Second Northern War

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Second Northern War
Part of Northern Wars
March across the Belts
Date 1655–1660 Location Denmark, Sweden Result Swedish victory Territorial changes Treaty of Roskilde Treaty of Oliva Treaty of Copenhagen Treaty of Kardis
Belligerents
Sweden Electorate of Brandenburg Transylvania	Denmark–Norway Habsburg monarchy Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Russia Electorate of Brandenburg
Commanders
Charles X Gustav Carl Gustaf Wrangel Gustaf Otto Stenbock Per Brahe the Younger	Frederick III Ulrik Frederik Gyldenløve Anders Bille † Iver Krabbe Alexis of Russia Matvey Sheremetev   †

King Charles X of Sweden

The Second Northern War (1655–1660) was fought between Sweden and its adversaries Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ("The Deluge", 1655–1660), Russia (Russo–Swedish War (1656–1658)), Brandenburg-Prussia (1657–1660), the Holy Roman Empire (1657–60) and Denmark-Norway (Dano-Swedish Wars (1657-1658) and 1658–1660). In these conflicts England was consistently an ally of Sweden whereas the Dutch Republic often intervened against the Swedes.

In Anglo-Saxon, German, Russian and Scandinavian historiography, these conflicts were traditionally referred to as First Northern War.^[1] The term "Second Northern War", coined in Polish historiography (Druga Wojna Północna), has lately been increasingly adopted by German and Anglo-Saxon historiography.^[1] Another ambiguous term referring to the Second Northern War is Little Northern War,^[2] which however might also refer to the 1741-1743. In Poland, the term "The Deluge" is also ambiguous, as it is sometimes used for a broader series of wars against Sweden, Brandenburg, Russia, Transylvania and Cossacks.

[edit] Prelude

In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia had ended the Thirty Years' War, during which the Swedish Empire emerged as the new major European power besides France. In the Torstenson War, a theater of the Thirty Years' War, Sweden had defeated the former Baltic superpower Denmark. With Russia, Sweden was at peace since the Treaty of Stolbovo had ended the Ingrian War in 1617. With the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden remained in a state of war since the Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629), that was concluded by the repeatedly prolonged Truce of Altmark.

The commonwealth on the other hand, since 1648 under king John II Casimir Vasa, experienced a crisis resulting from both the Khmelnytsky Uprising of Cossaks in the Southeast and the paralyzation of the administration due to internal quarrels of the nobility, including feuds between the king and Lithuanian hetman Janusz Radziwiłł and between discording sejmiks who since 1652 were able to stall each others' ambitions with the liberum veto. As a consequence, the commonwealth lacked a sufficient defense.^[3]

In January 1654, the anti-Polish alliance of Pereiaslav was concluded between rebellious cossak hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and Alexis of Russia, who was in charge of a well-equipped army in the process of modernization.^[4] In 1654, when Charles X Gustav succeeded his cousin Christina on the Swedish throne, Russian forces were advancing into the unprotected commonwealth, and by focussing on the Northeast drew close to the Swedish interest sphere at the Baltic coast.^[5] Sweden, at that time an expansionist empire with an army designed to be maintained by revenues of occupied territory, was concious that a direct attack on her main adversary Russia could well result in a Dano-Polish-Russian alliance. Also, Sweden was prevented from forming a Swedish-Polish alliance by the refusal of John II Casimir to drop his claims to the Swedish crown and the unwillingness of the Polish-Lithuanian nobility to make the territorial and political concessions an alliance with Sweden would eventually cost.^[6] Thus, Sweden opted for a preemptive attack on the Polish-Lithanian Commonwealth to occupy its yet available territories before the Russians.^[7]

[edit] Swedish campaigns in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Swedish forces entered Poland-Lithuania from Swedish Pomerania in the West, and Livonia in the North. The western flank, consisting of 13,650 men and 72 artillery pieces commanded by Arvid Wittenberg who entered Poland on 21 July 1655 and another 12,700 commanded by Charles X Gustav who followed in August, while the northern flank, consisting of 7,200 men commanded by Magnus de la Gardie, seized Dünaburg already on 12 July.^[8]

On the western front, Wittenberg was opposed by a Polish levy of 13,000 and an additional 1,400 peasant infantry. Aware of the military superiority of the well-trained Swedish army, the nobles of Greater Poland surrendered to Wittenberg on 25 July in Ujscie and pledged loyalty to the Swedish king. Wittenberg established a garrison in Poznan (Posen).^[8]

On the northern front, Lithuanian hetman Janusz Radziwiłł signed the Treaty of Kėdainiai with Sweden on 17 August 1655, placing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Swedish protection. Though Radziwiłł during his dispute with the Polish king had been negotiating with Sweden before, Kėdainiai provided a clause that the two parts of the commonwealth, Poland and Lithuania, need not fight each other.^[8] Part of the Lithuanian army however opposed the treaty, forming a confederation led by noble Jan Paweł Sapieha at Wierzbolow.^[9]

On 24 August, Charles X Gustav joined Wittenberg's forces. Polish king John II Casimir Vasa left Warsaw the same month to confront the Swedish army in the West, but after some skirmishes with Swedish spearheads retreated southwards to Cracow.^[8] On 8 September, Charles X Gustav occupied Warsaw, then turned south to confront the retreating Polish king. The kings met at the Battle of Żarnów on 16 September, which like the next encounter at the Battle of Wojnicz on 3 October was decided for Sweden. John II Casimir exiled to Silesia while Cracow surrendered to Charles X Gustav on 19 October.^[10]

On 20 October, a second treaty was ratified at Kėdainiai in the North. The Union of Kėdainiai unified Lithuania with Sweden, with Radziwiłł recognizing Charles X Gustav as Grand Duke of Lithuania.^[8] In the following days, most of the Polish army surrendered to Sweden: on 26 October Koniecpolski surrendered with 5,385 men near Cracow, on 28 October Field Crown Hetman Stanisław Lanckoroński and Great Crown Hetman Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki surrendered with 10,000 men, and on 31 October the levy of Mazovia surrendered after the Battle of Nowy Dwór.^[10]

Meanwhile, Russian and cossack forces had occupied the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's East as far as Lublin, with only Lwow (Lviv, Lemberg) remaining under Polish-Lithuanian control.^[10] In late October, Charles X Gustav headed northwards and left Wittenberg in Cracow with a mobile force of 3,000 Swedish and 2,000 Polish troops, and an additional number scattered in garrisons, to control the southern part of the Swedish-occupied commonwealth.^[11]

In the North, the Royal Prussian nobles concluded a defensive alliance with the Electorate of Brandenburg on 12 November in the Treaty of Rinsk, allowing for Brandenburgian garrisons. Danzig (Gdansk), Thorn (Torun) and Elbing (Elblag) had not participated in the treaty, with Thorn and Elbing surrender to Sweden. In the Treaty of Königsberg on 17 January 1656, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, took the Duchy of Prussia, formerly a Polish fief, as a fief from Charles X Gustav. The Brandenburgian garrisons in Royal Prussia were withdrawn, and when Marienburg (Malbork) surrendered in March, Danzig remained the only town not under Swedish control.^[12]

[edit] Polish-Lithuanian recovery

Religious differences between the primarily Protestant Swedes and the primarily Catholic Poles, resulting in cases of maltreatment and murder of Catholic clergy and monks as well as cases of looting of Catholic churches and monasteries, gave rise to some partisan movements in the Swedish-occupied territory. A guerilla force attacked a small Swedish garrison at Koscian in October 1655 and killed Frederick of Hesse, brother-in-law of the Swedish king, the Pauline monastery Jasna Góra in Częstochowa successfully resisted a Swedish siege throughout November 1655 to January 1656,^[9] on 20 November a manifesto was issued in Opole (Oppeln) calling for public resistance and the return of the Johann II Casimir,^[12] and in December a peasant force took Nowy Sącz.^[9] On 29 December, the partisan Tyszowce Confederation was constituted under participation of Lanckoroński and Potocki, and on 1 January 1656 John II Casimir returned from exile. Later in January, Stefan Czarniecki joined in, and by February most Polish soldiers who were in Swedish service since October 1655, had changed to the confederation.^[12]

Charles X Gustav, with a force of 11,000 horse, reacted by pursuing Czarniecki's force of 2,400 men, confronting and defeating him in the Battle of Gołąb in February 1656.^[11] Charles X Gustav then intended to take Lwow, but his advance was halted in the Battle of Zamość, when he was nearly encircled by the growing Polish-Lithuanian armies under Sapieha and Czarniecki, and barely escaped on 5 and 6 April breaking through Sapieha's lines during the Battle of Sandomierz at the cost of his artillery and baggage. A Swedish relief force under Frederick of Baden was destroyed by Czarniecki on 7 April in the Battle of Warka.^[13] In the same month, John II Casimir with the Lwów Oath proclaimed Virgin Mary queen of Poland, and promised to lift the burdens inflicted on the peasantry if he had regained control.^[12]

[edit] Brandenburgian-Swedish alliance and Russia's war on Sweden

On 25 June 1656, Charles X Gustav signed an alliance with Brandenburg: the Treaty of Marienburg granted Greater Poland to Frederick William I in return for military aid. While the Brandenburgian elector was free of Swedish vassalage in Greater Poland, he remained a Swedish vassal for the Duchy of Prussia.^[13] Brandenburgian garrisons then replaced the Swedish ones in Greater Poland, who went to reinforce Charles X Gustav's army.^[14] On 29 June however, Warsaw was stormed by John II Casimir, who had drawn up to Charles X Gustav with a force of 28,500 regulars and a noble levy of 18,000 to 20,000.^[13]

Already in May 1656, Alexis of Russia had declared war on Sweden, taking advantage of Charles bound in Poland, and Livonia, Estonia and Ingria secured only by a Livonian army of 2,200 infantry and 400 dragoons, Magnus de la Gardie's 7,000 men in Prussia, and 6,933 men dispersed in garrisons along the Estern Baltic coast. Alexis invaded Livonia in July with 35,000 men and took Dünaburg.^[15]

In late July, Danzig was re-inforced by a Dutch garrison, and a combined Danish and Dutch fleet broke the naval blockage imposed on Danzig by Charles X Gustav.^[16] On 28-30 July, a combined Brandenburgian-Swedish army was able to defeat the Polish-Lithuanian army in the Battle of Warsaw,^[14] forcing John II Casimir to retreat to Lublin. In August, Alexis' army took Livonian Kokenhausen (Koknese), laid siege to Riga and Dorpat (Tartu) and raided Estonia, Ingria and Kexholm.^[17]

On 4 October, John II Casimir stormed Leczyca in Greater Poland before heading for Royal Prussia,^[18] and on 8 October, Wincenty Korwin Gosiewski with 12,000 to 13,000 Lithuanian and Crimean Tartar cavalry overran a Brandenburgian-Swedish force in the Battle of Prostken in Ducal Prussia.^[19] Gosiewski then ravaged Ducal Prussia, burning 13 towns and 250 villages, in a campaign that entered folklore because of the high death toll and the high number of captives deported to the Crimea.^[18]

On 22 October, Gosniewski was defeated by Swedish forces in the Battle of Philipowo and turned to Lithuania.^[18] Also on 22 October, besieged Dorpat surrendered to Alexis, while the Russian siege of Swedish-held Riga was lifted.^[17] John II Casimir meanwhile took Bromberg (Bydgoszcz) and Konitz in Royal Prussia, and from 15 November 1656 until February 1657 stayed in besieged Danzig, just a few kilometers away from Charles X Gustav's quarters in Elbing.^[18]

[edit] Swedish-Brandenburgian-Transylvanian alliance and the truces with Russia

In the Treaty of Labiau on 20 November, Charles X Gustav of Sweden granted Frederick William I of Brandenburg full souvereignity in the Duchy of Prussia in turn for a more active participation in the war. In the Treaty of Radnot on 6 December, Charles X Gustav promised to accept George II Rákóczi of Transylvania as king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in return for his entrance into the war. Rákóczi entered the war in January 1657, crossing into the commonwealth with a force of 25,000 men who broke the Polish siege of Cracow before they met with Charles X Gustav, who had led a Swedish-Brandenburgian army southwards. The following month saw the Swedisch-Brandenburg-Transylvanian forces play cat and mice with the Polish-Lithuanian forces, moving about all of the commonwealth without any major engagements, except the capture of Brest by Charles X Gustav in May, and the sack of Warsaw by Rákóczi and Gustaf Otto Stenbock on 17 June.^[18]

Due to internal conflicts with the cossacks and outworn from previous campaigns, Alexis of Russia signed the Truce of Vilna or Niemież with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and while reinforcing his armies in Livonia, did not engage the Swedish army in any major battle throughout 1657. On 18 June, a Swedish force defeated a Russian army of 8,000 men commanded by Matvey V. Sheremetev in the Battle of Walk at Walk (Valga). In early 1658, Sweden and Russia agreed on a truce,^[17] resulting in the Treaty of Valiesar (Vallisaare, 1658) and the Treaty of Kardis (Kärde, 1661).

[edit] Austro-Polish-Danish-Brandenburgian alliance

As Sweden, John II Casimir was also looking for allies to break the deadlock of the war. On 1 December 1655, he signed an alliance with Ferdinand III of Habsburg in Vienna, which however did not come into effect until Ferdinand's death in April 1656. The treaty was however renewed and ammended on 27 May with Ferdinand's successor Leopold I of Habsburg, who agreed in Vienna to provide John II Casimir with 12,000 troops maintained on Polish expense, in return, Leopold received Cracow and Posen as pawns. Receiving the news, Frederick III of Denmark promptly declared war on Sweden, and by June the Austrian army entered the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the South, while Denmark attacked Swedish Bremen-Verden, and turned to Jämtland and Västergötland in July.^[20]

When Charles X Gustav left the commonwealth and headed westwards for an anti-Danish counterstrike, the Swedish-Brandenburgian-Transylvanian alliance broke apart. Rákóczi of Transylvania was unable to withstand the combined Austrian and Polish-Lithuanian forces without Swedish support, and after a pursuit into Ukraine, he was encircled and forced to capitulate, with the rest of the Transylvanian army defeated by the Tartars. Brandenburg changed sides in return for Polish withdrawal of claims to Ducal Prussia, declaring Frederick William I the sole souvereign in the Duchy with the treaties of Wehlau on 19 September and Bromberg on 6 November.^[20]

[edit] The war spreads to Denmark and Pomerania

The attack of Frederick III of Denmark in June 1657, aimed at regaining the territories lost in 1645, provided an opportunity for Charles X Gustav to abandon the misfortunate Polish-Lithuanian battlefields. With 9,950 horse and 2,800 foot, he marched through Pomerania and Mecklenburg. In Holstein, the Swedish force was split with Carl Gustav Wrangel heading west to clear Bremen-Verden and Charles X Gustav heading north to clear Jutland.^[20] When these aims were achieved, Charles X Gustav in September moved to the Swedish port of Wismar and ordered his navy into the inconclusive Battle of Møn.^[21]

Meanwhile, Polish forces led by general Stefan Czarniecki ravaged southern Swedish Pomerania, and destroyed and plundered Pasewalk, Gartz (Oder) and Penkun.^[22] The Habsburg and Brandenburg allies however were reluctant to join Czarniecki, and against John II Casimir's wish decided against taking the war to the Holy Roman Empire fearing the start of a new Thirty Years' War.^[21]

The harsh winter of 1567/58 had forced the Dano-Norwegian fleet in port, and the Great and Little Belts seperating the Danish isles from the mainland were frozen. After entering Jutland from the south, a Swedish army of 7,000 veterans undertook the March across the Belts: On 9 February 1658, the Little Belt was crossed and the island Funen (Fyn) captured within a few days, and soon thereafter Langeland, Lolland and Falster. On 25 February, the Swedish army continued across the Great Belt to Zealand with the Danish capital Copenhagen. Although only 5,000 men made it across the belts, the Swedish attack was completely unexpected; Frederick III was compelled to surrender and signed the disadvanteous Treaty of Roskilde on 26 February 1658.^[21]

Sweden had won its most prestigious victory, and Denmark had suffered its most costly defeat.^[23] Denmark was forced to yield the provinces of Scania, Halland, Blekinge and the island of Bornholm. Halland had already been under Swedish control since the signing of the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645, but they now became Swedish territory indefinitely. Denmark also had to surrender the Norwegian province Trøndelag to Sweden.

Yet, Swedish-held territory in Poland had been reduced to some towns in Royal Prussia, most notably Elbing, Marienburg and Thorn. With Transylvania neutralized and Brandenburg defected, Charles X Gustav's position in the region was not strong enough to force his stated aim, the permanent gain of Royal Prussia. He was further pressed militarily when an Austro-Polish army laid siege to Thorn in July 1658, and diplomatically when he was urged by France to settle.^[21] Thus, Charles opted to instead attack Denmark again.^[24]

[edit] Second Dano-Swedish War

However, the Danes stalled and prolonged the fulfillment of some provisions of the earlier peace; the Swedish king decided to use this as a pretext to attack with an ambitious goal: to vanquish Denmark as a sovereign state and raze the capital of Copenhagen. A quick and decisive defeat of Denmark was however only seen as a means to a greater end. The long-term goal was to wage war in Europe without fearing Danish interference.

The Swedish army surrounded Copenhagen, hoping to starve it into submission. This failed when the Dutch joined the conflict on the Danish side and a reinforcing fleet managed to smash its way through the Swedish naval forces in Øresund. Charles then tried a decisive assault on the city, hoping to conquer it and win the war; this plan likewise failed. Brandenburg, Poland and Austria then also joined the war against the Swedes.

Charles X fell ill in early 1660 and died in February of that year. With the death of the Swedish king, one of the major obstacles to peace was gone and the Treaty of Oliva was signed with the Allies (the Poland, Austria and Brandenburg). However, the Danes were not keen on peace after their recent successes and witnessing the weakness of the Swedish efforts. The Dutch retracted their blockade, but were soon convinced by the Danes to support them again. The French and English intervened for the Swedish and the situation was again teetering on the edge of a major conflict. However, the Danish statesman Hannibal Sehested negotiated a peace treaty without any direct involvement by foreign powers and the conflict was resolved with the Treaty of Copenhagen, where Sweden was forced to return Bornholm and Trøndelag to Denmark. The treaty of 1660 established political borders between Denmark, Sweden and Norway which have lasted to the present day.

[edit] Timeline

• 1655: Sweden, seizing on an opportunity granted by Russia's partial invasion of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, invades the other half in a bid for control of the opposing shore of the sea
• 1656: Russia declares war on Sweden, Battle of Warsaw (1656)
• 1657: the Holy Roman Empire, and Denmark-Norway declare war on Sweden
• 1658: the Holy Roman Empire stops fighting
• 1658: March across the Belts
• 1658: Denmark signs the Treaty of Roskilde with Sweden
• 1658: Sweden breaks the Treaty of Roskilde with Denmark, the Dutch consequently destroy the Swedish fleet in the Battle of the Sound
• 1659: The Swedish assault on Copenhagen is repulsed
• 1659: The Dutch liberate the Danish Isles.
• 1660: Denmark signs the Treaty of Copenhagen with Sweden
• 1660: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth signs the Treaty of Oliva with Sweden
• 1660: The Holy Roman Empire and Norway stop fighting
• 1661: Russia signs the Treaty of Kardis with Sweden

[edit] Peace Treaties

• Treaty of Roskilde with Denmark (February 26, 1658)
• Treaty of Oliva with Poland (April 23, 1660)
• Treaty of Copenhagen with Denmark (May 27, 1660)
• Treaty of Kardis with Russia (June 21, 1661)

[edit] See also

• List of Swedish wars
• Dutch-Swedish War
• Polish-Swedish War
• Northern War and Norway

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

• Frost, Robert I (2000). The Northern Wars. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558-1721. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-06429-4. 
• Moote, Alanson Lloyd (1970). The seventeenth century; Europe in ferment. Heath. 

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