Maithili grammar
This page describes the grammar of Maithili language, which has a complex verbal system, nominal declension with a few inflections, and extensive use of honoroficity. It is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Maithili people and is spoken in the Indian state of Bihar with some speakers in Jharkhand and nearby states.The language has a large number of speakers in Nepal too, which is second in number of speakers after Bihar.[1]
Maithili has the following characteristic morphological features:
- Number is not grammatically marked.
- Gender distinctions are also absent in verbs and pronouns.
- There is a lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.
- Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.[2]
Nominals
Nouns are inflected for several cases. Grammarians consider only few of them to be pure inflection.
| Case name | Postpositions | Examples | English translation | Singular Inflection | Plural Inflection* | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative
(कर्ता kartā) |
नेना खैत छे। | Boy is eating. | ∅ (Inherent Vowel) | -(अ)न,
-(अ)नि (ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆ | ||
| Accusative
(कर्म karma)[3] |
Definite Object
(without determiners) |
के ke | ऊ नेनाके खिलैैतꣿ। | He/she will feed the boy. | Postposition used
← | |
| Indefinite
Object |
बियाहक बादि ऊ नेना पालतꣿ । | He/she nurture a boy, after marriage | ∅ | |||
| Instrumental
(करण karaṇa) |
सँऽ sɔ̃ | नेनासँऽ गिरल रहꣿ। | It was fallen by the boy. | -एँ ẽː** | -(अ)न्हि
(ə)nʰɪ̆ | |
| Dative
(सम्प्रदान sampradāna) |
के, लऽ, लेलऺ
keː, ləː, leːlᵊ |
नेनाके खाना खिलौ। | Feed the boy the food. | -(अ)ल
(ə)lə |
Postposition used ← | |
| Ergative[4]
(सापेक्ष)‡ |
न, नॆ nə, ne | नेनेँ पेड़ दॆखलकꣿ। | The boy saw the tree. | -एँ ẽː, nasalised vowel | No forms | |
| Ablative
(अपादान apādāna) |
तोँ tõː (mostly for comparative)
से seː |
पेड़से फलऺ गिरलकꣿ। | Fruit fell from the tree. | -(अ)तः
(ə)təh -(अ)हु* | ||
| Genitive
(सम्बन्ध sambandha) |
कर kərᵊ | नेनाक खॆॆलॏना छिकꣿ। | The toy is of the boy. | -(अ)क
(ə)kᵊ -(अ)र (ə)rᵊ |
-केर, -आँँक
keːrᵊ, ãːkə̆ᵊ | |
| Locative
(अधिकरण adhikaraṇa) |
तऽ təː
मेँ, मँऽ (Inessive) पर्, पे pər, peː (Superessive) |
छतिपर् रखने छꣿ। |
It is placed on the terrace. | -ए eː** -(अ)हि* |
-आँ ãː | |
| Postpositional
(परसर्गीय parasargīya)§ |
अगला महीनामेँ हॊऎतꣿ। | It will happen in next month. | ∅
(In र, ड़, ढ़, ल, न, ब stems -आ aː) |
-(अ)न,
-(अ)नि (ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆ (ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆ | ||
| Vocative
(सम्बोधन sambodhana) |
रॏ नेनऽ! औ। | O boy! Come. | ∅ | |||
- *These forms are abundant in literature, but are less used in spoken language.
- ‡Ergative is more used in eastern and southern dialects. Maithili also has parallel accusative structure and both can be used. If ergative is used, then nominative is used as absolutive.
- **Used only in neuter and inanimates.
- §It is used, when a postposition is added to the word. Some other postpositions are-
| Case name | Postposition | |
|---|---|---|
| Allative | दक dəkə | |
| Terminative | तक, ला təkᵊ, laː | |
| Abessive | बिनु bɪnʊ | |
| Adverbial | जकाँ , सोँ dʑəkãː, sõː | |
| Genitive adjectives | Masculine object | कऽ, रऽ kɔ, rɔ |
| Feminine object | कि, रि kɪ, rɪ | |
| Neuter object | क, र kə, rə | |
Some postpositions are added to the genitive too.
- Inflectional plural is less in use than the Periphrastic one, and is mostly found in literature.
- Periphrastic Plural is made सभsuffixes like सभऺ səbʰᵊ; लोकनि loːknɪ̆, सबहि səbəɦɪ̆, गण ɡəɳᵊ, जन dʑənᵊ could be used for animates and आरनि aːrənɪ̆, सनि sənɪ for all.
Common vowel stem
| Case name | Singular Inflection | Plural Inflection | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | -इ ɪ | -आ/अऽ aː/ɔ | -इन ɪnᵊ | -अन, -अनि
ənᵊ, ənɪ̆ |
-अन, -अनि
ənᵊ, ənɪ̆ | |
| Accusative
(Indefinite) |
-ई iː | -ई iː | -आ aː | |||
| Instrumental | Postposition used | -एँ ẽː | Postposition used | -अन्हि
ənʰɪ̆ | ||
| Dative | Postposition used | |||||
| -इल ɪlə | -अल ələ | No forms | ||||
| Ergative | -इएँ ɪẽː | -एँ ẽː | ||||
| Ablative | -इतः ɪtəh | -अतः
ətəh | ||||
| Genitive | -इक ɪkᵊ, इर ɪrᵊ | -अक əkᵊ, -अर ərᵊ | -ईंक ĩːkᵊ | -आँँक
ãːkᵊ | ||
| Locative | Postposition used | -ए eː | Postposition used | -आँ
ãː | ||
| Vocative | -इ ɪ/ई iː | -आ/अ२ aː/əː | -इन ɪnᵊ | -अन, -अनि
ənᵊ, ənɪ̆ | ||
Consonant stem
| Case name | Singular Inflection | Plural Inflection | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Neuter | Masculine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ∅ | -अन, -अनि
ənᵊ, ənɪ̆ |
-अन, -अनि
ənᵊ, ənɪ̆ | |
| Accusative
(Indefinite) |
∅ | |||
| Instrumental | Postposition used | -एँ ẽː | Postposition used | -अन्हि
ənʰɪ̆ |
| Dative | Postposition used | |||
| -अल ələ | No forms | |||
| Ergative | -एँ ẽː | |||
| Ablative | -अतः
ətəh | |||
| Genitive | -अक əkᵊ, -अर ərᵊ | -आँँक ãːkᵊ | ||
| Locative | Postposition used | -ए eː | Postposition used | -आँ
ãː |
| Vocative | ∅ | -अन, -अनि
ənᵊ, ənɪ̆ | ||
Feminine stem -आ aː
| Case name | Singular Inflection | Plural Inflection |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -आ aː | -अन, -अनि
ənᵊ, ənɪ̆ |
| Accusative
(Indefinite) |
-आ aː | |
| Instrumental | Postposition used, -एँ ẽː* | |
| Dative | Postposition used | |
| -आल aːlə | No forms | |
| Ergative | -आएँ aːẽː, आँ ãː | |
| Ablative | -आतः
aːtəh | |
| Genitive | -आक aːkᵊ, -आर aːrᵊ | -आँँक ãːkᵊ |
| Locative | Postposition used | |
| Vocative | -ए†/आ eː/aː | -अन, -अनि
ənᵊ, ənɪ̆ |
- *Though, used for neuter and inanimates, it is used for female inanimates or abstract.
- †Used for tatsama words (words borrowed from Sanskrit).
Other Vowel stems
| इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ऎ | ऒ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | ✓ | × | ✓ | × | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | × | ✓ | ✓ |
| Feminine | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | × | × | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Neuter | ✓ | × | ✓ | × | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | × | ✓ | ✓ |
| Declension irregularities | ||||||||||
| Ergative | Nasalised vowel or ↓ | |||||||||
| Instrumental
(Neuter only)* |
इएँ | उएँ | एँ | ऒएँ | अयेँ | आयेँ | अवेँ | आवेँ | ||
| Locative
(Neuter only) |
इए | उए | ए | ऒए | अये | आये | अवे | आवे | ||
| Vocative† | ए | इ | ओ | उ | ए | ओ | ए | ओ | ऐ | औ |
- Specifically saying, inanimates.
- Sanskrit vocative, could be used or not.
Adjectives
The difference between adjectives and nouns is very minute in Maithili. However, there are marked adjectives there in Maithili.
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Definite | -का/कऽ kaː/kɔ | -कि/कि kɪ/kɪ̆ | का kəː |
| Indefinite | -आ/अऽ aː/ɔ | -इ/इ ɪ/ɪ̆ | अ/अऽ ᵊ/əː |
Pronouns
Pronouns in Maithili are declined in similar way to nominals. However, genetic case has a different form in most of the pronouns.
First and Second Person Pronouns[1]
| Case name | First Person | Second Person | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Exclusive | Inclusive (Plural) | First Grade Honour | Honorofic | High-Honorofic | |
| Nominative | हम ɦəmᵊ | Normally Declined अपना सभ ɐpᵊnaː səbʰᵊ | तोँह tõːhᵊ | अहाँ ɐɦãː | Declined Normally अपने ɐpᵊneː |
| Accusative/Postpositional | हमरा ɦəmᵊraː | तॊहरा/तोरा toɦᵊraː/toːraː | अहाँ (के) ɐɦãː (keː) | ||
| Instrumental | हमरेँ ɦəmᵊrẽː | तोहऺरेँ toɦᵊrẽː | अहेँ ɐɦẽː | ||
| Dative | हमरा ɦəmᵊraː | तोहरा/तोरा toɦᵊraː/toːraː | अहाँ के ɐɦãː ke | ||
| हमराल ɦəmᵊraːlə | तोहराल toɦᵊraːlə | अहाँलऽ ɐɦãːləː | |||
| Ergative | हम्मेँ ɦəmmẽː | तोएँ/तोहेँ toːẽː/toɦẽː | अहꣿँ ɐɦə̃ɪ̯̃ | ||
| Genitive | हमर/हम्मर
ɦəmərᵊ/ɦəmmərᵊ |
अपना सभक ɐpᵊnaː səbʰəkə | तोहर toɦərᵊ | अहाँक ɐɦãːkᵊ | |
Third Person Pronouns[1]
| Case name | Proximate | Second Person | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First Grade Honour | Honorofic | Neuter | First Grade Honour | Honorofic | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ई iː | ए, हिनि eː, ɦɪnɪ | ए eː | ऊ, वा uː, ʋaː | ओ, हुनि oː, ɦʊnɪ | ऒ o |
| Accusative/Postpositional | ऎकरा ekᵊraː | हिनका ɦɪnᵊkaː | ऎहि, ꣾ, अथि eɦɪ, əɪ, ɐtʰɪ | ऒकरा okᵊraː | हुनका ɦʊnᵊkaː | ऒहि, ॵ oɦɪ, əʊ |
| Instrumental | ऎकरेँ ekᵊrẽː | हिनकेँ ɦɪnᵊkẽː | एँ ẽː | ऒकरेँ okᵊrẽː | हुनकेँ ɦʊnᵊkẽː | ओँ õː |
| Dative | ऎकरा ekᵊraː | हिनका ɦɪnᵊkaː | ऎहि eɦɪ | ऒकरा okᵊraː | हुनका ɦʊnᵊkaː | ऒहि oɦɪ |
| ऎकराल ekᵊraːlᵊ | हिनकाल ɦɪnᵊkaːlᵊ | एलॅ eːlæ | ऒकराल okᵊraːlᵊ | हुनकाल ɦʊnᵊkaːlᵊ | ओलऽ oːləː | |
| Ergative | येँ ɪẽː | येँ, हिनेँ ɪẽː, ɦɪnẽː | एँ ẽː | वेँ ʊẽː | ओँ õː | |
| Genitive | एकर eːkərᵊ | हिनकर, हिनक ɦɪnᵊkərᵊ, ɦɪnəkᵊ | एकर eːkərᵊ | ओकर oːkərᵊ | हुनकर, हुनक ɦʊnᵊkərᵊ, ɦʊnəkaː | ओकर oːkərᵊ |
References
- ^ a b c Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014558-8.
- ^ Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014558-8.
- ^ "Maithili". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
- ^ "Maithili Variation". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2020-04-22.