers who had broken ranks, issued a message to Venezuela and the world: The time to topple Nicolas Maduro's authoritarian regime was right now

"Maduro rallies troops against 'traitors' – DW – 05/02/2019". Deutsche Welle. 2 May 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2023. Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro sought to rally the military on Thursday in the wake of an unsuccessful coup against him.

Baker, Beatrice Christofaro, Sinéad (30 April 2019). "A timeline of the political crisis in Venezuela, which began with claims of election rigging and has now led to an attempted military coup". Business Insider. Retrieved 1 June 2023.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

"May Day street clashes in Paris fuelled by widening anti-Macron coalition". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2023. Defiant Maduro claims victory over Guaido coup attempt

[54] Fox, Michael (2 May 2019). "Once Again, Mainstream Media Get It Wrong on Venezuela". The Nation. Retrieved 1 June 2023. Foreign outlets, dutifully supporting Trump administration calls for regime change, reported that a widespread uprising was underway, even though Juan Guaidó's coup attempt had little support.

[55] Riley-Smith, Ben; Herbert, Samantha (1 May 2019). "Maduro vows retaliation for coup attempt as he denies attempts to flee to Cuba". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 1 June 2023.

[56] "Here's what Barr left out in his summary of Mueller's findings". NBC News. 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2023. If it walks like a coup and quacks like a coup, then it sure looks a coup – backed by the Trump administration. ... Juan Guaido, flanked by his political mentor Leopoldo Lopez and a handful of soldiers who had broken ranks, issued a message to Venezuela and the world: The time to topple Nicolas Maduro's authoritarian regime was right now

[57] "Maduro rallies troops against 'traitors' – DW – 05/02/2019". Deutsche Welle. 2 May 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2023. Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro sought to rally the military on Thursday in the wake of an unsuccessful coup against him.

[58] Baker, Beatrice Christofaro, Sinéad (30 April 2019). "A timeline of the political crisis in Venezuela, which began with claims of election rigging and has now led to an attempted military coup". Business Insider. Retrieved 1 June 2023.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[59] "May Day street clashes in Paris fuelled by widening anti-Macron coalition". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2023. Defiant Maduro claims victory over Guaido coup attempt

[UPRISING-54] • "Venezuelans take to streets as uprising attempt sputters". Associated Press. 2021-04-20. Retrieved 2023-06-04.
"Venezuela arrests over 'uprising attempt'". BBC News. 2017-08-06. Retrieved 2023-06-04.

"Photos From Venezuela: A Protest Turns Violent". The New York Times. 2019-04-30. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-06-04.

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[61] "Venezuela arrests over 'uprising attempt'". BBC News. 2017-08-06. Retrieved 2023-06-04.

[62] "Photos From Venezuela: A Protest Turns Violent". The New York Times. 2019-04-30. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-06-04.

[63] "Russian army helping Venezuela amid US 'threats': Moscow's ambassador". France 24. 2019-05-24. Retrieved 2023-06-04.

[auto-55] "Leopoldo López y su familia ingresaron como huéspedes a la residencia del embajador de Chile". La Patilla (in European Spanish). 30 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.

[FinalPhase-56] Sequera, Vivian and Angus Berwick (30 April 2019). "Venezuela's Guaido calls on troops to join him in uprising against Maduro". Reuters. Retrieved 30 April 2019.

[EClosabiamaduro-57] "Lo sabíamos todo', dice Maduro sobre incursión en Macuto". Efecto Cocuyo. 5 May 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.

[ajwhatweknow-58] "Venezuela 'failed coup plot': What we know so far". Al Jazeera. 6 May 2020. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020.

[wapomiamicondo-59] Faiola, Anthony (6 May 2020). "From a Miami condo to the Venezuelan coast, how a plan to 'capture' Maduro went rogue". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 8 May 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2020.

[WSJ26Jun-60] Vyas, Kejal; Forero, Juan (26 June 2020). "Venezuelan Opposition Guru Led Planning to Topple Maduro". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2023.

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[:72-65] "Mayoría de la AN-2015 ratifica disolución del Gobierno interino". Tal Cual (in Spanish). 2022-12-30. Retrieved 2022-12-31. Hemos tenido algo que pasó de ser provisional a convertirse en algo perpetuo. Y no se celebraron las elecciones, de manera que el artículo 233 perdió su razón de ser para justificar el gobierno interino.

[GarciaCanoOct26-66] Garcia Cano, Regina (26 October 2023). "María Corina Machado is winner of Venezuela opposition primary that the government has denounced". Associated Press. Retrieved 27 October 2023.

[Moleiro2023-67] Moleiro, Alonso (28 February 2023). "What is in store for María Corina Machado, the 'iron lady' of the Venezuelan opposition?". EL PAÍS. Retrieved 30 June 2023. Machado's discourse has no religious bias, it does not foster prejudice nor does it stigmatize minorities or raise conservative arguments in the social field – even if some of her followers do.

[Singer2023-68] Santaeulalia, Inés; Singer, Florantonia (27 June 2023). "María Corina Machado: The radical opposition leader gaining momentum in Venezuela". El País. Retrieved 30 June 2023.

[Maza2023-69] Maza, Jesús (30 June 2023). "¿Quién es Corina Machado, candidata opositora que lidera las encuestas para las Primarias 2023?" [Who is Corina Machado, opposition candidate who leads the polls for the 2023 Primaries?]. La República (in Spanish). Retrieved 30 June 2023.

[SteelLady-70] Pinero, Jesus (19 November 2018). "María Corina Machado, la dama de acero" [María Corina Machado, the lady of steel]. El Estímulo (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 July 2023.

[Armas2023-71] Armas, Mayela; Sequera, Vivian (30 June 2023). "Venezuela opposition candidate Machado barred from holding office-gov't". Reuters. Retrieved 30 June 2023.

[72] Perdomo, Luna (30 June 2023). "José Brito: Contraloría inhabilitó a María Corina Machado por 15 años" [José Brito: Comptroller's Office disqualified María Corina Machado for 15 years]. Tal Cual (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 July 2023.

[73] Rodríguez, Ronny (30 June 2023). "Contraloría inhabilita a María Corina Machado por 15 años, dice José Brito" [Comptroller's Office disqualifies María Corina Machado for 15 years, says José Brito]. Efecto Cocuyo (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 July 2023.

[74] Corrales, Javier; Penfold, Michael (2011). Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela. Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780815704973.

[:34-75] Castillo, Mariano (2013-07-27). "A 'birther' movement rises in Venezuela". CNN. Retrieved 2023-11-20.

[:35-76] "Venezuela: Pres. Maduro opponents fan flames of birther debate". Associated Press. 2016-10-25. Retrieved 2023-11-20.

[:36-77] "Venezuela: President faces 'birther' claims of being born in Colombia". BBC News. 2013-08-01. Retrieved 2023-11-20.

[78] Neumann, William (2022). Things are never so bad that they can't get worse: inside the collapse of Venezuela. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press. p. 224. ISBN 9781250266163.

[:5-79] Milne, Seumas; Watts, Jonathan (2014-04-08). "Venezuela protests are sign that US wants our oil, says Nicolás Maduro". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-11-16.

[:12-80] Wilde, Matt (2023). A Blessing and a Curse: Oil, Politics and Morality in Bolivarian Venezuela. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9781503637078. Led by Leopoldo López, a hardline opposition politician who played a significant role in the protests surrounding the 2002 coup, the protests drew on a large contingent of students from predominantly middle-class and wealthy backgrounds. Using La Salida ("The Exit") as their motto, the protestors called for a national uprising against the government and railed against everything from corruption and insecurity to inflation and food shortages. ... Each side accused the other of inciting the violence, with the opposition pointing to the alleged involvement of pro-government armed groups in some killings, and Maduro highlighting the well-documented links between Venezuela's right-wing student movement and organizations funded by the US government, such as USAID

[:132-81] Valencia, Martha (2023-03-29). "Foro Madrid se desarrolla en Lima con grupos y congresistas de derecha". El Búho (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-04-26.

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[83] Felicien, Ana; Schiavoni, Christina; Venezuela, Liccia RomeroTopics: Agriculture Ecology Movements Places: Americas (2018-06-01). "The Politics of Food in Venezuela". Monthly Review. Retrieved 2023-11-17.

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[GUARD16may2016-85] Watts, Jonathan (19 May 2016). "President says Venezuela won't be next to fall, but he may not have a choice". the Guardian. The Guardian. Retrieved 26 May 2016.

[86] Sheridan, Mary Beth; Gearan, Anne (2019-02-09). "The accidental leader: How Juan Guaidó became the face of Venezuela's uprising". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2023-11-15.

[87] Fray, Keith; Daniels, Joe; Silva, Vanessa; Stott, Michael (2023-03-05). "How Venezuela's Nicolás Maduro outfoxed the west". Financial Times. Retrieved 2023-11-15.

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[89] Romero, Simon (2007-07-05). "Media Mogul Learns to Live With Chávez". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-11-16.

[BBCMON-90] "BBC Monitoring – Essential Media Insight". BBC Monitoring. 2019.

[:6-91] La muerte nuestra de cada día: violencia armada y políticas de seguridad ciudadana en Venezuela (Primeraición ed.). Bogotá, D.C: Editorial Universidad del Rosario. 2021. ISBN 9789587848113. El Nacional, Efecto Cocuyo y Runrunes (que siguen una línea de oposición al Gobierno) (El Nacional, Efecto Cocuyo and Runrunes (which follow a line of opposition to the Government))

[92] "Un mandat d'arrêt a été émis contre le nouveau conseil d'administration du parlement parallèle de l'opposition vénézuélienne". Europa Press. Retrieved 7 June 2023. le portail d'information pro-opposition Efecto Cocuyo

[93] "Venezuela's El Nacional newspaper to cease print edition". Associated Press. 13 December 2018. Retrieved 6 June 2023.

[94] "Venezuela's El Nacional paper stops the presses". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 6 June 2023.

[95] "La propaganda de Rusia sobre la guerra se desliza en medios estatales de Venezuela". Voz de América (in Spanish). 2022-03-31. Retrieved 2023-06-28.

[96] "Venezuela: Freedom On The Net". Freedom on the Net 2013. Freedom House. 2013. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.

[:03-97] "Venezuelan journalist in eye of Chavez cancer storm". Reuters. 8 March 2012. Retrieved 7 June 2023. With a daily drip-drip of rumors and details about Chavez's condition, the openly pro-opposition Bocaranda has garnered more than 670,000 followers

[:15-98] "Venezuela y la conspiración de cada día". BBC News (in Spanish). 2012-05-20. Retrieved 2023-07-18. Nelson Bocaranda, an opposition supporter who in his column "Runrunes" publishes information about Chávez's state of health, said that members of the military leadership are preparing a self-coup if the president does not renew in office.

[99] "BBCM Latin America Watchlist for 19 January". BBC Monitoring. London. 19 January 2022. Venezuelan opposition-leaning news website Runrunes

[100] "Opposition journalist in Venezuela alleges plot to damage his reputation". LatAm Journalism Review by the Knight Center. 14 March 2012.

[LIbeyond-101] Lansberg-Rodríguez, Daniel (June 2015). Beyond Propaganda June 2015 - The New Authoritarians: Ruling Through Disinformation. London, United Kingdom: Legatum Institute. pp. 2–12. ISBN 9781907409837.

[102] Andrew Cawthorne, Reuters, 10 May 2012, Chavez rival struggles to close gap in Venezuela race

[103] "Venezuela's Cabello - defector after money, can't prove drug claims". Reuters. 2015-01-29. Retrieved 2023-06-28.

[JoD-104] Corrales, Javier (April 2015). "The Authoritarian Resurgence". Journal of Democracy. 26 (2): 37–51. doi:10.1353/jod.2015.0031. S2CID 153641967.

[105] "WORLD REPORT | 2014" (PDF). Report. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 2 May 2014.

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[Yoon-2023-107] Yoon, John; Mayorquin, Orlando (6 October 2023). "Venezuela Seeks Arrest of Juan Guaidó, Former Opposition Leader". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 9 October 2023.

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[EUai-109] "Amnesty International deplores actions against Mayor Ledezma". El Universal. 20 February 2015. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 20 February 2015.

[WSJfeb19-110] Vyas, Kejal (19 February 2015). "Caracas Mayor Detained By State Agents Antonio Ledezma, fierce critic of President Nicolás Maduro, taken away by armed agents". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 20 February 2015.

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[MurderCharges-112] Castillo, Mariano and Ed Payne (20 February 2014). "Murder charges against Venezuela opposition leader dropped". CNN. Retrieved 23 February 2014.

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@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 }}
 [[File:State flag of Venezuela (1954–2006).svg|thumb|The 1954 [[flag of Venezuela]], used by some members of the Venezuelan opposition]]
-The '''Venezuelan opposition''' is a political [[umbrella term]] given to those who oppose the [[Bolivarian Revolution]] and its leaders, [[Hugo Chávez]] and [[Nicolás Maduro]] and which is made primarily of [[right-wing]] groups.<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |last1=Calla |first1=Pamela |last2=Striffler |first2=Steve |title=Reform and revolution in South America: a forum on Bolivia and Venezuela |journal=[[Dialectical Anthropology]] |date=September 2011 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=239–241 |doi=10.1007/s10624-011-9239-5|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=November 2023}}<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |title=Venezuela and the U.S. Left at a Crossroads |url=https://nacla.org/venezuela-and-us-left-crossroads |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[NACLA]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last=Finn |first=Daniel |date=22 May 2017 |title=Unfinished Business |url=https://jacobin.com/2017/05/unfinished-business |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite web |date=2017-05-10 |title=Plotting a soft coup? |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/world-affairs/plotting-a-soft-coup/article9687720.ece |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web |last=Mastrangelo |first=Dominick |date=2020-12-07 |title=Maduro claims sweeping victory in Venezuela elections boycotted by opposition politicians |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/529003-maduro-claims-sweeping-victory-in-venezuela-elections-boycotted-by-opposition/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-10 |title=Legislative election leaves Venezuela in political standoff |url=https://apnews.com/article/boycotts-venezuela-elections-caracas-b8641cba3354cf8acca765d0de7d3ca8 |access-date=2023-11-18 |website=[[Associated Press]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Petras |first1=James F. |last2=Veltmeyer |first2=Henry |title=Beyond neoliberalism: a world to win |date=2011 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-1409428473 |page=173 |quote=the right-wing opposition in countries such as ... Venezuela}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=November 2023}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arnoldy |first1=Laurie |title=Fact and Fiction: Venezuelan Education Reform Law |journal=[[Law and Business Review of the Americas]] |date=2010 |volume=16 |issue=4 |page=881 |url=https://scholar.smu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1484&context=lbra |quote=Right-wing opposition continues to fight against liberalizing changes and cling to their traditional beliefs, while Chavez, the National Assembly, and their supporters struggle}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=November 2023}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-20 |title=UN rights experts report a rise of efforts in Venezuela to curtail democracy ahead of 2024 election |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/un-rights-experts-report-a-rise-of-efforts-in-venezuela-to-curtail-democracy-ahead-of-2024-election |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=PBS NewsHour |language=en-us}}</ref>{{Too many citations inline|date=November 2023}} Actions between the opposition and the Bolivarian government resulted with increased [[political polarization]] in Venezuela; the opposition would at times participate in undemocratic efforts to overthrow the government while the government would respond to these actions by justifying their own consolidation of power.{{dubious|date=November 2023}}{{lopsided|date=November 2023}}<ref name=":10">{{cite book |last1=Corrales |first1=Javier |last2=Penfold |first2=Michael |title=Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela |date=2011 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |location=Washington, D.C |isbn=978-0815704973 |page=15}}</ref>
+The '''Venezuelan opposition''' is a political [[umbrella term]] given to those who oppose the [[Bolivarian Revolution]] and its leaders, [[Hugo Chávez]] and [[Nicolás Maduro]] and which is made primarily of [[right-wing]] groups.<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |last1=Calla |first1=Pamela |last2=Striffler |first2=Steve |title=Reform and revolution in South America: a forum on Bolivia and Venezuela |journal=[[Dialectical Anthropology]] |date=September 2011 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=239–241 |doi=10.1007/s10624-011-9239-5|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=November 2023}}<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |title=Venezuela and the U.S. Left at a Crossroads |url=https://nacla.org/venezuela-and-us-left-crossroads |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[NACLA]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last=Finn |first=Daniel |date=22 May 2017 |title=Unfinished Business |url=https://jacobin.com/2017/05/unfinished-business |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite web |date=2017-05-10 |title=Plotting a soft coup? |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/world-affairs/plotting-a-soft-coup/article9687720.ece |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web |last=Mastrangelo |first=Dominick |date=2020-12-07 |title=Maduro claims sweeping victory in Venezuela elections boycotted by opposition politicians |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/529003-maduro-claims-sweeping-victory-in-venezuela-elections-boycotted-by-opposition/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-10 |title=Legislative election leaves Venezuela in political standoff |url=https://apnews.com/article/boycotts-venezuela-elections-caracas-b8641cba3354cf8acca765d0de7d3ca8 |access-date=2023-11-18 |website=[[Associated Press]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Petras |first1=James F. |last2=Veltmeyer |first2=Henry |title=Beyond neoliberalism: a world to win |date=2011 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-1409428473 |page=173 |quote=the right-wing opposition in countries such as ... Venezuela}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=November 2023}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arnoldy |first1=Laurie |title=Fact and Fiction: Venezuelan Education Reform Law |journal=[[Law and Business Review of the Americas]] |date=2010 |volume=16 |issue=4 |page=881 |url=https://scholar.smu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1484&context=lbra |quote=Right-wing opposition continues to fight against liberalizing changes and cling to their traditional beliefs, while Chavez, the National Assembly, and their supporters struggle}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=November 2023}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-20 |title=UN rights experts report a rise of efforts in Venezuela to curtail democracy ahead of 2024 election |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/un-rights-experts-report-a-rise-of-efforts-in-venezuela-to-curtail-democracy-ahead-of-2024-election |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=PBS NewsHour |language=en-us}}</ref>{{Too many citations inline|date=November 2023}} Actions between the opposition and the Bolivarian government resulted with increased [[political polarization]] in Venezuela; the opposition would at times participate in undemocratic efforts to overthrow the government while the government would respond to these actions by justifying their own consolidation of power.{{dubious|date=November 2023}}{{lopsided|date=November 2023}}<ref name=":10">{{cite book |last1=Corrales |first1=Javier |last2=Penfold |first2=Michael |title=Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela |date=2011 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |location=Washington, D.C |isbn=978-0815704973 |page=15}}</ref> Countering the opposition by the Venezuelan government grew more severe over time, with low levels of repression initially occurring under Chávez and drifting towards [[authoritarianism]] during the presidency of Maduro following the [[2014 Venezuelan protests]] of the [[La Salida]] movement.<ref name=":37">{{cite journal |last1=Jiménez |first1=Maryhen |title=Contesting Autocracy: Repression and Opposition Coordination in Venezuela |journal=Political Studies |date=February 2023 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=47–68 |doi=10.1177/0032321721999975 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0032321721999975}}</ref>
 == History ==
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 {{Main|2002 Venezuelan coup attempt}}
 [[File:Pedro Carmona Juramentándose.png|thumb|Venezuelan businessman [[Pedro Carmona]] swearing himself in as president amid the [[2002 Venezuelan coup attempt]]]]
+Between 2001 and 2003, the opposition appeared to hold the most power in Venezuela, with multiple chavistas defecting to join the opposition.<ref name=":16">{{cite book |last1=Corrales |first1=Javier |title=Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela |last2=Penfold |first2=Michael |date=2011 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=978-0815704973 |location=Washington, D.C |pages=21-24}}</ref> The opposition had access to multiple institutions including the legislature, the media, the petroleum industry and the military.<ref name=":37" /> Venezuelan business, media outlets and [[non-governmental organization]]s began to generate dissent against Chávez.<ref name=":16" />
-Between 2001 and 2003, the opposition appeared to hold the most power in Venezuela, with multiple chavistas defecting to join the opposition.<ref name=":16">{{cite book |last1=Corrales |first1=Javier |title=Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela |last2=Penfold |first2=Michael |date=2011 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=978-0815704973 |location=Washington, D.C |pages=21-24}}</ref> Venezuelan business, media outlets and [[non-governmental organization]]s began to generate dissent against Chávez.<ref name=":16" /> When Chávez attempted in November 2001 to restructure the state-run oil industry, [[PDVSA]], he faced his first critical conflict as the company and its leaders operated as a [[state-within-a-state]], personally profiting from Venezuelan oil sales.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Gott |first1=Richard |title=Hugo Chavez and the Bolivarian revolution |date=2005 |publisher=Verso |isbn=9781844675333 |location=London |pages=250-251 |language=en |chapter=The 'Economic Coup' of December 2002}}</ref> Chávez's restructuring of PDVSA and his large popular support resulted with the opposition participating in insurrection.<ref name=":1" /> The opposition then attempted to remove Chávez from the presidency in through a [[coup d'état]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Planning for a coup had been evolving for about two years.<ref name="Newsday">''Newsday'' (New York) 24 April 2002 Wednesday NASSAU AND SUFFOLK EDITION, "Peace Kept, for Now; In Venezuela, anarchy threatens at any moment", BYLINE: By Letta Tayler; LATIN AMERICA CORRESPONDENT, SECTION: NEWS, p. A06</ref> Various groups openly discussed a coup against Chávez, including with American diplomats,<ref name=":16" /><ref name="Al Jazeera">{{Citation |title=Hugo Chavez and the coup that never happened |date=2018-02-08 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1k065Qe9lE |work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |access-date=2018-08-30 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/J1k065Qe9lE |url-status=live |archive-date=2021-12-22}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="MH6">The Miami Herald, 20 April 2002 Saturday BR EDITION, Venezuelan defends his brief presidency; Denies conspiring against Chavez, BYLINE: FRANCES ROBLES frobles@herald.com, SECTION: A; Pg. 1</ref> with the opposition calling on the military to remove Chávez.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lievesley |first1=Geraldine |last2=Ludlam |first2=Steve |title=Reclaiming Latin America: experiments in radical social democracy |date=2009 |publisher=Zed books |location=London |isbn=978-1848131835 |page=67}}</ref> A report by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on 6 April 2022 with the title "Conditions Ripening for Coup Attempt" concluded that the opposition was planning a coup against Chávez and that protests would be used as a platform to initiate the plot.<ref name="gottp254">[[Richard Gott|Gott, Richard]] (2005), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ft6AyMxG4JEC&pg=PA225 Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution]'', [[Verso Books]], p224</ref> Dominguez compared the actions of the opposition during the 2002 coup to those taken by the right-wing opposition that participated in the [[1973 Chilean coup d'état]], writing that both groups formed coalitions said to be promoting democracy, they relied on American support and the use of private media to establish support.<ref name=":1" /> On the day of the coup attempt, 11 April 2002, opposition protesters marched in Caracas, with numbers estimated to be up to one million people.<ref name="HAWK">{{cite book |last1=Hawkins |first1=Kirk A. |title=Venezuela's Chavismo and populism in comparative perspective |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521765039 |edition=1st publ. |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="YERGIN">{{cite book |last1=Yergin |first1=Daniel |title=The Quest: energy, security and the remaking of the modern world |date=2012 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-0143121947 |edition=revised & updated |location=New York}}</ref> A confrontation between opposition marchers and Chávez supporters led to gunfire, which resulted to deaths on both sides. Chávez was forced to resign the presidency and was arrested.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Scott |date=13 April 2002 |title=Leader of Venezuela Is Forced To Resign |work=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2002/04/13/leader-of-venezuela-is-forced-to-resign/cc06e4b8-5753-49b9-b3ec-864350cb762c/}}</ref><ref name="harnecker_09Jan2003">Harnecker, Marta. (''[[Z Communications]]'', 9 January 2003).[http://www.zcommunications.org/lessons-of-the-april-coup-by-hugo-chavez.pdf "Lessons of the April Coup: Harnecker interviews Chávez"]. Retrieved 7 September 2010. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221222251/http://www.zcommunications.org/lessons-of-the-april-coup-by-hugo-chavez.pdf|date=21 February 2014}}</ref> Businessman [[Pedro Carmona]] subsequently declared himself president, with Carmona decreeing that the [[1999 Venezuelan Constitution]] was invalid and dissolving the National Assembly and Supreme Court.<ref name=":3" /> A letter signed by Chávez was later leaked from prison saying that he did not resign and popular protests forced Carmona to abandon his efforts, with Chávez being reinstalled as president.<ref name="UltimasNoticias20020413">{{Cite web |date=13 April 2002 |title=Círculos bolivarianos protestaron |url=http://www.ultimasnoticias.com.ve/ediciones/2002/04/13/p16n2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031102043203/http://www.ultimasnoticias.com.ve/ediciones/2002/04/13/p16n2.htm |archive-date=2 November 2003 |access-date=11 April 2008 |publisher=[[Últimas Noticias]] |language=es}}</ref>
+When Chávez attempted in November 2001 to restructure the state-run oil industry, [[PDVSA]], he faced his first critical conflict as the company and its leaders operated as a [[state-within-a-state]], personally profiting from Venezuelan oil sales.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Gott |first1=Richard |title=Hugo Chavez and the Bolivarian revolution |date=2005 |publisher=Verso |isbn=9781844675333 |location=London |pages=250-251 |language=en |chapter=The 'Economic Coup' of December 2002}}</ref> Chávez's restructuring of PDVSA and his large popular support resulted with the opposition participating in insurrection.<ref name=":1" /> The opposition then attempted to remove Chávez from the presidency in through a [[coup d'état]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Planning for a coup had been evolving for about two years.<ref name="Newsday">''Newsday'' (New York) 24 April 2002 Wednesday NASSAU AND SUFFOLK EDITION, "Peace Kept, for Now; In Venezuela, anarchy threatens at any moment", BYLINE: By Letta Tayler; LATIN AMERICA CORRESPONDENT, SECTION: NEWS, p. A06</ref> Various groups openly discussed a coup against Chávez, including with American diplomats,<ref name=":16" /><ref name="Al Jazeera">{{Citation |title=Hugo Chavez and the coup that never happened |date=2018-02-08 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1k065Qe9lE |work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |access-date=2018-08-30 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/J1k065Qe9lE |url-status=live |archive-date=2021-12-22}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="MH6">The Miami Herald, 20 April 2002 Saturday BR EDITION, Venezuelan defends his brief presidency; Denies conspiring against Chavez, BYLINE: FRANCES ROBLES frobles@herald.com, SECTION: A; Pg. 1</ref> with the opposition calling on the military to remove Chávez.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lievesley |first1=Geraldine |last2=Ludlam |first2=Steve |title=Reclaiming Latin America: experiments in radical social democracy |date=2009 |publisher=Zed books |location=London |isbn=978-1848131835 |page=67}}</ref> A report by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] on 6 April 2022 with the title "Conditions Ripening for Coup Attempt" concluded that the opposition was planning a coup against Chávez and that protests would be used as a platform to initiate the plot.<ref name="gottp254">[[Richard Gott|Gott, Richard]] (2005), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ft6AyMxG4JEC&pg=PA225 Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution]'', [[Verso Books]], p224</ref> Dominguez compared the actions of the opposition during the 2002 coup to those taken by the right-wing opposition that participated in the [[1973 Chilean coup d'état]], writing that both groups formed coalitions said to be promoting democracy, they relied on American support and the use of private media to establish support.<ref name=":1" /> On the day of the coup attempt, 11 April 2002, opposition protesters marched in Caracas, with numbers estimated to be up to one million people.<ref name="HAWK">{{cite book |last1=Hawkins |first1=Kirk A. |title=Venezuela's Chavismo and populism in comparative perspective |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521765039 |edition=1st publ. |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="YERGIN">{{cite book |last1=Yergin |first1=Daniel |title=The Quest: energy, security and the remaking of the modern world |date=2012 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-0143121947 |edition=revised & updated |location=New York}}</ref> A confrontation between opposition marchers and Chávez supporters led to gunfire, which resulted to deaths on both sides. Chávez was forced to resign the presidency and was arrested.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Scott |date=13 April 2002 |title=Leader of Venezuela Is Forced To Resign |work=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2002/04/13/leader-of-venezuela-is-forced-to-resign/cc06e4b8-5753-49b9-b3ec-864350cb762c/}}</ref><ref name="harnecker_09Jan2003">Harnecker, Marta. (''[[Z Communications]]'', 9 January 2003).[http://www.zcommunications.org/lessons-of-the-april-coup-by-hugo-chavez.pdf "Lessons of the April Coup: Harnecker interviews Chávez"]. Retrieved 7 September 2010. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221222251/http://www.zcommunications.org/lessons-of-the-april-coup-by-hugo-chavez.pdf|date=21 February 2014}}</ref> Businessman [[Pedro Carmona]] subsequently declared himself president, with Carmona decreeing that the [[1999 Venezuelan Constitution]] was invalid and dissolving the National Assembly and Supreme Court.<ref name=":3" /> A letter signed by Chávez was later leaked from prison saying that he did not resign and popular protests forced Carmona to abandon his efforts, with Chávez being reinstalled as president.<ref name="UltimasNoticias20020413">{{Cite web |date=13 April 2002 |title=Círculos bolivarianos protestaron |url=http://www.ultimasnoticias.com.ve/ediciones/2002/04/13/p16n2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031102043203/http://www.ultimasnoticias.com.ve/ediciones/2002/04/13/p16n2.htm |archive-date=2 November 2003 |access-date=11 April 2008 |publisher=[[Últimas Noticias]] |language=es}}</ref>
-The attempt to overthrow Chávez was politically devastating for the opposition and led to increased [[political polarization]].<ref name=":16" /> Actions taken by the opposition reinforced Chávez's confrontational behavior, resulting with the government pushing the opposition to extreme positions and then later justifying its own actions.<ref name=":16" />
+The attempt to overthrow Chávez was politically devastating for the opposition and led to increased [[political polarization]].<ref name=":16" /> Actions taken by the opposition reinforced Chávez's confrontational behavior, resulting with the government pushing the opposition to extreme positions and then later justifying its own actions.<ref name=":16" /> Venezuela's armed forces would be purged by the Chávez government in 2002.<ref name=":37" />
 ==== General strike ====
@@ Line 31: / Line 33: @@
 In 2004, another attempt by the opposition to remove Chávez was through a recall referendum.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Cannon |first1=Barry |title=As Clear as MUD: Characteristics, Objectives, and Strategies of the Opposition in Bolivarian Venezuela |journal=[[Latin American Politics and Society]] |date=2014 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=49–70 |doi=10.1111/j.1548-2456.2014.00248.x |language=en}}</ref> After the general strike failed, CD began negotiating more with the Chávez government and reached an agreement that a recall election would be held.<ref name="Cooper & Legler 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Cooper |first1=Andrew F. |last2=Legler |first2=Thomas |date=3 August 2005 |title=A Tale of Two Mesas: The OAS Defense of Democracy in Peru and Venezuela |journal=Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=425–444 |doi=10.1163/19426720-01104003}}</ref> [[Cuban exile]] [[Roberto Alonso]], an [[anti-Castro]] leader of the Venezuelan opposition group Bloque Democrático, created a protest tactic known as the [[guarimba]] as a way to remove Chávez after seeing the failed 2002 coup.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-05-17 |title=Dirigente opositor radical denuncia allanamiento de su residencia en Venezuela |url=https://www.eluniverso.com/2004/05/17/0001/14/3F16404CA9D74E9C8FA2184E0A3D5D7F.html |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=[[El Universo]] |language=es}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite news |last=Zeitlin |first=Janine |date=11 October 2007 |title=War on Hugo Chávez |work=[[Miami New Times]] |url=http://www.miaminewtimes.com/2007-10-11/news/war-on-hugo-ch-aacute-vez/full |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720043302/http://www.miaminewtimes.com/2007-10-11/news/war-on-hugo-ch-aacute-vez/full |archive-date=20 July 2008}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{cite web |last=Marshall |first=Robin |date=26 May 2004 |title=VENEZUELA: New coup plot uncovered |url=https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/venezuela-new-coup-plot-uncovered |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228131838/https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/venezuela-new-coup-plot-uncovered |archivedate=28 February 2020 |accessdate= |website=[[Green Left (Australian newspaper)|Green Left]]}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{cite news |date=9 May 2004 |title=Capturan "paramilitares" en Venezuela |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_3698000/3698989.stm |accessdate=22 April 2010}}</ref>  In an effort to create "total anarchy", Alonso partnered with the opposition to spring guarimba protests on 5 March 2004 and have a military coup remove Chávez two days later.<ref name=":23" /> Thousands of protesters blocked streets in Venezuela after the signature collection for the referendum was declared fraudulent, though the demonstrations subsided when the opposition and government agreed on how to proceed with the recall referendum.<ref name=":23" /> In May 2004, a ranch belonging to Alonso was raided during the [[Daktari Ranch affair]] and hundreds of Colombian paramilitaries were arrested in relation to an alleged plot to overthrow the Chávez government.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":23" />
 Nearly sixty percent of voters refused to recall Chávez in the referendum in August 2004. CD rejected the results of the election and dissolved later that year.<ref name="Cooper & Legler 2005" /> During the lull in conflict, Chávez used the peacetime to consolidate power and place more obstacles against the opposition.<ref name=":10"/> The [[2005 Venezuelan parliamentary election]] was boycotted by the opposition a year later.<ref name=":1" />
-==== 2007 protests, 2012 and 2013 presidential elections ====
+==== 2006 presidential elections ====
+{{Main|2006 Venezuelan presidential election}}
+After the opposition boycotted and lost all seats in the [[National Assembly of Venezuela]], the chavista legislators began to consolidate power, resulting with the opposition participating in elections once more and consolidating their actions.<ref name=":37" /> Some party leaders made an informal agreement to choose [[Manuel Rosales]] of [[A New Era]] as a candidate due to his opinion polling support, though the opposition as a whole did not consolidate as they did not see Chávez as a threat.<ref name=":37" />
+==== 2007 protests and 2009 referendum ====
 [[File:RCTVEstudiantes1.JPG|thumb|University students protesting in 2007]]
-Student movements opposed to Chávez emerged during the [[2007 Venezuelan RCTV protests]] and [[2007 Venezuelan referendum protests]].<ref name=":0" /> Following its failed confrontational approach in the early 2000s, the opposition began to participate in [[party politics]] and created the [[Democratic Unity Roundtable]] in 2008, which resulted in some electoral success.<ref name=":0" /> By the time of the [[2012 Venezuelan presidential election]], moderate opposition presidential candidate and founder of [[Justice First]] [[Henrique Capriles]] had begun to appeal to disillusioned chavista voters and became a true contender against Chávez, though he was not elected.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |date=21 May 2014 |title=Venezuela: Tipping Point |journal=Crisis Group Latin America Briefing |publisher=[[International Crisis Group]] |issue=30 |pages=10 |quote=López joined forces with Caracas metropolitan mayor Antonio Ledezma of the Courageous People Alliance (ABP) and independent congresswoman María Corina Machado in early 2014 in 'La Salida' to demand a change of government. This move was frowned on by the moderates in the MUD. Capriles, whose ability to appeal to disaffected chavistas had helped broaden the opposition’s voter base, saw his leadership challenged by a faction whose message seemed intended to polarise, not unite, the electorate.}}</ref><ref name=":4" />
+Three actions by Chávez to consolidate power resulted with a joint opposition coalition and an opposition student movement; the [[RCTV#2007 – shutdown|shut down of RCTV,]] the [[2007 Venezuelan constitutional referendum]] to turn Venezuela into a [[socialist]] nation and the [[2009 Venezuelan constitutional referendum]] which proposed indefinite re-election of the officeholders.<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":0" /> The [[2007 Venezuelan RCTV protests]] and the [[2007 Venezuelan referendum protests]] occurred as a result. Following its failed confrontational approach in the early 2000s, the opposition began to support participation in elections and created the [[Democratic Unity Roundtable|Democratic Unity Roundtable (MUD)]] in 2008, which resulted in some electoral success.<ref name=":0" /> Opposition leaders said that the formation of MUD was in response to their perception of increased repression from the Chávez government.<ref name=":37" />
+==== 2012 and 2013 presidential elections ====
+By the time of the [[2012 Venezuelan presidential election]], moderate opposition presidential candidate and founder of [[Justice First]] [[Henrique Capriles]] had begun to appeal to disillusioned chavista voters and became a true contender against Chávez, though he was not elected.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |date=21 May 2014 |title=Venezuela: Tipping Point |journal=Crisis Group Latin America Briefing |publisher=[[International Crisis Group]] |issue=30 |pages=10 |quote=López joined forces with Caracas metropolitan mayor Antonio Ledezma of the Courageous People Alliance (ABP) and independent congresswoman María Corina Machado in early 2014 in 'La Salida' to demand a change of government. This move was frowned on by the moderates in the MUD. Capriles, whose ability to appeal to disaffected chavistas had helped broaden the opposition’s voter base, saw his leadership challenged by a faction whose message seemed intended to polarise, not unite, the electorate.}}</ref><ref name=":4" />
 === Maduro presidency ===
@@ Line 41: / Line 50: @@
 ==== La Salida protests ====
-In February 2014, amid an economic decline and concerns about insecurity, [[Popular Will]] founder [[Leopoldo López]] led the [[La Salida]] movement of the opposition in an effort to remove Maduro from office.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web |date=15 September 2020 |title=Detailed findings of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela |url=https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/FFMV/A_HRC_45_CRP.11.pdf |website=[[United Nations Human Rights Council]] |page=14 |quote=In January 2014, in a context of economic decline, inflation and widespread insecurity in the country, a group of opposition leaders initiated a campaign to remove President Nicolás Maduro from office. The effort was referred to as “The Exit” (“La Salida”).}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellaviti |first1=Sean |date=May 2021 |title=La Hora de la Salsa : Nicolás Maduro and the Political Dimensions of Salsa in Venezuela |journal=[[Journal of Latin American Studies]] |language=en |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=373–396 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X21000237 |quote=Dubbed ‘La Salida’ (The Exit) by members of the opposition who called for Maduro's ousting}}</ref> During the protests, the opposition adopted similar tactics used during the 2002 coup attempt and the general strike shortly after, while also adopting the guarimba strategy used in 2004 in order to oust Maduro.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tinker Salas |first=Miguel |date=2014-03-04 |title=What is Happening in Venezuela? |url=https://cepr.net/what-is-happening-in-venezuela/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[Center for Economic and Policy Research]] |language=en-US}}</ref> After protests turned violent, on 18 February 2014 López turned himself in and was imprisoned,<ref name="AlJazeera20142">{{Cite web |date=24 February 2014 |title=Venezuela protest death toll rises to 13 |url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/2/24/venezuela-death-tollrisesto13asprotestsflare.html |access-date=30 October 2023 |website=[[Al Jazeera America|Al Jazeera]] |quote=a nationwide effort called 'la Salida' or 'the Exit,' aimed at ending Maduro's rule.}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Kobelinsky |first=Fernanda |date=18 February 2017 |title=La historia detrás de la detención de Leopoldo López: sus horas previas, por qué se entregó y la sorprendente oferta de Maduro |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/venezuela/2017/02/18/la-historia-detras-de-la-detencion-de-leopoldo-lopez-sus-horas-previas-por-que-se-entrego-y-la-sorprendente-oferta-de-maduro/ |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=[[Infobae]] |language=es}}</ref> which provided more energy to the opposition movement.<ref name="Pizzi2014">{{Cite web |last=Pizzi |first=Michael |date=19 February 2014 |title=Venezuela unrest energizes opposition |url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/2/19/venezuela-unrestenergizesoppositionbutdontexpectacoup.html |access-date=30 October 2023 |website=[[Al Jazeera America|Al Jazeera]]}}</ref>
+After continuous electoral losses, the opposition's consolidation broke when some groups took individualized actions.<ref name=":37" /> In February 2014, amid an economic decline and concerns about insecurity, [[Popular Will]] founder [[Leopoldo López]] led the [[La Salida]] movement of the opposition in an effort to remove Maduro from office.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web |date=15 September 2020 |title=Detailed findings of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela |url=https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/FFMV/A_HRC_45_CRP.11.pdf |website=[[United Nations Human Rights Council]] |page=14 |quote=In January 2014, in a context of economic decline, inflation and widespread insecurity in the country, a group of opposition leaders initiated a campaign to remove President Nicolás Maduro from office. The effort was referred to as “The Exit” (“La Salida”).}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellaviti |first1=Sean |date=May 2021 |title=La Hora de la Salsa : Nicolás Maduro and the Political Dimensions of Salsa in Venezuela |journal=[[Journal of Latin American Studies]] |language=en |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=373–396 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X21000237 |quote=Dubbed ‘La Salida’ (The Exit) by members of the opposition who called for Maduro's ousting}}</ref> During the protests, the opposition adopted similar tactics used during the 2002 coup attempt and the general strike shortly after, while also adopting the guarimba strategy used in 2004 in order to oust Maduro.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tinker Salas |first=Miguel |date=2014-03-04 |title=What is Happening in Venezuela? |url=https://cepr.net/what-is-happening-in-venezuela/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[Center for Economic and Policy Research]] |language=en-US}}</ref> After protests turned violent, on 18 February 2014 López turned himself in and was imprisoned.<ref name="AlJazeera20142">{{Cite web |date=24 February 2014 |title=Venezuela protest death toll rises to 13 |url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/2/24/venezuela-death-tollrisesto13asprotestsflare.html |access-date=30 October 2023 |website=[[Al Jazeera America|Al Jazeera]] |quote=a nationwide effort called 'la Salida' or 'the Exit,' aimed at ending Maduro's rule.}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Kobelinsky |first=Fernanda |date=18 February 2017 |title=La historia detrás de la detención de Leopoldo López: sus horas previas, por qué se entregó y la sorprendente oferta de Maduro |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/venezuela/2017/02/18/la-historia-detras-de-la-detencion-de-leopoldo-lopez-sus-horas-previas-por-que-se-entrego-y-la-sorprendente-oferta-de-maduro/ |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=[[Infobae]] |language=es}}</ref> Tensions among the opposition were exposed as a result of La Salida and it weakened the MUD.<ref name=":37" /> From this point, the Maduro government grew more repressive towards to opposition.<ref name=":37" />
+==== 2015 legislative elections and National Assembly control ====
 In the [[2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election]], the opposition consolidated its strategy and won a majority in the [[National Assembly of Venezuela]].<ref name=":4">{{cite book |last1=Neumann |first1=William |title=Things are never so bad that they can't get worse: inside the collapse of Venezuela |date=2022 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=9781250266163 |pages=204-205}}</ref> The [[Lame duck (politics)|lame duck]] chavista National Assembly would pack the [[Supreme Tribunal of Justice (Venezuela)|Supreme Tribunal of Justice]] prior to its departure.<ref name="NYTmuzzle">{{cite news |last1=Casey |first1=Nicholas |last2=Torres |first2=Patricia |date=30 March 2017 |title=Venezuela Muzzles Legislature, Moving Closer to One-Man Rule |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/30/world/americas/venezuelas-supreme-court-takes-power-from-legislature.html |access-date=31 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=23 December 2015 |title=Venezuela's Lame-Duck Congress Names New Supreme Court Justices |language=en |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-23/venezuela-s-lame-duck-congress-names-new-supreme-court-justices |access-date=31 March 2017}}</ref> In 2017, Maduro would bypass the opposition-led National Assembly by creating the [[2017 Constituent National Assembly of Venezuela]], leading to the [[2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis]] since the constitutional body held more authority than the National Assembly.<ref name=":14" />
@@ Line 71: / Line 81: @@
 == Function ==
+=== Coordination ===
+The temporary coalition of [[Coordinadora Democrática (Venezuela)|Coordinadora Democrática (CD)]] lacked cohesion and was dominated by business and media groups, resulting with divided decision making.<ref name=":37" /> With the formation of the [[Democratic Unity Roundtable|Democratic Unity Roundtable (MUD)]], the opposition coalition created a set of rules regarding decisions, including decisions being made by a majority of 3/5ths of members or 70% of the popular vote during election processes, the process to determine a joint candidate either through majority or a [[primary election]] and a unified policy framework.<ref name=":37" /> Such coordination resulted with a more unified long-term strategy as opposed to short-term individualized interests.<ref name=":37" />
 === Strategies ===
-According to Corrales and Penfold, different groups of the opposition utilized three strategies; electoral participation, electoral abstention and a combative approach.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Corrales |first1=Javier |title=Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela |last2=Penfold |first2=Michael |date=2011 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=9780815704973 |location=Washington, D.C |page=29}}</ref> Corrales and Penfold explained that the opposition would react to actions taken by the government by first protesting, then attempting to overthrow the government, and later by becoming more electorally involved.<ref name=":10" />
+According to Corrales and Penfold, different groups of the opposition utilized three strategies; electoral participation, electoral abstention and a combative approach.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Corrales |first1=Javier |title=Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela |last2=Penfold |first2=Michael |date=2011 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=9780815704973 |location=Washington, D.C |page=29}}</ref> Corrales and Penfold explained that the opposition would react to actions taken by the government by first protesting, then attempting to overthrow the government, and later by becoming more electorally involved.<ref name=":10" /> Jiménez states that the opposition would take [[reactionary]] actions, including coup attempts and general strikes, when opponents were not consolidated in a joint cause.<ref name=":37" /> Since the foundation of MUD, the opposition adopted the strategy of contesting every election.<ref name=":37" />
 Following the opposition's loss in the 2013 presidential elections, some opposition groups alleged that Maduro was born in Colombia without providing any proof, saying that this would disqualify him from holding the presidential office in Venezuela.<ref name=":34">{{Cite web |last=Castillo |first=Mariano |date=2013-07-27 |title=A 'birther' movement rises in Venezuela |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/27/world/americas/venezuela-birther-movement/index.html |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=[[CNN]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{Cite web |date=2016-10-25 |title=Venezuela: Pres. Maduro opponents fan flames of birther debate |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/venezuela-pres-maduro-opponents-fan-flames-birther-debate-n672666 |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=[[Associated Press]] |language=en}}</ref> The Associated Press described the tactic as an attempt to "push the embattled socialist leader from office at any cost."<ref name=":35" /> The strategy was compared to the [[birther conspiracy]], a [[fringe theory]] that targeted [[Barack Obama]] in a similar way.<ref name=":34" /><ref name=":35" /><ref name=":36">{{Cite news |date=2013-08-01 |title=Venezuela: President faces 'birther' claims of being born in Colombia |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-23538119 |access-date=2023-11-20}}</ref> A document obtained by a Panamanian politician and promoted by some members of the opposition was declared as falsified.<ref name=":36" />
@@ Line 86: / Line 99: @@
 == Demographics ==
-Members of the opposition, Dominguez says, mainly comprises members of the old [[aristocracy]], business groups and university students.<ref name=":1" /> Opposition groups typically support [[right-wing politics]].<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":24" /> According to Gott, Maher and MacLeod, members of the Venezuelan opposition are primarily [[Middle class|middle]] and [[upper class]] individuals who were [[White people|white]].<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Maher |first=Geo |title=Chávez and Chavismo: Revolution from the Barrio |url=https://thebrooklyninstitute.com/items/courses/new-york/chavez-and-chavismo-revolution-in-the-barrio/ |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=Brooklyn Institute for Social Research |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Felicien |first=Ana |last2=Schiavoni |first2=Christina |last3=Venezuela |first3=Liccia RomeroTopics: Agriculture Ecology Movements Places: Americas |date=2018-06-01 |title=The Politics of Food in Venezuela |url=https://monthlyreview.org/2018/06/01/the-politics-of-food-in-venezuela/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[Monthly Review]] |language=en-US}}</ref> MacLeod notes that Hugo Chávez was the first non-white president of Venezuela in recent history and that since his election, Venezuela experienced class and racial conflict.<ref name=":8" /> Gott would elaborate on race, saying that [[racism in Venezuela]] primarily used by white opposition supporters would be used against Chávez and his supporters.<ref name=":2" /> Lupien writes that the opposition was shown as being "light-skinned" and "decent" while chavistas were called "thick-lipped" and "monkeys."<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |last1=Lupien |first1=Pascal |date=May 2013 |title=The Media in Venezuela and Bolivia: Attacking the “Bad Left” from Below |journal=Latin American Perspectives |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=226–246 |doi=10.1177/0094582X13476004}}</ref> Further [[protests against Nicolás Maduro]] mainly comprised middle class and wealthy students who demonstrated in affluent communities.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12" /> As conditions worsened during the [[crisis in Venezuela]], some lower class citizens began to oppose the Maduro government.<ref name="GUARD16may2016">{{cite news |last1=Watts |first1=Jonathan |date=19 May 2016 |title=President says Venezuela won't be next to fall, but he may not have a choice |work=the Guardian |agency=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/19/venezuela-unrest-nicolas-maduro-protests |access-date=26 May 2016}}</ref>
+Members of the opposition, Dominguez says, mainly comprises members of the old [[aristocracy]], business groups and university students.<ref name=":1" /> Opposition groups typically support [[right-wing politics]]<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":24" /> and opposition parties often ignored their ideological backgrounds in order to form a united opposition.<ref name=":37" /> According to Gott, Maher and MacLeod, members of the Venezuelan opposition are primarily [[Middle class|middle]] and [[upper class]] individuals who were [[White people|white]].<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Maher |first=Geo |title=Chávez and Chavismo: Revolution from the Barrio |url=https://thebrooklyninstitute.com/items/courses/new-york/chavez-and-chavismo-revolution-in-the-barrio/ |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=Brooklyn Institute for Social Research |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Felicien |first=Ana |last2=Schiavoni |first2=Christina |last3=Venezuela |first3=Liccia RomeroTopics: Agriculture Ecology Movements Places: Americas |date=2018-06-01 |title=The Politics of Food in Venezuela |url=https://monthlyreview.org/2018/06/01/the-politics-of-food-in-venezuela/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[Monthly Review]] |language=en-US}}</ref> MacLeod notes that Hugo Chávez was the first non-white president of Venezuela in recent history and that since his election, Venezuela experienced class and racial conflict.<ref name=":8" /> Gott would elaborate on race, saying that [[racism in Venezuela]] primarily used by white opposition supporters would be used against Chávez and his supporters.<ref name=":2" /> Lupien writes that the opposition was shown as being "light-skinned" and "decent" while chavistas were called "thick-lipped" and "monkeys."<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |last1=Lupien |first1=Pascal |date=May 2013 |title=The Media in Venezuela and Bolivia: Attacking the “Bad Left” from Below |journal=Latin American Perspectives |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=226–246 |doi=10.1177/0094582X13476004}}</ref> Further [[protests against Nicolás Maduro]] mainly comprised middle class and wealthy students who demonstrated in affluent communities.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12" /> As conditions worsened during the [[crisis in Venezuela]], some lower class citizens began to oppose the Maduro government.<ref name="GUARD16may2016">{{cite news |last1=Watts |first1=Jonathan |date=19 May 2016 |title=President says Venezuela won't be next to fall, but he may not have a choice |work=the Guardian |agency=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/19/venezuela-unrest-nicolas-maduro-protests |access-date=26 May 2016}}</ref>
 == Organization ==