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Prekmurje Slovene

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Prekmurje Slovene
prekmürščina, prekmörščina, panonska slovenščina, prekmurščina, prekmursko narečje
Native toSlovenia, Hungary and emigrant groups in various countries
EthnicityPrekmurje Slovenes
Native speakers
(undated figure of 110,000)[1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3–
Glottologprek1239
Map of Slovenian dialects. Prekmurje Slovene is in dark yellow at the top right.

Prekmurje Slovene, also known as the Prekmurje dialect, East Slovene, or Wendish (Slovene: prekmurščina, prekmursko narečje, Hungarian: vend nyelv, muravidéki nyelv, Prekmurje Slovene: prekmürski jezik, prekmürščina, prekmörščina, prekmörski jezik, panonska slovenščina), is the language of Prekmurje in Eastern Slovenia, variety of Slovene language. [2] Part of the Pannonian dialect group,[3] it is spoken in the Prekmurje region of Slovenia and by the Hungarian Slovenes in Vas County in western Hungary. It is used in private communication, liturgy and publications by authors from Prekmurje[4][5] as well as in television, radio and newspapers.[6][7][8][9] It is closely related to other Slovene dialects in neighboring Slovene Styria, as well as to Kajkavian with which it retains a considerable degree of mutual intelligibility, and forms a dialect continuum with other South Slavic languages.

Range

[edit]

Prekmurje Slovene is spoken by approximately 110,000 speakers worldwide.[1] 80,000 in Prekmurje, 20,000 dispersed in Slovenia (especially Maribor and Ljubljana) and 10,000 in other countries. In Hungary it is used by the Slovene-speaking minority in Vas County in and around the town of Szentgotthárd. Other speakers of the dialect live in other Hungarian towns, particularly Budapest, Szombathely, Bakony, and Mosonmagyaróvár. The dialect was also spoken in Somogy (especially in the village of Tarany), but it has nearly disappeared in the last two centuries. There are some speakers in Austria, Germany, the United States, and Argentina.

Status

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Nouvi Zákon (New Testament) by István Küzmics. The Prekmurian language was codified by this book.

Prekmurje Slovene has a defined territory and body of literature, and it is one of the few Slovene dialects in Slovenia that are still spoken by all strata of the local population.[10] Some speakers have claimed that it is a separate language. Prominent writers in Prekmurje Slovene, such as Miklós Küzmics,[10] István Küzmics, Ágoston Pável, József Klekl Senior,[11] and József Szakovics, have claimed that it is a language, not simply a dialect. Evald Flisar, a writer, poet, and playwright from Prekmurje (Goričko), states that people from Prekmurje "talk in our own language."[10] It also had a written standard and literary tradition, both of which were largely neglected after World War II. There were attempts to publish in it more widely in the 1990s, primarily in Hungary,[12] and there has been a revival of literature in Prekmurje Slovene since the late 1990s.

Others consider Prekmurje Slovene a regional language, without denying that it is part of Slovene.[13][14][15][16][17] The linguist Janko Dular has characterized Prekmurje Slovene as a "local standard language" for historical reasons,[18] as has the Prekmurje writer Feri Lainšček. However, Prekmurje Slovene is not recognized as a language by Slovenia or Hungary, nor does it enjoy any legal protection under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In 2016 the General Maister Society (Društvo General Maister) proposed that primary schools offer education in the Prekmurje Slovene.[19][20] Some regional politicians and intellectuals advocate Prekmurje Slovene.[21]

Together with Resian, Prekmurje Slovene is the only Slovene dialect with a literary standard that has had a different historical development from the rest of Slovene ethnic territory. For centuries, it was used as a language of education, as well as in the press and mass.[22] The historical Hungarian name for the Slovenes living within the borders of the Kingdom of Hungary (as well as for the Slovenians in general) was Vendek, or the Wends. In the 18th and 19th centuries Prekmurje authors used to designate this language variety as sztári szlovenszki jezik 'old Slovene'. Both then and now, it is also referred to as the "Slovene language between the Mura and Raba" (Slovenščina med Muro in Rabo; Slovenski jezik med Mürov i Rábov).

Prekmurje Slovene is widely used in the regional media (Murski Val Radio, Porabje, Slovenski utrinki), films,[23] literature. The younger generation also write SMS messages and web comments in their local tongue. In the Prekmurje and Hungary a few streets, shops, hotels, etc. have Prekmurje Slovene names.[24][25] In the 2012 protests in Slovenia in Murska Sobota the protesters used Prekmurje Slovene banners.[26] It is the liturgical language in the Lutheran and Pentecostal churches, and in the Catholic Church of Hungarian Slovenes. Marko Jesenšek, a professor at the University of Maribor, states that the functionality of Prekmurje Slovene is limited, but "it lives on in poetry and journalism."[27]

Linguistic features

[edit]
Prekmurian graffiti in Murska Sobota.

Prekmurje Slovene is part of the Pannonian dialect group (Slovene: panonska narečna skupina), also known as the eastern Slovene dialect group (vzhodnoslovenska narečna skupina). Prekmurje Slovene shares many common features with the dialects of Haloze, Slovenske Gorice, and Prlekija, with which it is completely mutually intelligible. It is also closely related to the Kajkavian dialect of Croatian, although mutual comprehension is difficult. Prekmurje Slovene, especially its more traditional version spoken by the Hungarian Slovenes, is not readily understood by speakers from central and western Slovenia, whereas speakers from eastern Slovenia (Lower Styria) have much less difficulty understanding it. The early 20th-century philologist Ágoston Pável stated that Prekmurje Slovene in fact it is a major, independent dialect of Slovene, from which it differs mostly in the relationships of stress, in intonation, in the softening of consonants and—as a result of the lack of linguistic reform—in the striking dearth of modern vocabulary[28] and that it preserves many older features from the Proto-Slavic language.

Orthography

[edit]

Historically, Prekmurje Slovene was not written with the Bohorič alphabet used by Slovenes in Inner Austria, but with a Hungarian-based orthography. János Murkovics's textbook (1871) was the first book to use Gaj's Latin Alphabet.

Before 1914: Aa, Áá, Bb, Cc, Cscs, Dd, Ee, Éé, Êê, Ff, Gg, Gygy, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, Lyly, Mm, Nn, Nyny, Oo, Ôô, Öö, Őő, Pp, Rr, Szsz, Ss, Tt, Uu, Üü, Űű, Vv, Zz, Zszs.

After 1914: Aa, Áá, Bb, Cc, Čč, Dd, Ee, Éé, Êê, Ff, Gg, Gjgj, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, Ljlj, Mm, Nn, Njnj, Oo, Ôô, Öö, Pp, Rr, Ss, Šš, Tt, Uu, Üü, Vv, Zz, Žž.

Phonology

[edit]

The vowel ö occurs only in a few words as a variant of closed e or ö.[29] It has plain a in long stressed syllables and rounded a in short stressed and unstressed syllables in the Hill country (Goričko) and Lowland (Ravensko) dialect.[29] The relationship is reversed in the Lower Lowland (Dolinsko) dialect, where the long stressed a is rounded.[29]

Long vowels and most diphthongs occur only stressed in syllables. If the stress shifts, the vowel loses its length and the diphthong usually loses its glide, e.g.: Nom. Boug; Gen. Bogá.[29]

Diphtongs

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The diphthong ej (ei) is a short, closed e followed by a shorter, less fully articulated i, e.g.: dejte (child), bejžati (run), pejnezi (money), mlejko (milk), bejli (white).[30]

The diphthong ou consists of a short o and a short, less fully articulated u, e.g.: rouka (hand), nouga (foot), goloub (dove), rour (chimney), gospoud (lord).

Prekmurian Slovene is very rich in the diphthongs ej and ou.[30] These diphthongs are found in various Slovene dialects, but in forms that are phonetically different from the diphthongs of Prekmurian Slovene. The ou and ej diphthongs were represented in the old Prekmurian literary language ortographically by separate signs ê and ô but only in the books and newspapers of the Lutheran Slovenes.[31]

The diphthong ou in the northern Goričko subdialects (mostly near the river Rába) and in the settlements along the Hungarian-Slovene border is reduced to au. The Ravensko dialect and some Goričko subdialects have diphthongs üj or öj.[32]

Diphthongs in open syllables, if they occur in polysyllabic words, are broken up into their components,[33] for ex. Nom. sou (salt), Gen. soli; Nom. krau (king), Gen. krala.

Vowel alternations

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a>e
Unstressed a and a in a diphthong with i or j often sound like open e.[34] This system is typical mostly in the lower Lowland (Dolinsko) dialect, for ex. eli (or) (Ravensko, Goričko, Standard Slovene: ali), nezaj (back) (Ravensko, Goričko, Standard Slovene: nazaj), dele (forward) (Ravensko, Goričko: dale, Standard Slovene: dalje).

o>i
This is a sporadic dissimilation and assimilation. e.g.: visiki (high, Standard Slovene visok).[34]

o>e
In inflected forms a soft consonant (c, č, š, ž, j) is usually followed by o instead of the e in Standard Slovene.[35] For example: z noužicon (Standard Slovene z nožem 'with knife'), s konjon (Standard Slovene s konjem 'with horse'). In neuter nominative singular and accusative o is also heard instead of e, e.g.: mojo delo, našo delo, (Standard Slovene moje delo, naše delo 'my work', 'our work'). Innovative e is heard only in the eastern subdialects of the Dolinsko dialect, mostly along the Slovene-Croatian border (near the Međimurje).

o>u
The diactric ŭ refers to the non-frontedness of the vowel.[35] For ex. un, una Standard Slovene on, ona (he, she). The Dolinsko dialect have has even more diactric u, for ex. kunj (horse) (Ravensko, Goričko, Standard Slovene: konj), Marku (Marc) (Ravensko, Goričko, Standard Slovene Marko).

a>o
For ex. zakoj (why) (Standard Slovene zakaj).

u>ü
The historical u is pronounced almost without exception as ü and it is also spelled this way.[35] For ex. küp (mound) (Standard Slovene kup), küpiti (purchase) (Standard Slovene kupiti), düša (soul) (Standard Slovene duša), lüknja (slit) (Standard Slovene luknja), brüsiti (facet) (Standard Slovene brusiti).

In words starting wutg a v there are mixed forms,[33] while in the Standard Slovene remains the u, for ex. vüjo (ear) (Standard Slovene uho), vujti (escapes) (Standard Slovene uiti).

The u derived from earlier ol preceding a consonant does not turn into ü,[33] for ex. pun (full) (Standard Slovene poln), dugi (long) (Standard Slovene dolg), vuna (wool) (Standard Slovene volna), vuk (wolf) (Standard Slovene volk).

Consonant alternations

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Z preceding nj often sound like ž, for ex. ž njin (with him) (Standard Slovene z njim).

k>c
For ex. tenko, natenci (thin, thinly) (Standard Slovene tanko, natanko).[36] This type of alternations was even more frequent in the old Prekmurian Slovene,[36] for ex. vuk, vucke, vuci (wolf, wolves) (Standard Slovene volk, volki, Croatian vuk, vuci). Today it is preserved in the speech of older people in Goričko and the subdialect of Hungarian Slovenes.

m>n
Word final m in Prekmurian Slovene almost always sounds like n[37] (just like in other Pannonian Slovene dialects[38][39] or in the Chakavian[40]). For ex. znan (I know) (Standard Slovene znam), man (I have) (Standard Slovene imam), tan (there) (Standard Slovene tam), vüzen (Easter) (Standard Slovene vuzem[41] z zlaton (with gold) (Standard Slovene z zlatom), ran (building) (Standard Slovene hram). Exceptions: grm (bush), doum (home), tram (strut) etc.

The change of m>n can also occur in middle position, preceding consonants,[37] for ex.: Nom. vüzen, Gen. vüzma.

nj>n
The n has developed from an nj in word-final position or medial position,[42] for ex. ogen (fire) (Standard Slovene ogenj), kniga (book) (Standard Slovene knjiga). In declined forms nj return,[42] for ex. ognja (Genitive).

lj>l
The hard lj (ł) has totally disappeared from Prekmurian Slovene,[42] for ex.: klüč (key) (Standard Slovene ključ), lübiti, lübezen (love) (Standard Slovene ljubiti, ljubezen), grable (rake) (Standard Slovene grablje).

h>j or ∅
In certain regions and in certain positions it is still present the h.

  1. in word initial position preceding a vowel or syllable forming r its usage is ambiguous and regionally variable.[42] For ex. hüdi, üdi (evil) (Standard Slovene hud). In noun iža (house) (Standard Slovene hiša) in every Prekmurian dialect is missing the h
  2. in medial position, between vowels h is present, a j has replaced it,[42] for ex. küjati (cook) (Standard Slovene kuhati)
  3. h usually disappears in word position followed by consonants and in medial position preceded by consonants,[43] for ex. lad (cold) (Standard Slovene hlad), sprneti (decay) (Standard Slovene trohneti)
  4. the syllable-final h in word-medial position followed by consonants usually turns into j, which merge with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong,[43] for ex. lejko (perhaps, easily) (Standard Slovene lahko)
  5. in word-final position, preceded by a vowel, it either changes into j,[43] for ex. grej (sin) (Standard Slovene greh), krüj (bread) (Standard Slovene kruh).

Exceptions shajati (to make do on something), zahtejvati (demand) etc.

bn>vn
For ex. drouvno (tiny) (Standard Slovene drobno).

p>f
For ex. ftic, ftič, ftica (bird) (Standard Slovene ptic, ptič, ptica).

j>d
For ex. žeden (thirsty) (Standard Slovene žejen).

hč>šč
For ex. nišče (nobody) (Standard Slovene nihče).

kt>št
For ex. što (who) (Standard Slovene: kdo).

ljš>kš
For ex. boukši (better, right) (Standard Slovene boljši).

dn (dnj)>gn (gnj)
For ex. gnes, gnjes (today) (Standard Slovene danes). Nom. škegen (barn), Gen. škegnja.

t>k
Manly preceding an l.[44]

  1. word-initially, for ex. kmica (darkness), klačiti (to tread) (Standard Slovene tlačiti), kusti (thick, fat) (Standard Slovene tolst)
  2. in word medial position, for ex. mekla (broom) (Standard Slovene metla)
  3. in word-final position soldak (soldier).

Morphology

[edit]

Also in Prekmurian Slovene can be nouns masculine, feminine or neuter.[45] Nouns, adjectives and pronouns have three numbers: singular, dual and plural,[46] just like in the Standard Slovene.[47]

Feminine

[edit]

Feminine nouns ending in a.[48]

Declension patterns of feminine nouns ending in a
(Prekmurian Slovene)
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -a -i/ej -e
Gen. -e -∅/ej -∅
Dat. -i/ej -ama -an
Ac. -o/ou -i/ej -e
Loc. -i/ej -ama/aj -aj
Inst. -of(v)/-ouf(v) -ama -ami
Declension patterns of feminine nouns ending in a
(Standard Slovene)[49]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -a -i -e
Gen. -e -∅ -∅
Dat. -i -ama -am
Ac. -o -i -e
Loc. -i -ah -ah
Inst. -o -ama -ami

Feminine nouns ending in consonant.[50]

Declension patterns of feminine nouns ending in a
(Prekmurian Slovene)
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -∅ -i/ej -i
Gen. -i -i/ej -i
Dat. -i -ama -an
Ac. -∅ -i/ej -i
Loc. -i -ama/aj -aj
Inst. -jof(v)/-of(v) -ama -ami
Declension patterns of feminine nouns ending in a
(Standard Slovene)[51]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -∅ -i -i
Gen. -i -i -i
Dat. -i -ema -em
Ac. -∅ -i -i
Loc. -i -eh/ih -eh/ih
Inst. -o -ema -mi

Declension of feminine adjective.[52]

Declension patterns of feminine adjectives
(Prekmurian Slovene)
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -a -ivi/evi -e
Gen. -e -ivi(j)/evi(j) -i(j)
Dat. -oj -ima -in
Ac. -o -ivi/evi -e
Loc. -oj -ima/ivaj/evaj -i(j)
Inst. -of(v) -ima/ivima/evima -imi
Declension patterns of feminine adjectives
(Standard Slovene)[53]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -a -i -e
Gen. -e -ih -ih
Dat. -i -ima -im
Ac. -o -i -e
Loc. -i -ih -ih
Inst. -o -ima -imi

Masculine

[edit]

Masculine nons ending in a consonant.[54] The singular accusative of masculine nouns designating animate things is the same as their genitive form. The singular accusative of nouns designatinginanimate things is the same as their nominative.[54]

Declension patterns of masculine nouns ending in consonant
(Prekmurian Slovene)
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -∅ -a -i
Gen. -a -a/of(v) -of(v)
Dat. -i -oma -on
Ac. -∅/a -a -e
Loc. -i -oma/aj -aj/i
Inst. -on -oma -ami
Declension patterns of masculine nouns ending in consonant
(Standard Slovene)[55]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -∅ -a -i
Gen. -∅/a -ov -ov
Dat. -u -oma -om/-em
Ac. -∅/a -a -e
Loc. -u -ih -ih
Inst. -om/-em -oma -i

Masculines nouns ending in a.[56]

Declension patterns of feminine nouns ending in a
(Prekmurian Slovene)
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -a -a -e/i
Gen. -o/e -of(v)/a -∅/of(v)
Dat. -i -oma -on
Ac. -o -a/i -e
Loc. -i -oma/aj -aj
Inst. -of(v) -oma -ami/i
Declension patterns of feminine nouns ending in a
(Standard Slovene)[57]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -a -i -e
Gen. -e -∅ -∅
Dat. -i -ama -am
Ac. -o -i -e
Loc. -i -ah -ah
Inst. -o -ama -ami

Declension of masculine adjective.[52]

Declension patterns of masculine adjectives
(Prekmurian Slovene)[58]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -i -iva/eva -i
Gen. -oga -iva/ivi(j)/eva/evi(j) -i(j)
Dat. -omi -ima -in
Ac. -i/oga -iva/eva -e
Loc. -on -ima/ivaj/evaj/i(j) -i(j)
Inst. -in -ima/ivima/evima -imi
Declension patterns of masculine adjectives
(Standard Slovene)
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -∅ -a -i
Gen. -∅/ega -ih -ih
Dat. -emu -ima -im
Ac. -∅/ega -a -e
Loc. -em -ih -ih
Inst. -im -ima -imi

Neuter

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Neuter nouns ending in o and e.[59]

Declension patterns of neuter nouns ending in o or e
(Prekmurian Slovene)
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -o/e -i -a
Gen. -a -i/∅ -∅
Dat. -i -oma -an
Ac. -o/e -i -a
Loc. -i -oma/aj -aj/ami/i
Inst. -on -oma -ami/i

In the declension of nouns for ex tejlo (body, St. Slov.: telo) or drejvo (three, St. Slov.: drevo) are not lengthened as in the Standard Slovene with the syllable –es (Prekmurian: Nom. tejlo, drejvo Gen. tejla, drejva; Standard Slovene: Nom. telo, drevo Gen. telesa, drevesa).[60]

Declension patterns of masculine nouns ending in e
(Standard Slovene)[61]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -e -i -a
Gen. -a -∅ -∅
Dat. -u -ema -em
Ac. -e -i -a
Loc. -u -ih -ih
Inst. -em -ima -i
Declension patterns of masculine nouns ending in o
(Standard Slovene)[62]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -o -i -a
Gen. -a -∅ -∅
Dat. -u -oma -om
Ac. -o -i -a
Loc. -u -ih -ih
Inst. -om -oma -i

Declension of neuter adjective.[52]

Declension patterns of masculine adjectives
(Prekmurian Slovene)
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -o -ivi/evi -a
Gen. -oga -ivi(j)/evi(j)/i(j) -i(j)
Dat. -omi -ima/ivima/evima -in
Ac. -o -ivi/evi -a
Loc. -on -ima/ivima/evima/i(j) -i(j)
Inst. -in -ima/ivima/evima -imi
Declension patterns of neuter adjectives
(Standard Slovene)[53]
Grammatical case\Number Singular Dual Plural
Nom. -o/e -i -a
Gen. -ega -ih -ih
Dat. -emu -ima -im
Ac. -o/e -i -a
Loc. -em -ih -ih
Inst. -im -ima -imi

Personal pronouns

[edit]
Singular
[edit]
Singular (Prekmurian)[63]
Nom. ges/jes (Masc.Fem.) ti(j) (Masc.Fem.) un (Masc.) una (Fem.)
Gen. mene(j)
me		 tebe(j)
te		 njega
ga		 nje
je
Dat. meni
mi		 tebi
ti		 njemi njej/njoj
ji
Ac. mene(j)
me		 tebe(j)
te		 njega
ga		 njou
jo
Loc. meni tebi njen njej/njoj
Inst menof(v)/meuf tebof(v)/teuf njin njouf(v)
Singular (Standard Slovene)[64]
Nom. jaz (Masc.Fem.Neut.) ti (Masc.Fem.Neut) on (Masc.) ona (Fem.) ono (Neut.)
Gen. mene
me		 tebe
te		 njega
ga		 nje
je		 njega
ga
Dat. meni
mi		 tebi
ti		 njemu
mu		 njej/nji
ji		 njemu
mu
Ac. mene
me
-me		 tebe
te
-te		 njega
ga
-(e)nj		 njo
jo
-njo		 njega/ono
ga
-(e)nj
Loc. pri meni pri tebi pri njem pri njej/nji pri njem
Inst. z mano/menoj s tabo/teboj z njim z njo z njim
Dual
[edit]
Dual (Prekmurian Slovene)[65][66]
Nom. müva (Masc.), müve (Fem.) vüva (Masc.), vüve (Fem.) njüva/njiva/oneva (Masc), njüve/njive (Fem.)
Gen. naj(a) vaj(a) njiva(Masc), njivi (Fem.)
Dat. nama vama njima
Ac. naj(a) vaj(a) njiva(Masc), njivi (Fem.)
Loc. nama vama njima
Inst. nama vama njima
Dual (Standard Slovene)[64]
Nom. midva (Masc.), medve (Fem.Neut.) vidva (Masc.), vedve (Fem.Neut.) onadva (Masc.), onidve (Fem.Neut.)
Gen. naju vaju njiju
Dat. nama vama njima
jima
Ac. naju vaju njiju
ju
-nju
Loc. naju vaju njiju
Inst. nama vama njima
Plural
[edit]
Plural (Prekmurian Slovene)[67]
Nom. mi (Masc.Fem.) vi (Masc.Fem.) uni (Masc.), une (Fem.)
Gen. nas vas njih/nji
jih/je
Dat. nan van njin
jin
Ac. nas vas njih/nje
jih
je
Loc. nas/nan vas/van njij
Inst. nami vami njimi
Plural (Standard Slovene)[64]
Nom. mi (Masc.), me (Fem.Neut.) vi (Masc.), ve (Fem.Neut.) oni (Masc.), one (Fem.), ona (Neut.)
Gen. nas vas njih
jih
Dat. nam vam njim
jim
Ac. nas vas njih/nje
jih
-nje
Loc. nas vas njih
Inst. nami vami njimi
Reflexive pronoun
[edit]
Prekmurian Slovene[68]
Nom. —
Gen. sebe(j)
se
Dat. sebi
si
Ac. sebe(j)
se
Loc. sebi/sebej
Inst. sebof(v)/seuf
Standard Slovene[69]
Nom. —
Gen. sebe
se
Dat. sebi
si
Ac. sebe
se
-se
Loc. sebi
Inst. sabo/seboj

Numerals

[edit]

The names for numerals in Prekmurian Slovene are formed in a similar way to that found in the Standard Slovene or other Slavic languages.[70][71] The again, the old way of two-digit numbers was preserved. Ten comes first, followed by a one-digit number. They don't need a conjunction. In Standard Slovene the formation of numerals from 21 to 99, in which the unit is placed in front of the decade ("four-and-twenty"), as in German language.

Numerals
Prekmurian Slovene Standard Slovene Number
štirideset eden enainštirideset 41
štirideset dva dvainštirideset 42
štirideset tri(j) triinštirideset 43
štirideset štiri štiriinštirideset 44

Verb

[edit]

Verb stems in Prekmurian Slovene is most frequently üvati or avati, more rarely ovati[72] (stem ovati is most frequently in Standard Slovene). In the conjugation suffixes change is also dissimilar in Prekmurian and Slovene. For ex. Prekm. nategüvati, obrezavati, conj. nategüvlen/nategüjen, obrezavlen, Stand. Slov. nategovati, obrezovati, conj. nategujem, obrezujem.

In Goričko dialect and some western subdialects of Ravensko is the infinitive stem with the suffix -niti (zdigniti),[73] just like in the Standard Slovene (dvigniti), infrequently -nouti (Prekm. obrnouti, Stand. Slov. obrniti). In the Dolinsko dialect and other Ravensko subdialects the infinitive stem with the suffix -noti (zdignoti),[73] just like in Croatian (and Kajkavian).

Present tense
[edit]
Prekmurian Slovene[73]
Singular lübin lübiš lübi
Dual lübiva lübita lübita
Plural lübimo lübite lübijo
Standard Slovene[74]
Singular ljubim ljubiš ljubi
Dual ljubiva ljubita ljubita
Plural ljubimo ljubite ljubijo
Past tense
[edit]
Prekmurian Slovene[75]
Singular san/sen lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)		 si lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)		 je lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)
Dual sva lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)		 sta lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)		 sta lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)
Plural smo lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)		 ste lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)		 so lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)
Standard Slovene[76]
Singular sem ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)		 si ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)		 je ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)
Dual sva ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)		 sta ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)		 sta ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)
Plural smo ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)		 ste ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)		 so ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)
Future tense
[edit]
Prekmurian Slovene[75]
Singular mo lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)		 boš lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)		 de lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)
Dual va lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)		 ta lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)		 ta lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)
Plural mo lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)		 te lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)		 do lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)
Standard Slovene[77]
Singular bom ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)		 boš ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)		 bo ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)
Dual bova ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)		 bosta ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)		 bosta ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)
Plural bomo ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)		 boste ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)		 bodo ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)
Conditional present
[edit]
Prekmurian Slovene[78]
Singular bi lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)		 bi lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)		 bi lübo(Masc.)
lübila(Fem.)
Dual bi lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)		 bi lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)		 bi lübila(Masc.)
lübili(Fem.)
Plural bi lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)		 bi lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)		 bi lübili(Masc.)
lübile(Fem.)
Standard Slovene[77]
Singular bi ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)		 bi ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)		 bi ljubil(Masc.)
ljubila(Fem.)
Dual bi ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)		 bi ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)		 bi ljubila(Masc.)
ljubili(Fem.)
Plural bi ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)		 bi ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)		 bi ljubili(Masc.)
ljubile(Fem.)

Lexicon

[edit]

The Prekmurian Slovene vocabulary is very rich[79] and is significantly different from the Standard Slovene vocabulary. The dialect includes many archaic words that have disappeared from modern Slovene. Along with the three dialects spoken in Venetian Slovenia and the Slovene dialects of eastern Carinthia, Prekmurje Slovene is considered the most conservative of all Slovene dialects with regard to vocabulary.[citation needed]

The Prekmurian Slovene greatly expanded its vocabulary from the other Slavic languages (mainly from Kajkavian Croatian, Standard Slovene, Styrian Slovene, Serbo-Croatian, partly from the Czech and Slovak) and non-Slavic languages (mainly from Hungarian and German,[80] partly from Latin and Italian).[81] The more recently borrowed and less assimilated words are typically from English.

Comparison

[edit]
Prekmurian Slovene Standard Slovene Kajkavian Croatian Serbo-Croatian English
bajžlek bazilika bajžulek, bažuljek bosiljak basil
bejžati hiteti, teči bežati trčati run
betvo betev betvo stabljika stem
blejdi bled bledi blijed white-faced
bliskanca bliskavica bliskavica, blesikavec blistanje flashing
bougati ubogati poslušati pokoravati se, slušati submit
brač trgač brač berač vintager
brbrati, brbravi klepetati, klepetav brbotati, brblivi, brbotlivi brbljati, brbljavi chatter, chatterbox
comprnjak čarovnik, čarodej coprnik carovnik čarobnjak wizard
cükati lulati cukati piškiti urinate
čarni, črni črn črni crn black
česnek česen česen, češnjak češnjak garlic
činiti delati, opravljati činiti činiti make
čun čoln čun čamac boat
čüti slišati čuti čuti hear
den dan den dan day
dečko fant, deček dečko dečak boy
deklina, dekla deklica dekle devojka girl
delati delati delati raditi work
dokeč dokler doklam, dok dok until
dveri vrata vrata vrata door
fala hvala fala/hvala hvala thanks, gratitude
fčela čebela čmela pčela bee
fčera/včera včeraj čera jučer yesterday
geniti ganiti genuti ganuti move
ge kje, kjer de, gde gdje where
gorice vinograd trsje vinograd vineyard
grbanj jurček vrganj vrganj penny bun
gnes, gnjes danes denes danas today
gnüs gnus gnus, gnjus gnus disgust
gostüvanje ženitovanje goščenje svadba wedding
goušča gozd šuma šuma forest
gučati govoriti govoriti govoriti speak, talk
grüška hruška hruška kruška pear
inda nekoč negda nekada once
istina resnica istina istina truth
iža hiša hiža kuća house
Jezuš Kristuš Jezus Kristus Jezuš Kristuš Isus Krst Jesus Christ
ka kaj kaj što what
ka da da da that
ka ker arold jernew jer as
kakši kakšen kakvi kakov what
kama kam, kamor kam kamo to where
kapla kaplja kaplja, kapla kapljica drop
keden, tjeden teden tjeden tjedan week
kelko koliko kulko, kuliko koliko how much
kisili kisel kisel kiseo sour
kitina kutina kutina dunja quince
klejt klet, shramba sramba podrum cellar
klün kljun klun kljun beak
kmica tema tmica, kmica tama, tmina darkness
koupanca kopalnica kopel kupatilo bathroom
kopün kopun kopon, kopun kopun capon
koula voz kola, vozica kola cart
krapanca krastača krastača krastača toad
krpliva kopriva kopriva kopriva nettle
krpüšnica robidnica, robida kupina kupina blackberry
krumpiš, krumpič, krumše krompir krumpir krumpir potato
krüj kruh kruh hlijeb, kruh bread
krv kri krv krv blood
kukorca koruza kuruza kuruza corn
küščar kuščar kuščer gušter lizard
lapec hlapec hlapec sluga servant
ledičen samski ledičen samac bachelor
lejko lahko lehko lako possible
len lan len lan flax
lice obličje lice lice face
liki toda, ampak nego međutim, ali but
loški divji divji divlji wild (plant)
lübezen ljubezen ljubav, lubav ljubav love
mejšati mešati mešati miješati mix
meša maša meša misa mass
metül metulj metul, metulj leptir butterfly
mouč moč jakost jakost power
modroust modrost mudrost mudrost wisdom
Möra, Müra Mura Mura Mura Mura (river)
mrejti umreti hmreti, vumreti umreti die
mrlina mrhovina, crkovina mrcina lešina corpse
miditi muditi muditi kasniti be late
müja muha muha muha fly
nači(k) drugače inače inače other
natelebati natepsti nabobotati, namlatiti istuči beat
nedela nedelja nedela nedjelja Sunday
nigdar nikoli nigdar nikada never
nigi nikjer nigde, nigdi nigdje nowhere
nikak nikakor nikak nikako no way
nojet noht nohet nokat nail
norija norost, neumnost norost, norija glupost

foolishness

obed, obid, oböd kosilo obed ručak lunch
oditi hoditi hoditi hoditi move
odzaja odzadaj, zadaj odzaj odostraga from behind
ograd vrt vrt vrt garden
ovak drugače inače inače other
öček sekirica sekirica sjekira ax
pajžli parkelj parkel kopita hoof
paroven pohlepen, požrešen paraven proždrljiv gluttonous
paska pazljivost paska skrbljenje prudence
pejati bosti pehati ubosti prod
pejsek pesek pesek pijesak sand
pesen pesem pesem pjesma song
pondejlek ponedeljek pondelek ponedjeljak Monday
pitati, pitanje vprašati, vprašanje pitati, pitanje pitati, pitanje ask, question
plantavi šepav šantavi, plantavi šepav, šantav lame
plastič kopica, kopa stok plast sena haycock
plüča pljuča pluča pluća lung
plüskati klofutati pluskati ošamariti slap
poboukšati poboljšati pobolšati poboljšati improve
pogača potica pogača pogača scone
pojeb, pojbič fant, fantič dečec dečak boy
pokapanje pokop pokapanje pogreb burial
pozoj zmaj pozoj zmaj dragon
pükša puška puška, pušak puška riffle
praviti reči reči reći say
püščava puščava pustina pustinja desert
radost veselje radost radost joy
ranč tak, gli tak prav tako ravno tak isto tako alike
rasoje, rašoške vile, vilice rasohe vile, viljuška pitchfork, fork
rejč beseda reč riječ word
sklejca skleda, krožnik zdela zdjela dish
sledi, sledkar kasneje stopram kasnije later
slejpi slep slepi slijep blind
smej smeh smeh smijeh laugh
spitavati izpraševati, spraševati spitavati ispitavati interrogate
sprejvod pogreb sprevod, pogreb pogreb funeral
spuniti izpolniti spuniti ispuniti fulfil
stüdenec vodnjak zdenec bunar well
sunce sonce sunce sunce sun
svaja prepir svaja svađa conflict
ščava kislica ščava štavelj sorrels
šinjek vrat, tilnik šinjak vrat neck
šoula, škola šola škola škola school
školnik učitelj školnik učitelj teacher
škrampeu krempelj krampel pandža claw
taca šapa taca šapa paw
telko toliko tulko, tuliko toliko that much
tejlo telo telo tijelo body
tenja senca senca zasenak shadow
tou to to, ovo to, ovo this
trplenje tprljenje muka muka pain
trüd trud trud napor effort
türen, tören stolp turem toranj tower
ugorka kumara vugorek krastavac cucumber
vaga tehtnica vaga vaga scales
veleti ukazati veleti naređivati instruct
vejnec venec venec vjenac wreath
vonjati smrdeti smrdeti smrdeti smell
vonjüga smrad smrad smrad stench
vüpati, vüpanje upati, upanje vufati, vufanje ufati, ufanje hope, trust
vživati uživati vživati uživati enjoy
zajtra zjutraj vjutro ujutro morning
zoubar zobozdravnik zobar zubar dentist
zveličanje zveličanje zveličenje spasenje redemption
žalec želo žalec žaoka sting
žmeten težek teški teški heavy
žnjec žanjec žnjač žetelac harvester
žuč žolč žuč žuč bile
žuna žolna žuna detlić woodpecker
župa juha juha supa soup

Loanwords

[edit]

Prekmurian Slovene has also today many foreign words of mostly German and Hungarian origin.[82] The German loanwoards German mainly come from the Austro-Bavarian dialect.[83] There is still a strong German influence in Goričko dialect.[84]

Prekmurian Slovene Hungarian Standard Slovene English
beteg, betežen betegség, beteg bolezen, bolan illness, ill
čonta, čunta csont kost bone
engriš egres kosmulja gooseberry
gezero, jezero ezer tisoč thousand
pajdaš pajtás kamerad buddy
laboška lábas, lábos kozica pot
ugorka uborka kumara cucumber
koudiš koldus berač beggar
valon való veljaven suitable
varaš város mesto city, town
Prekmurian Slovene German Standard Slovene English
brütif, brütof Friedhof pokopališče cemetery
cajgar Zeiger kazalec hand of watch
cigeu Ziegel opeka brick
cimprati zimmparon(Bav.) graditi build (with wood)
cug Zug vlak train
cvek zwëc(Middle High German) žebelj spike
dönok, denok dennoch(Middle High German) vendar however
fabrika Fabrik tovarna factory
fašenek Fasching pust carnival
farba Farbe barva color
farar Pfarrer duhovnik Protestant pastor
fejronga Vorhang zavesa curtain
förtoj Fürtuch(Bavarian) predpasnik woman apron
glaž Glas steklo glass
gratati geraten postati, nastati to arise
gvant Gewand obleka clothes
lampe Lippen usta mouth
pejgla Bügeleisen likalnik clothes iron
plac Plaz trg square
rafankeraš, rafankerar Rauchfangkehrer dimnikar chimney-sweep
šalica Schale(Bavarian) skodelica cup
šker geschirre(Middle High German) orodje tool
špilati spielen igrati play
šrajf Schrafe(Bavarian) vijak screw
šraklin Schürhakel žarač, grebača fire rake
žajfa Seife milo soap

We also find Latin loanwords: bauta, bunta (storage, Lat. voluta, Stand. Slov. trgovina), cintor (cemetery, Lat. coementerium, Stand. Slov. pokopališče), kanta (can, Lat. canna, Stand. Slov. ročka), oštarija (inn, Italian osteria, Stand. Slov. gostilna), upkaš (hoopoe, Lat. upupa, Stand. Slov. smrdokavra) etc.

Loanwords adopted from the Serbo-Croatian during Yugoslavia: dosaden (tedious, Serbo-Croatian dosadan, Stand. Slov. dolgočasen), novine (newspaper, Serbo-Croatian novine, Stand. Slovene časopis), život (live, Serbo-Croatian život, Stand. Slov. življenje).

Prekmurje Slovene dialects

[edit]

History

[edit]

Early history

[edit]

The Prekmurje Slovene developed from the language of the Carantanian Slavs who settled around Balaton in the 9th century. Due to the political and geographical separation from other Slovene dialects (unlike most of contemporary Slovenia, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire, Prekmurje was under the authority of the Kingdom of Hungary for almost a thousand years), the Prekmurje Slovene acquired many specific features. Separated from the cultural development of the remainder of ethnic Slovene territory, the Slovenes in Hungary gradually forged their own specific culture and also their own literary language.

From Carniola and Styria in the 16th and 17th centuries, a few Slovene Protestant pastors fled to Hungary. The pastors brought along the Bible of Jurij Dalmatin, were used in Felsőszölnök and Postil of Primož Trubar, were used in Gornji Petrovci.[87][88][89] Hungarian Slovenes found it difficult to understand the language of this book.

By the 16th century, a theory linking the Hungarian Slovenes to the ancient Vandals had become popular.[90] Accordingly, Prekmurje Slovene was frequently designated in Hungarian Latin documents as the Vandalian language (Latin: lingua vandalica, Hungarian: Vandál nyelv).

The fact of double development of the Slovene language in Slovenian linguistics and science was ignored for a long time. The current form of the standard Slovene language only developed in the 19th century. Prior to this, there was two types of language norms: the Central Slovene language (mostly in Carniola) and the East Slovene language (in Styria and Hungary).[91]

For a short time, there were also two variants of the East Slovene language: the Prekmurian Slovene and the East Styrian Slovene (in the regions of Ormož, Ljutomer and Lenart of Slovene Hills).[92]

The literary traditions of the Prekmurian language developed during the Protestant Reformation: mostly manuscript hymnals with religious hymns, psalms from the 16th and 17th century[93] and an agreement from 1643.[94] The standard language emerged at the beginning of the 18th century and slowly developed.[95] The Prekmurian literary language followed homogeneous grammatical rules and phonetic characteristics.[96][97] An example of this is the use of the wovels ö or ü and diphthongs in writing.

Manuscripts were also written in the East Styrian Slovene language.[98] Printed books in this language were also published.[99] However, there were no homogeneous grammatical or phonologycal forms in this language variant. Styrian Slovene authors had completely different ideas about the standard language.[100] The Styrian Slovene literary language eventually ceased to exist and was replaced by the Central Slovene language.[101]

18th century

[edit]

The first book in the Prekmurje Slovene appeared in 1715, and was written by the Lutheran pastor Ferenc Temlin.[102] The most important authors from this period were the Lutheran pastor István Küzmics[103] and the Roman Catholic priest Miklós Küzmics[104] who settled the standard for the Prekmurje regional standard language in the 18th century.

István translated the entire New Testament into Prekmurian (Nouvi Zákon 1771). István was born in Ravensko, the standard language was based on the Lowland dialect of Prekmurian Slovene,[105] just like the as is the language of the old manuscripts.[106] István as well expanded the language with elements from Highland (Goričko) dialect.[107]

Who whill disallow those Slovenians who live between the Mura and the Raba the right to translate these holy books into the language, in which they understand God talking to them through prophets and apostles' letters? God tells them too read these books in order to get prepared for salvation in the fait of Jesus Christ. But they cannot receive this from Trubar's, Dalmatin's, Francel's,[108] or other translations (versio). The language of our Hungarian Slovenians is different from other languages and unique in its own characteristics. Already in the aforementioned translations there are differences.

— István Küzmics, József Torkos, Predgovor, Nouvi Zákon (1771)[109]

Miklós Küzmics though was born in Goričko, but he followed István's conception in language.[96] He adopted additional elements from the Highland and Lower Lowland (Dolinsko) dialects. Miklós wrote several books, which were reprinted in the 20th century. His prayer book was really popular (Kniga molitvena 1783). His text and coursebook (ABC Kni'sicza 1790) was mandatory for decades in Slovene schools.[110]

István Szijjártó[111] and Mihály Bakos[112] also performed important standardization work in Prekmurian Lutheran literature.

In 1774 was written Versus Vandalici, the first literary poem in Prekmurian language.[113]

19th century

[edit]
Natural history in Prekmurian language. The Prekmurian scientific language was codified by Imre Augustich's Prirodopis (1878).

In 1823 Mihály Barla created a new orthography for the Prekmurian Slovene. Two new characters were introduced to denote diphthongs: ô (ou), ê (ej) and â (aj).[31] The new orthography was presented in new hymn books Diktomszke, versuske i molitvene kni'zicze (1820) and Krscsanszke nôve peszmene knige (1823). In 1820, a Lutheran teacher named István Lülik wrote a new coursebook Nôvi abeczedár, into which was made three issue (1853, 1856, 1863).[114] His book also spread Barla's orthography. Although this orthogragphy was used only in Prekmurian Lutheran literature.

Lülik wrote the first grammar of the Prekmurian language, but it remained in manuscript.

The first non-religious book in Prekmurian language was a ceremony book for weddings (Sztarisinsztvo i zvacsinsztvo 1804; the author is probably István Szijjártó).[115]

Catholic priest József Kossics brought the Prekmurian language to a new functional position. Kossics no longer wrote religious books, but books on history, grammar and etiquette. His orientation merged with the orientation towards national encouragement.[116]

Lutheran pastor Sándor Terplán translated the Psalmas (Knige 'zoltárszke 1848) and also wrote new school-books.

János Kardos translated numerous verses from Sándor Petőfi, János Arany and few Hungarian poet. He worked on new coursebooks, for ex. Nôve knige cstenyá za vesznícski sôl drügi zlôcs.[117] Kardos followed a conservative conception in language: Kardos was not open to Slovene or Croatian, stuck to the archaic elements. Kárdos' purism was very similar to purism of Fran Levstik in Carniola.[118]

Opposite Kardos was Catholic priest József Borovnyák, who adapted the Prekmurian literary language to the Slovene literary language.[119] Borovnyák also contributed to the functional development of the Prekmurian language, for ex. with his political brochure Máli politicsni vodnik (1869).[120]

In 1875, poet, writer, translator and journalist Imre Augustich established the first Prekmurje Slovene newspaper Prijátel (The Friend).[121] Later, he wrote a new Hungarian–Prekmurje Slovene grammar (Návuk vogrszkoga jezika, 1876)[122] and translated works from Hungarian poets and writers.[123]

Augustich made approaches toward standard Slovene,[10][124] but at first retained the Hungarian alphabet. Later Augustich introduced the Gaj alphabet in the Prijátel[125] and in a new coursebook Prirodopis s kepami, the first natural science book in Prekmurian language.[126]

In 1871 József Bagáry wrote first course-book, which apply the Gaj alphabet (Perve knige – čtenyá za katholičánske vesničke šolê).[127] The Magyarization policy tried to push the coursebook out of the school, however, the coursebook was so popular in schools that in 1886 it was reprinted.[128]

In the last decades of the 19th and 20th century, the denomination "Wends" and "Wendish language" was promoted, mostly by pro-Hungarians, in order to emphasize the difference between the Hungarian Slovenes and other Slovenes, including attempts to create a separate ethnic identity.

The Prekmurian Slovene language was able to follow the changes of the modern era and was able to renew itself.[129] Either unaided or by taking over innovations from the (Central) Slovene and Croatian languages. The assertion that the Prekmurian Slovene slowly declined with modernization in the middle of the 19th century is not believable. This is contradicted by the first science books (by Kossics[130] and Augustich[126]) and the first journalistic products.[131][132]

20th century

[edit]

In 1908 Hungarian minister of Education and Religion Albert Apponyi introduced a new law, according to which subjects of instruction must be taught in Hungarian language in all schools of Kingdom of Hungary. The purpose of the law was to Magyarization of national minorities. Education in the Prekmurian Slovenian language in schools has been displaced.[133]

In 1914–1918, the political leader and later parliamentarian congressman in Belgrade József Klekl reformed the Prekmurje Slovene literary language,[10] making use of the Croatian and Slovene languages.[134] In 1923, the new prayerbook's Hodi k oltarskomi svesti (Come on to the Eucharist) orthography was written in the Gaj.

In 1919, most of Prekmurje was assigned to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and Slovene and Serbo-Croatian replaced Hungarian as the language of education and administration. The language of literature, journalism and the church remained Prekmurian Slovene.

Although in Yugoslavia, education in Prekmurian Slovene was not restored in schools (instead, they learned Serbo-Croatian and Standard Slovene at schools), nevertheless journalism in Prekmurian language flourished in the 1920s and 1930s. Items in the newspapers the catholic Novine, Marijin list, Marijin ograček, calendar Kalendar Srca Jezušovoga, the Lutheran Düševni list and Evangeličanski kalendari were written in the Prekmurje Slovene.[135] Prekmurian Slovene Emigrants also had their own weekly in the USA between 1921 and 1954: Amerikanszki Szlovencov Glász (American Windisch Voice).[136]

József Szakovics took an active part in cultivating the Prekmurje Slovene with his books and articles in newspapers and calendars or with the reprints of oldest book of Miklós Küzmics. The prominent Prekmurje writer Miško Kranjec also wrote in Slovene.

In these years, works of world literature were also translated into Prekmurian, for. ex. Molière's Le Médecin malgré lui.[137][138]

János Berke started to collect the vocabulary for the first Prekmurian dictionary.[139] János Fliszár was published a part of this dictionary (Vogrszki-vendiski rêcsnik 1922). The dictionary, which contains fifty thousand terms, has been preserved in manuscript.[140]

In 1941, the Hungarian Army seized back the Prekmurje area and by 1945 aimed to make an end of the Prekmurje Slovene and Slovene by the help of Mikola.[141]

After 1945, Communist Yugoslavia banned the printing of books and newspapers in the Prekmurje Slovene, and only standard Slovene or Serbo-Croatian was used in administration and education.[142] In Hungary, the dictator Mátyás Rákosi banned every minority language and deported the Slovenes in the Hungarian Plain.[143]

Since the independence of Slovenia, there has been a noticeable increase in interest in the Prekmurian language and cultural heritage. Few assotioations, publisher and self-publisher prints both old and new books in Prekmurian.

21th century

[edit]

In the 21st century, the Prekmurian language has become more most visible in Slovenia's cultural life. The Premurian can be more often heard in different interviews on TV channels and radios (Murski val,[144] Slovenski utrinki[145]). Today, Prekmurian is also found in written form on public signs, such as some shop signs, evidence of growing use in the linguistic landscape.

In 2018 a Prekmurje Slovene translation of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince was published.[146]

Singer and songwriter Nika Zorjan in 2018 created the Prekmurje Slovene version of Mariah Carey's All I Want for Christmas Is You aka Fse ka bi za Božič.[147][148] On one occasion she said: »Prekmurians are often local patriots and sometimes we say with pride: This is prekmurščina, not slovenščina.«[149]

Popular throughout Slovenia, Vlado Kreslin also sings in Prekmurian.[150] It also has its own website in the Prekmurian.[151]

The Wendish question

[edit]
Main article: Wendish question

The issue of how Prekmurje Slovene came to be a separate tongue has many theories. First, in the 16th century, there was a theory that the Slovenes east of the Mura were descendants of the Vandals.[90]

In 1627, was issue the Protestant visitation in the country Tótság, or Slovene Circumscription (this is the historical name of the Prekmurje and Raba March, Prekmurje Slovene: Slovenska okroglina).[152]

According to the Hungarian dissenters, the Wendish (Prekmurje Slovene) language was of Danish, Sorbian, Germanic, Celtic, Eastern Romance or West Slavic extraction.[citation needed] But this was often false, political or exaggerated affirmations.

According to extremist Hungarian groups, the Wends were captured by Turkish and Croatian troops who were later integrated into Hungarian society. Another popular theory created by some Hungarian nationalists was that the speakers of the Wendish language were "in truth" Magyar peoples, and some had merged into the Slavic population of Slovenia over the last 800 years.[153]

In 1920, Hungarian physicist Sándor Mikola [sl] wrote a number of books about Slovene inhabitants of Hungary and the Wendish language: the Wendish-Celtic theory. Accordingly, the Wends (Slovenians in Hungary) were of Celtic extraction, not Slavic. Later Mikola also adopted the belief that the Wends indeed were Slavic-speaking Hungarians.[153] In Hungary, the state's ethnonationalistic program tried to prove his theories. Mikola also thought the Wends, Slovenes, and Croatians alike were all descendants of the Pannonian Romans, therefore they have Latin blood and culture in them as well.

During the Hungarian revolution when Hungarians rebelled against Habsburg rule, the Catholic Slovenes sided with the Catholic Habsburgs. The Lutheran Slovenians, however, supported the rebel Lajos Kossuth siding with Hungary and they pleaded for the separation of Hungary from Habsburg Austria which had its anti-Protestant policy.[154] At that time, the reasoning that the inhabitants of the Rába Region were not Slovenes but Wends and "Wendish-Slovenes" respectively and that, as a consequence, their ancestral Slavic-Wendish language was not to be equated with the other Slovenes living in the Austro-Hungarian Empire was established. In the opinion of the Lutheran-Slovene priest of Hodoš, the only possibility for the Lutheran Slovenes emerging from the Catholic-Slovenian population group to continue was to support Kossuth and his Hungarian culture.[155] Thereafter, the Lutheran Slovenes used their language in churches and schools in the most traditional way in order to distinguish themselves from the Catholic Slovenes and the Slovene language (i.e., pro-Hungarian or pan-Slavic Slovene literature). The Lutheran priests and believers remained of the conviction that they could only adhere to their Lutheran faith when following the wish of the Hungarians (or the Austrians) and considering themselves "Wendish-Slovenes". If they did not conform to this, then they were in danger of being assimilated into Hungarian culture.[156]

In the years preceding World War I, the Hungarian Slovenes were swept into the ideology of Panslavism, the national unity of all Slavic-speaking peoples of Eastern Europe. The issue was volatile in the fragmented Austro-Hungarian empire, which was defeated in the war. In the 1921 Treaty of Trianon, the southern half (not the whole) of the Prekmurje region was ceded to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

The Hungarian government in Budapest after 1867 tried to assimilate the Prekmurje Slovenes. In Somogy in the 19th century, there was still a ban on using Prekmurje Slovene. József Borovnyák, Ferenc Ivanóczy, and other Slovenian politicians and writers helped safeguard the Prekmurje Slovene and identity.

In the late 20th century and today, the new notion for Prekmurian Slovenes is to conceive Prekmurian is in fact the Slovene language, but not dialect.[13][14][15][16][17] Prekmurians and other Slovenes have common national and ethnic identity but Prekmurians have also their special separate language identity, literature, grammar and spelling. Literature in Prekmurian Slovene is linguistically clearly distinguished from the literature in standard Slovene or other Slovene dialectical traditions.[27] Prekmurian literature is always variegated, multifarious and not only a repository of religious books, as Slovene linguistics and literary history once claimed.[157]

In Communist Yugoslavia, Prekmurje Slovene was looked down upon because numerous writers, such as József Klekl, were anti-communists.[158][159]

Examples

[edit]

A comparison of the Lord's Prayer in standard Slovene, Old Prekmurje Slovene, new Prekmurje Slovene, Kajkavian Croatian, and standard Croatian. The Prekmurje Slovene versions is taken from a 1942 prayer book (Zálozso János Zvér, Molitvena Kniga, Odobrena od cérkvene oblászti, Murska Sobota, 1942, third edition) and from a 2022 prayer book Jezuš tovariš moj.[160] The original Hungarian orthography has been transliterated into Gaj's Latin alphabet, as used in the other versions, for easier comparison.

Standard Slovene Old Prekmurje Slovene New Prekmurje Slovene Standard Kajkavian Standard Croatian

Oče naš, ki si v nebesih,
posvečeno bodi tvoje ime,
pridi k nam tvoje kraljestvo,
zgodi se tvoja volja
kakor v nebesih tako na zemlji.
Daj nam danes naš vsakdanji kruh
in odpusti nam naše dolge,
kakor tudi mi odpuščamo svojim dolžnikom,
in ne vpelji nas v skušnjavo,
temveč reši nas hudega.
Amen.

Oča naš, ki si vu nebésaj!
Svéti se Ime tvoje.
Pridi králestvo tvoje.
Bojdi vola tvoja,
kak na nébi, tak i na zemli.
Krüha našega vsakdanéšnjega daj nam
ga dnes.
I odpüsti nam duge naše,
kak i mi odpüščamo dužnikom našim.
I ne vpelaj nas vu sküšávanje.
Nego odslobodi nas od hüdoga.
Amen.

Oča naš, šteri si v nebesaj,
sveti se ime tvojo,
pridi k nan kralestvo tvojo,
bodi vola tvoja
kak na nebi tak na zemli.
Krüj naš sakdanešnji daj nan gnes,
odpüsti nan duge naše,
kak mi odpüščamo dužnikon našin.
Ne pelaj nas v sküšnjavo,
nego rejši nas hüdoga.
Amen.

Otec naš, koji jesi v nebesih,
sveti se ime tvoje,
dojdi kralevstvo tvoje,
budi volja tvoja,
kak na nebu tak i na zemli.
Kruh naš svakdašni daj
nam denes
i otpusti nam duge naše,
kak i mi otpuščamo dužnikom našim,
i ne uvedi nas v napast,
nek izbavi nas od zla.
Amen.

Oče naš, koji jesi na nebesima,
sveti se ime tvoje,
dođi kraljevstvo tvoje,
budi volja tvoja,
kako na nebu tako i na zemlji.
Kruh naš svagdanji daj
nam danas
i otpusti nam duge naše,
kako i mi otpuštamo dužnicima našim,
i ne uvedi nas u napast,
nego izbavi nas od zla.
Amen.

Examples from main Prekmurian Slovene dialects

[edit]
Highland (Goričko) dialect (Selo, Moravske Toplice) Standard Slovene[161]

Mouž pa žena sta domou gnala kravo, štero sta na senji v Motvarjavcaj küjpila. Nouč je že bjla, nejbo je bilou puno zvejzd pa mejsec fejst svejto. Mouž je kravo vlejko za lanc, žena jo je pa odza gonila z boton.

Preci potij sta že opodila, kda sta pa bila blüjzi potoka, sta na nejbi pod seuf vídla glij takšiva dva, kak kravo ženejta. Kak da bi samiva sebe vidla v glendali! Samo ka njima je tista ženska majütala z rokouv, ka naj idete bole na pravo rokou. Tak sta tüdi šla, pa sta zabloudila mijmo mousta pa v potok spadnola s kravov vrejt. Šče sreča, ka je bilou malo vodej v njon, vači bi se vsi trgej zalejali v njon.

Kda so se vö rejšili z vodej, je tista prikazen z nejba minoula.

Mož in žena sta vodila kravo, kupljeno na senju v Motvarjevcih, proti domu. Bila je že noč, nebo je bilo posejano z zvezdami in mesec je sijal. Mož je vlekel kravo za verigo, žena pa jo je od zadaj priganjala s palico.

Dobršen kos poti sta že prehodila, ko pa sta se približala potoku, sta na nebu nad sabo zagledala prav taka, kot onadva, ki sta ravno tako gnala kravo. Kot da bi videla sama sebe v ogledalu! Vendar pa jima je tista ženska na nebu mahala z roko, naj gresta bolj na desno. Tako sta tudi ravnala, vendar pa sta zgrešila most in s kravo vred padla v potok Še sreča, da je bilo le malo vode v njem, sicer bi se vsi trije utopili.

Ko pa so rešili iz vode, je nebesna prikazen izginila.

Lowland (Ravensko) dialect (Murski Črnci) Standard Slovene[162]

Eden moški je kesno vnoči s konjami vlejko pune mele z mlina domou.

Kda je pelo prejk potoka Mokoša, je vido gouske, štere so se koupale notri. Zeu je bič pa z norije začno mlatiti po nji. Pa so priletele do kola, prijale potače, pa so ga nej püstile naprej. Tisti moment so se spremejnile v čarno oblečene ženske, štere so bile doma ž njegove pa s sousidni vesnic. Zgrabile so ga pa začnole gvant ž njega trgati, zraven pa so njemi zagrouzile, ka njemi gezik vö potegnejo, če je vö ovadi komi.

Nek možakar je pozno ponoči s konjsko vprego vlekel poln voz moke iz mlina domov.

Ko je prečkal Mokoš, je videl goske, ki so se kopale v njem. Vzel je bič in iz objestnosti švrkal po njih, pa so priletele do voza, prijele za kolesa in ga niso pustile naprej. V tem so se že spremenile v črno oblečene ženske, domačinke iz njegove in sosednje vasi. Ujele so ga in pričele trgati obleki iz njega, grozeč mu, da mu iztrgajo jezik, če jih komu izda.

Lower Lowland (Dolinsko) dialect (Bratonci) Standard Slovene[163]

Zidari so pri ednoj iži zidali nouvo ižo. Vertinja njin je dobro dvorila. Pouleg župe pa mesa so meli sakši den na stouli šče dobre retaše pa krapce. Piti so si pa točili po vouli.

Krav pa pri iži nej bilou, ka bi je dojijli, moški so pa tüdi nigdar nej vidli, ka bi kakša sousida prinesla k iži mlejko eli kislikaj, kak je v Prekmörji pač bijla stara navada. Če so ge zidali, so sousidje pa rodbina pomagali z delon pa jestijon.

Gda so zidari tak že več dnij dobro jeli, je eden od njij, šteromi je bilou sümlivo, stoupo pred obedon v küjnjo gledat, kak vertinja küja.

Ravno te je zela krapce s peči, te je pa v rokaj stiskavala krotajco, šteroj je z gobca prikaplalo vrnje, z njin je pa namazala krapce.

Tak so zidari gor prišli, ka je vertinja cumprnica, pa v pamet zeli, otket njoj telko kisilaka pa vrnja.

Zidarji so pri neki hiši zidali novo zgradbo. Gospodinja jim je dobro stregla. Ob juhi in mesu so imeli vsak dan na mizi tudi zavitke in pogače. Tudi pijačo so si točili po volji.

Krave pa pri hiši ni bilo, da bi jo dojili in možje nikoli niso videli, da bi katera izmed sosed prinesla k hiši mleko ali skuto, kakor je bila v Prekmurju navada. Če so namreč kje zidali, so sosedje in sorodniki pomagali z delom in hrano.

Ko so zidarji tako že nekaj dni dobro jedli, je eden izmed njih, ki mu je bilo vse skupaj sumljivo, stopil pred kosilom v kuhinjo, da bi videl, kako gospodinja kuha.

Ravnokar je vzela pogače iz peči. Nato je v rokah stiskala krastačo, ki ji je prikapljalo iz gobca smetano, s katerim je namazala pogače.

Tako so zidarji spoznali, da je gospodinja čarovnica, in ugotovili, odkod ji toliko smetane in skute.

Slovene national anthem in Prekmurian language

[edit]
Original version (by France Prešeren) Prekmurian Slovene version (translated Peter Brenčič, 2018)[164]

Spet trte so rodile
prijatli, vince nam sladkó,
ki nam oživlja žile,
srcé razjásni in oko,
ki utopi
vse skrbi,
v potrtih prsih up budi!

Komú najpred veselo
zdravljico, bratje! čmò zapét'!
Bog našo nam deželo,
Bog živi ves slovenski svet,
brate vse,
kar nas je
sinóv sloveče matere!

V sovražnike 'z oblakov
rodú naj naš'ga treši gróm;
prost, ko je bil očakov,
naprej naj bo Slovencov dom;
naj zdrobé
njih roké
si spone, ki jih še težé!

Edinost, sreča, sprava
k nam naj nazaj se vrnejo;
otrók, kar ima Slava,
vsi naj si v róke sežejo,
de oblast
in z njo čast,
ko préd, spet naša boste last!

Bog žívi vas Slovenke,
prelepe, žlahtne rožice;
ni take je mladenke,
ko naše je krvi dekle;
naj sinóv
zarod nov
iz vas bo strah sovražnikov!

Mladenči, zdaj se pije
zdravljica vaša, vi naš up;
ljubezni domačije
noben naj vam ne usmŕti strup;
ker zdaj vàs
kakor nàs,
jo sŕčno bránit' kliče čas!

Živé naj vsi naródi,
ki hrepené dočakat' dan,
da koder sonce hodi,
prepir iz svéta bo pregnan,
da rojak
prost bo vsak,
ne vrag, le sosed bo mejak!

Nazadnje še, prijatlji,
kozarce zase vzdignimo,
ki smo zato se zbrat'li,
ker dobro v srcu mislimo;
dókaj dni
naj živí
vsak, kar nas dobrih je ljudi!

Pajdaši! poroudilo,
je tršče víjno nan sladko,
štero nam žilé poživê,
srcê bistrî pa okô,
štero doj vtopî,
sakše skrbi,
v potrtij prsaj vüpanje bidî !

Komi naj najprlê vesêjlo
zdravico, bratja !mo spopêvali !
Boug našo nam krajino,
Boug živi Slovenski cêjli svejt,
brate vse,
ka nas je,
sinov sloveče matere!

F te štêri nas mrzê, doj z oblakov
roda naj našoga' ga vdari gron;
prost, tak kak je biu že očákov
dale naj bo Slovencov doum;
naj spotêrejo
njüve roke
si lance štêri jih drž ê!

Fküp držanje, sreča, spravlênje
k nan naj nazaj pridejo;
dicê, kelko jih ma Slava,
vsi si naj v roke sêgnejo,
te de vlast
vkup z njo pa čast,
kak prle, boujo naša last!

Boug živi vas Slovenke,
lepe, érašne roužice;
nega takših mladih diklin,
kak naša je krf dekel
naj sinov
zarod nouv
od vas de straj neprijatelof.

Pojge, zdaj se pige
zdravica vaša, vi naš vüp;
lübezen domačije
ni eden naj vas ne buje strup;
kak zdaj vas,
tak kak nas,
jo srčno branoti zove čas !

Živêjo naj vsi narodi,
štêri trdno ščêjo dočakat dên,
da tan gê sunce odi
svaja iz svejta de stirana,
gda rojak
sloboden bou fsak,
nej vrag, liki sousid bou mejak!

Na kunci pa še ,pajdaši,
küpice za sebe zdignimo,
šteri smo se zato pobratili,
ka dobro v srci mislimo;
püno dni
naj živi
saki, pa vsi ka nas je dobrij lidi!

[edit]
  • The first printed book in Prekmurje Slovene: Mali cathecismus (Small Catechism), by Ferenc Temlin.
    The first printed book in Prekmurje Slovene: Mali cathecismus (Small Catechism), by Ferenc Temlin.
  • The ABC-book of Miklós Küzmics. This is also the first Hungarian-Slovenian Dictionary.
    The ABC-book of Miklós Küzmics. This is also the first Hungarian-Slovenian Dictionary.
  • József Kossics: Small Grammar of the Hungarian language and Vandalic language
    József Kossics: Small Grammar of the Hungarian language and Vandalic language
  • János Kardos's school book from 1872
    János Kardos's school book from 1872
  • The famous Prekmurje Slovene prayer-book, the Kniga molitvena from 1855.
    The famous Prekmurje Slovene prayer-book, the Kniga molitvena from 1855.
  • First Prekmurian newspaper Prijátel (Friend) by Imre Augustich
    First Prekmurian newspaper Prijátel (Friend) by Imre Augustich
  • Pray my brothers! Prayer-book of József Szakovics in 1936. His script was written in the Slovene alphabet.
    Pray my brothers! Prayer-book of József Szakovics in 1936. His script was written in the Slovene alphabet.
  • The tomb of the young Vince Talabér from Permise (Kétvölgy) in the cemetery of Apátistvánfalva with Prekmurje Slovene inscription.
    The tomb of the young Vince Talabér from Permise (Kétvölgy) in the cemetery of Apátistvánfalva with Prekmurje Slovene inscription.
  • Prekmurje Slovene gravestone in the United States (St. Michael's Cemetery, South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania)
    Prekmurje Slovene gravestone in the United States (St. Michael's Cemetery, South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania)
  • The most important Prekmurian Slovene-language newspaper Novine (1913–1941) by József Klekl
    The most important Prekmurian Slovene-language newspaper Novine (1913–1941) by József Klekl
  • Kalendar Srca Jezušovoga (Jesus's Heart Calendar) was Prekmurje Catholic calendar between 1904 and 1944.
    Kalendar Srca Jezušovoga (Jesus's Heart Calendar) was Prekmurje Catholic calendar between 1904 and 1944.
  • Dober pajdás kalendárium (Good Friend Calendar) from 1911. It contains various articles on politics, everyday life, literature and science
    Dober pajdás kalendárium (Good Friend Calendar) from 1911. It contains various articles on politics, everyday life, literature and science
  • Oneiromancy in Prekmurian Slovene
    Oneiromancy in Prekmurian Slovene
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Prekmurian language.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Damir Josipovič: Prekmurje in prekmurščina (Anali PAZU - Letnik 2, leto 2012, številka 2)
  2. ^ Greenberg 2020, p. 1:"There is reason to think of Prekmurje Slovene as a dialect of Slovene as well as a separate language. Indeed it has carried through many of the innovations that are characteristic of Slovene, shares most core vocabulary and grammatical structure, and from this perspective is part of a broader dialect group of the Pannonian group of Slovene dialects, together with the Slovenske gorice, Prlekija, and Haloze dialects, which in turn share a number of characteristics that differ from the rest of Slovene as well as neighboring Kajkavian dialects in Croatia (see Ramovš 1935, 171–193 for details). In favor of Prekmurje Slovene as a language it is written tradition, as it has been used for several centuries in a loosely standardized form, largely, but not exclusively, as a liturgical language. From a diachronic perspective, the Prekmurje Slovene offers a glimpse at a linguistic code that came into being through heterogeneous processes."
  3. ^ Logar, Tine. 1996. Dialektološke in jezikovnozgodovinske razprave. Ljubljana: SAZU, p. 240.
  4. ^ "Zapostavljeni spomin pokrajine - Prekmurska zgodovina kot primer spregleda lokalne zgodovine v učnem načrtu osnovnih in srednjih šol" [Neglected memory of a region - history of Prekmurje as an example of overlooked local history in curriculum of primary and secondary schools] (in Slovenian). Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije [Slovenian Research Agency] (AARS). 2008.
  5. ^ Jesenšek, Marko (2008). "Trubarjeva in Küzmičeva različica slovenskega knjižnega jezika" [Trubar's and Küzmič's Variants of the Slovene Literary Language] (PDF). Slavistična revija (in Slovenian and English). Vol. 56, no. 4. COBISS 16738056.
  6. ^ RTV SLO: Nova radijska igra Bratonski pil v prekmurščini
  7. ^ Prekmurščina: Dnejvi so minejvali pa nika takšoga se nej zgoudilo (Dnevnik)
  8. ^ Prekmurci in prekmurščina (Prekmursko društvo General Maister)
  9. ^ NE SPREGLEJTE! Na TV IDEA nova oddaja TIJ SAMO GUČI z gostiteljem Mišem Kontrecem (Sobotainfo)
  10. ^ a b c d e Imre, Szíjártó (October 2007). "Muravidéki szlovén irodalom; A Muravidék történelmi útja" [Prekmurje Slovene literature; The Prekmurje historical journey] (PDF). Nagy Világ (in Hungarian): 777–778. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21.
  11. ^ Just 2000, p. 73.
  12. ^ Slovenski koledar (1992) ISSN 0237-1480, 98. p.
  13. ^ a b Dobrovoljc 2011, pp. 22–25.
  14. ^ a b Hajdinjak 2020, p. 56.
  15. ^ a b Rejc 2005, p. 74.
  16. ^ a b Kuhar 1997, p. 195.
  17. ^ a b Franček 1990, p. 9.
  18. ^ "Zapis 34. posveta predstavnikov verskih skupnosti, ki so prijavile svojo ustanovitev v Republiki Sloveniji" (PDF) (in Slovenian).
  19. ^ Nekaj manjka v naših šolah ... To je prekmurščina!
  20. ^ Prekmurščina kot predmet v osnovnih in srednjih šolah? (sobotainfo.com)
  21. ^ Spoznaj nosilca enote Ptuj: Rolando Benjamin Vaz Ferreira (piratskastranka.si)
  22. ^ Just 2000, pp. 10–14.
  23. ^ "Prekmurski film Oča se danes predstavlja svetovni javnosti" (in Slovenian). Pomurec. 2010-09-07.
  24. ^ "MITNJEK VESNA S.P. ČARNA BAUTA" (in Slovenian).
  25. ^ Lovenjakov Dvor - Hotel Štrk
  26. ^ "Protesti v Murski Soboti" (in Slovenian). Pomurec.
  27. ^ a b Jesenšek 2010, p. 45.
  28. ^ Greenberg 2020, p. 17.
  29. ^ a b c d Greenberg 2020, p. 21.
  30. ^ a b Greenberg 2020, p. 20.
  31. ^ a b Novak 1976, p. 69.
  32. ^ Lončar 2010, p. 20.
  33. ^ a b c Greenberg 2020, p. 24.
  34. ^ a b Greenberg 2020, p. 22.
  35. ^ a b c Greenberg 2020, p. 23.
  36. ^ a b Greenberg 2020, p. 29.
  37. ^ a b Greenberg 2020, p. 31.
  38. ^ Koletnik 2001, pp. 97–99.
  39. ^ Zorko 1998, pp. 25–47.
  40. ^ Moguš 1977, pp. 79–82.
  41. ^ Nowday: velika noč
  42. ^ a b c d e Greenberg 2020, p. 32.
  43. ^ a b c Greenberg 2020, p. 33.
  44. ^ Greenberg 2020, p. 35.
  45. ^ Greenberg 2020, p. 51.
  46. ^ Greenberg 2020, p. 50.
  47. ^ Toporišič 2004, p. 271.
  48. ^ Greenberg 2020, p. 53.
  49. ^ Toporišič 2004, p. 290.
  50. ^ Greenberg 2020, p. 59.
  51. ^ Toporišič 2004, pp. 293–295.
  52. ^ a b c Greenberg 2020, pp. 74–75.
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