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The Transcendental Meditation or TM technique is a form of mantra meditation introduced in India in 1955^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4] by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1917–2008).^[5] Taught in a standardized, seven-step course over 4 days by certified teachers, it involves the use of a sound or mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day, while sitting comfortably with closed eyes.^[6]^[7] The fees of learning the technique vary from country to country. In the United States for example, the fee is $1,500, while prices in the United Kingdom (UK) are based on a tiered system, dependent on income.

In 1957, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi began a series of world tours during which he introduced and taught his meditation technique.^[8] In 1959, he founded the International Meditation Society and, in 1961, he began to train teachers of the technique.^[8]^[9] From the late 1960s through the mid 1970s, both the Maharishi and TM received significant public attention in the USA, especially among the student population.^[10]^[11] During this period, a million people learned the technique, including well-known public figures.^[10] By 1998, the global TM organization had taught an estimated four million people, had 1,000 teaching centers, and owned property assets valued at $3.5 billion.^[12]

TM has been reported to be one of the most widely practiced meditation techniques, and among the most widely researched,^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16] with over 200 scientific studies examining the effects of TM having been published in peer-reviewed journals.^[17] At the same time, a 2007 review of Transcendental Meditation reported that the definitive health effects of meditation cannot be determined as the bulk of scientific evidence examined was of poor quality.^[18] A 2006 Cochrane review found that TM was equivalent to relaxation therapy for the treatment of anxiety.^[19]

The Maharishi developed the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI), a system of theoretical principles to underlie his meditation technique.^{[citation needed]} James Randi, author and skeptic, says SCI has "no scientific characteristics".^[20]

In the mid-1970s, the Transcendental Meditation program was expanded to include an "advanced form", the TM-Sidhi program. The TM movement said the advanced techniques could give practitioners super-normal powers, including levitation, that could generate a peace-inducing field.^[7]^[21]

Transcendental Meditation is part of the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health^[22] and is made available worldwide by a number of organizations sometimes collectively referred to as the Transcendental Meditation movement. Transcendental Meditation is a registered trademark of the Maharishi Foundation.^[23]

TM has been called a pseudoscience by astronomer Carl Sagan.^[24] Transcendental Meditation was held to be a religion by three different United States courts in two separate cases: Malnak v. Yogi (1977 and 1979) and Hendel v. World Plan Executive Council (1996).

Origins

File:Brahmananda Saraswati GuruDev.jpg

Brahmananda Saraswati

According to religious scholar Kenneth Boa in his book, Cults, World Religions and the Occult, Transcendental Meditation is rooted in the Vedantic School of Hinduism, "repeatedly confirmed" in the Maharishi's books such as the Science of Being and the Art of Living and his Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.^[25] Boa writes that Maharishi Mahesh Yogi "makes it clear" that Transcendental Meditation was delivered to man about 5,000 years ago by the Hindu god Krishna. The technique was then lost, but restored for a time by Buddha. It was lost again, but rediscovered in the 9th century AD by the Hindu philosopher Shankara. Finally, it was revived by Brahmananda Saraswati (Guru Dev) and passed on to the Maharishi.^[26]

George Chryssides similarly states that the Maharishi and Guru Dev were from the Shankara tradition of advaita Vedanta.^[27] Peter Russell in The TM Technique says that the Maharishi believed that from the time of the Vedas, this knowledge cycled from lost to found multiple times, as is described in the introduction of the Maharishi's commentaries on the Bhagavad-Gita. Revival of the knowledge recurred principally in the Bhagavad-Gita, and in the teachings of Buddha and Shankara.^[28] Chryssides notes that, in addition to the revivals of the Transcendental Meditaton technique by Krishna, the Buddha and Shankara, the Maharishi also drew from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.^[27] Vimal Patel also writes that the Maharishi drew from Patanjali when developing the TM technique.^[29]

Principles

Use of a mantra

During the initial, personal instruction session, the student is given a specific sound or mantra along with the technique of how to use the mantra. The sound is utilized as a thought in the meditation process,^[30] and as a vehicle that allows the individual's attention to travel naturally to a less active, quieter style of mental functioning.^[30]^[31]

Selection

Lola Williamson states that the mantras used in the Transcendental Meditation technique come from the Tantric tradition, while Russell says the sounds used in the technique are taken from the ancient Vedic tradition.^[32]^[33] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi explains that the selection of a proper thought or mantra "becomes increasingly important when we consider that the power of thought increases when the thought is appreciated in its infant stages of development".^[34] The Maharishi says that certain, specific vibrations suit certain people and that this method of meditation enables the mind to experience subtler phases of the vibration until the source of all vibration is experienced.^[35]

William Jefferson, in The Story of the Maharishi, explains the importance of the "euphonics" of mantras. Jefferson says that the secrets of the mantras and their subsequent standardization for today's teachers of the technique were unraveled by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi after his years of study with his own teacher, Guru Dev (Brahmananda Saraswati) so that selection is foolproof, and that the number of mantras from the Vedic tradition, which could number in the hundreds, have been brought to a minimum number by the Maharishi.^[36]

Author George Chryssides says that, according to the Maharishi, the mantras for "householders" and for recluses differ. The Transcendental Meditation mantras are appropriate mantras for householders, while most mantras commonly found in books are mantras for recluses. Chryssides says that TM teachers claim that the results promised by the Transcendental Meditation technique are dependent on a trained Transcendental Meditation teacher choosing the mantra for the student.^[27]

TM meditators are instructed to keep their mantra private. Robert Oates writes that this is a "protection against inaccurate teaching".^[37] In his 1997 book, The Sociology of Religious Movements, William Sims Bainbridge wrote that the mantras given for Transcendental Meditation are "supposedly selected to match the nervous system of the individual but actually taken from a list of 16 Sanskrit words on the basis of the person's age".^[38]

A list of mantras has been published in various sources, including the January 1984 edition of Omni (magazine), which says it received them from "disaffected TM teachers".^[39]^[40]

Meaning and sound value

Speaking in Kerala, India, in 1955, the Maharishi connected the mantras with personal deities. Similar references can also be found in his later works.^[41]^[42] According to Williamson, the bija or seed mantras used in TM come from the Tantric, rather than Vedic tradition. In the Tantric tradition, these mantras are associated with specific deities and used as a form of worship.^[43] At other times, the Maharishi stated that "The theory of mantras is the theory of sound."^[42]

In the 1977 court case Malnak vs. Yogi (see below), an undisputed fact in the case was that the mantras are meaningless sounds.^[44]

The 1995 expanded edition of Conway and Siegelman's Snapping: America's Epidemic of Sudden Personality Change describes a teacher of Transcendental Meditation who says: "I was lying about the mantras — they were not meaningless sounds; they were actually the names of Hindu demigods - and about how many different ones there were — we had sixteen to give out to our students".^[45]

In his book, Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction, sociologist Stephen J. Hunt says that the mantra used in the Transcendental Meditation technique has no meaning but that the sound itself is sacred.^[31]

Philosophy of science scholar Jonathan Shear, in his book The Experience of Meditation: Experts Introduce the Major Traditions, characterizes the mantras used in the TM technique as independent of meaning associated with any language, and are used for their mental, sound value alone.^[46] Fred Travis, Professor of Maharishi Vedic Science at Maharishi University of Management, writes in a 2009 article published in the International Journal of Psychophysiology that "unlike most mantra meditations, any possible meaning of the mantra is not part of Transcendental Meditation practice".^[47]

Science of Creative Intelligence

The Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) is the system of theoretical principles that underlie the technique of Transcendental Meditation. SCI describes "pure creative intelligence" as the basis of all life, and Transcendental Meditation as a means to contact the field of creative intelligence, and according to the theory, realize the full potential life.^[48]^[49] The TM organization describes the Science of Creative Intelligence as both theoretical and practical. Peter Russell, in the TM Technique, describes SCI as an in-depth exploration and understanding of the TM technique. Russell goes on to describe SCI as the interface between the subjective experience or subjective knowledge attributed to practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique, and the objective experience of the various fields of knowledge.^[50] SCI, introduced by the Maharishi, has been called his "unified theory of life"^[51] and "the science of expansion of awareness or the science of progress in life".^[52] An official TM website calls it "the systematic study of the field of pure creative intelligence, the Unified Field of all the Laws of Nature, and the principles by which it governs the coexistence and evolution of all systems in Nature".^[53] "Science of Creative Intelligence" has sometimes been used as a synonym or alternate name for "Transcendental Meditation".^[54]

SCI theory is taught in a 33-lesson video course, while the practical aspect is the experience of the TM technique itself.^[55] The Independent describes how children are taught SCI at a Maharishi School in the U.K. where they learn principles that include "the nature of life is to grow" and "order is present everywhere".^[56]

In 1961, the Maharishi created the International Meditation Society for the Science of Creative Intelligence.^[57] An official chronology lists 1971 as "Maharishi's Year of Science of Creative Intelligence". According to Cynthia Humes in Gurus In America, the shift towards science and away from spiritualism started around 1970.^[58] The Second International Symposium on the Science of Creative Intelligence was held in 1971 at the Humboldt State University campus in California, attended by a small number of scientists that included a Nobel Prize-winner.^[59] The following year, 1972, the Maharishi developed a World Plan to spread SCI across the world.^[60] KSCI, a UHF television station in San Bernardino, California, was started in 1974 to broadcast the TM movement's "educational program".^[61]

Courses on the Science of Creative Intelligence were offered in the early 1970s at universities such as Stanford, Yale, the University of Colorado, the University of Wisconsin, and Oregon State University.^[62] Degrees in SCI have been awarded by Maharishi University of Management (MUM) in Iowa^[51] and Maharishi European Research University (MERU) in Switzerland. Classes at MUM present topics such as art, economics, physics, literature, and psychology in the context of SCI.^[63]^[64] For most of its history, MUM required all students to begin by taking a class in the Science of Creative Intelligence that included 33 videotaped-lectures by the Maharishi,^[65]^[66]^[67] but by 2009, it was only required of graduate students.^[68] The president of MUM credits SCI with the success of its graduates.^[69] Individuals who have earned master's or doctoral degrees in the Science of Creative Intelligence include Bevan Morris,^[70] Doug Henning,^[71] Mike Tompkins,^[72] Benjamin Feldman the Finance Minister for Global Country of World Peace,^[73] John Gray,^[74] and David R. Leffler. SCI is also on the curriculum of lower schools including the Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment in Iowa, Wheaton, Maryland,^[75] and Skelmersdale, UK.^[76]

Theologian Robert M. Price, writing in the Creation/Evolution Journal (the journal of the National Center for Science Education), compares the Science of Creative Intelligence to Creationism.^[49] Price says instruction in the Transcendental Meditation technique is "never offered without indoctrination into the metaphysics of 'creative intelligence'".^[49] Skeptic James Randi says SCI has "no scientific characteristics",^[20] and in a 1982 book, says that TM's claims are no more substantiated by scientific investigation than other mystical philosophies.^[77] Astrophysicist and skeptic Carl Sagan writes that the 'Hindu doctrine' of TM is a pseudoscience.^[24] Irving Hexham, a scholar of New Age and new religious movements, describes the TM teachings as "pseudoscientific language that masks its religious nature by mythologizing science".^[57] Neurophysiologist Michael Persinger writes that "science has been used as a sham for propaganda by the TM movement".^[78]^[79] Sociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge describe the SCI videotapes as being largely based on the Bhagavad Gita, and say that they are "laced with parables and metaphysical postulates, rather than anything that can be recognized as conventional science".^[64] Paul Mason suggests that the scientific terminology used in SCI is an academic bias developed to favour scientific terminology, and was a restructuring of the Maharishi's philosophies in terms that would gain greater acceptance and hopefully increase TM technique initiations.^[80] In the court case Malnak v Yogi, SCI was held to be a religion.^[48]

Teaching procedure

The Transcendental Meditation technique is taught in a standardized, seven-step course^[6] that consists of two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and four, two-hour, instruction sessions given on consecutive days.^[81]^[82]^[83] The initial personal instruction session begins with a short puja ceremony performed by the teacher, after which the student is taught the technique. During the puja ceremony, the teacher recites text in Sanskrit, part of which has been translated as:

Whosoever remembers the lotus-eyed Lord gains inner and outer purity. To Lord Naryan, to Lotus-born Brahman the creator, to Vaishistha, to Shakti, to Shankaracharya the emancipator, hailed as Krishna, to the Lord I bow down and down again. At whose door the whole galaxy of gods pray for perfection day and night.^[84]

Walter Martin notes that in learning the Transcendental Meditation technique it is only after this ceremony has been performed that the student receives the mantra.^[85] Following initiation, the student practices the technique twice a day. Subsequent group sessions with the teacher ensure correct practice. Step five verifies the correctness of the practice and give further instruction; step six teaches the mechanics of the TM technique based on his/her personal experiences; and, step seven explains the higher stages of human development per this system of meditation.^[6]

The technique is practiced morning and evening for 15–20 minutes each time, but is not recommended before bed.^[10]^[82] According to Russell and the official TM web site, the Transcendental Meditation technique can be learned only from a certified, authorized teacher.^[28]^[86]

According to the movement, four to six million people have been trained in the TM technique since 1959. Notable practitioners include The Beatles, David Lynch, John Hagelin, Deepak Chopra, and Mia Farrow. For more names, see List of Transcendental Meditation practitioners.

Fees

From 1967 to 1968, the fees for instruction in the UK, the US, and Australia were variable, ranging from the equivalent of one-week's salary to a flat fee of $35 for students.^[87]^[88]^[89] By 1975, fees in the US were fixed at $125 for adults, but with discounted rates for students or families.^[90] At the time, author John White wrote that fees were "becoming exorbitant", that TM instruction should be free, or at least much cheaper, and that a lot of people question paying $125 for six hours of instruction.^[91] Fees rose to $400 for adults and $135 for students in the US and Canada by 1993, and then were increased to $1,000 for adults and $600 for students in 1994.^[92]^[93] In Britain, TM cost £490 (£290 for students) in 1995.^[94] By 2003, fees in the US were $2,500.^[95] In Bermuda, where fees had been kept below the international average for many years, a 2003 directive from TM Movement headquarters to increase prices from $385 to $2,000 was partly responsible for the suspension of TM instruction there. A former instructor was critical of the fees for excluding ordinary people and making TM something exclusively for the wealthy.^[96] In January 2009, The Guardian reported that the expensive fees for TM instruction had "risked it being priced into oblivion" until David Lynch convinced the Maharishi to "radically reduce" fees so as to permit more young people to learn TM.^[97]

In 2009, fees in the US were reduced for a one-hour-a-day, four-day course to $1,500 for the general public and $750 for college students.^[98]^[99] Fees in the UK were also reduced, and a tiered fee structure introduced, ranging from £290 to £590 for adults, and £190 to £290 for students, depending on income.^[100] The Maharishi was criticized by other Yogis and stricter Hindus for charging fees for instruction in TM, who contended that it was unethical, amounting to the selling of "commercial mantras".^[101]^[102]^[103]

Supplemental techniques

"Rounding" is a more intensive meditation process taught as part of Residence Courses.^[104] A round consists of a sequence of yoga postures called asanas, breathing techniques called pranayama, a standard TM meditation routine and rest. Each round takes about 50 minutes and is then repeated several times.^[105] Rounding is said to be especially effective in facilitating "unstressing" in the practitioner. Unstressing is a release of tension in which deep relaxation may be accompanied by physical and emotional effects, including insomnia, anxiety, headaches, and spontaneous imagery.^[106]

The movement also teaches, for additional fees in the thousands of dollars, "advanced techniques" of Transcendental Meditation, introduced by the Maharishi in the mid-1970s when new enrollment in Transcendental Meditation collapsed. The TM-Sidhi program, introduced in 1975, expanded the number of offerings.^[38]^[42]^[107] This later program teaches that, through the power of meditation, one is able to gain various "signposts" of spiritual progress, such as the powers of levitation and invisibility, walking through walls, colossal strength, ESP, perfect health and immortality, among others.^[7] The Maharishi has said that "thousands" have learned to levitate.^[108] James Randi however, after investigation concludes that there is "no levitation, no walking through walls, no invisibility".^[108]

Research

Leading individuals and organizations associated with TM cite the existence of many studies, "more than 600 published research studies, conducted at over 200 independent research institutions in 33 countries",^[109] to support TM-related concepts.^[110]^[111] The quantity of studies have been cited to support the political programs of the Natural Law Party,^[112]^[113] the tax status of a TM institution,^[114] the use of TM to rehabilitate prisoners,^[115] the teaching of TM in schools,^[116] the issuance of bonds to finance the movement,^[117] as proof that TM is a science rather than a religion,^[118] to show the efficacy of the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health,^[119] and as a reason to practice TM itself.^[120]

Research on Transcendental Meditation has been published in medical journals such as Archives of Internal Medicine^[121] (a journal of the American Medical Association), Stroke^[122] (a journal of the American Heart Association), Hypertension^[123] (a journal of the American Heart Association), the American Journal of Hypertension,^[124]^[125]^[126] the American Journal of Cardiology,^[127] and the International Journal of Psychophysiology.^[128]

Health outcomes

TM has been found to produce a set of characteristic responses such as reduced respiration, decreased breath volume, decreased lactate and cortisol (hormones associated with stress), increased basal skin resistance, and slowed heartbeat.^[129]^[130] The mechanism for the effects of TM has been explained by proponents as being due to greater order in the physiology, decreased stress, and growth of creative intelligence.^[130]

A comparison of the effect of various meditation techniques on systolic blood pressure.^[131]

The 2007 government report mentioned above included meta-anlayses of the research. It found that the effects of TM are no greater than health education regarding blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, or level of physical activity in hypertensive patients.^[132] The report found that compared to progressive muscle relaxation, TM produced a greater reduction in blood pressure.^[133] The report also analyzed studies that compared TM to no treatment. In these studies, TM did not produce significantly greater benefits on blood pressure but did produce improvement in cholesterol levels and verbal creativity. In studies that compared TM to a wait-listed control group, TM resulted in greater reduction in blood pressure. The report's assessment of before-and-after studies on patients with essential hypertension found a reduction in blood pressure after practicing TM.^[134] Though meta-analyses found these results, the review said that firm conclusions cannot be drawn.

A 2007 review said that data from two studies found reduced mortality from all causes over a mean period of 8 years in subjects practicing Transcendental Meditation compared to controls. The review said that this finding is consistent with a study that found improved blood pressure, insulin resistance, and cardiac autonomic-nervous-system tone in subjects with cardiovascular disease. The study concluded that, "Findings regarding the effects of psychosocial interventions on disease processes, morbidity and mortality are not yet well established and require appropriate clinical trials."^[135]

A 2008 meta-analysis of nine studies found a 4.7 mmHg systolic blood pressure and 3.2 mmHg diastolic blood pressure decrease in those who practiced TM compared to control groups that included health education. Three of the studies were assessed as good quality, three as acceptable, and three suboptimal.^[136] The review and its primary author were partially funded by Howard Settle,^[136] a proponent of TM.^[137] A 2007 meta-analysis by researchers at Maharishi University of Management and the University of Kentucky found that TM lowers blood pressure. The results differed from the 2007 government report mentioned above because the authors removed overlapping studies, corrected data collection errors, and included studies outside the scope of that report.^[138]^[139]

A 2009 review of 16 pediatric studies on meditation done in a school setting that included 6 studies on Transcendental Meditation reported that randomized controlled trials on Transcendental Meditation found a reduction in blood pressure and improvement in vascular function relative to health education. A randomized controlled trial on psychosocial and behavioral outcomes that compared TM to health education found that the TM group had decreased absentee periods, rule infractions, and suspension days, but found no difference in the TM and control groups in regard to tardiness, lifestyle, or stress. The review concluded that sitting meditation "seems to be an effective intervention in the treatment of physiologic, psychosocial, and behavioral conditions among youth."^[140] Of the 16 studies included in the review, 5 were uncontrolled. The review said that because of limitations of the research, larger-scale and more demographically diverse studies need to be done to clarify treatment efficacy.^[140]

Mental function

A 2003 review by Peter Canter and Edzard Ernst concluded that evidence does not support a specific or cumulative effect from TM on cognitive function. The trials that did show positive results recruited people with favorable opinions of TM, and used passive control procedures.^[130] Edzard Ernst, professor of complementary medicine at the Peninsula Medical School in Exeter, was quoted in The Guardian newspaper as saying that "there is no good evidence that TM has positive effects on children. The data that exist are all deeply flawed."^[141]

A 2003 research review looked at "well-designed studies" and discussed three randomized controlled trials on students that suggested that TM improves cognitive performance. A study of 154 Chinese high school students found increased practical intelligence, creativity, and speed of information processing. A study of 118 junior high school students replicated the finding, as did a study of 99 vocational school students in Taiwan.^[142]^[143]

A 2006 systematic review by the Cochrane collaboration found that there was insufficient evidence to draw conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation for anxiety disorders. The review found that, as of 2006, two randomized controlled trials had been done on this topic, one of which was on TM, and concluded that meditation is equivalent to relaxation therapy.^[19] Other research reviews cite a 1989 meta-analysis of 146 studies that found that relaxation techniques for anxiety had a medium effect size and that Transcendental Meditation had a significantly larger effect.^[144]^[145]

Criminal rehabilitation, addiction

Transcendental Meditation has been used in correctional settings, and research has shown a reduction in negative psychological states and recidivism — that is, returning to criminal behavior after being released from prison. According to a 2010 research review, studies involving hundreds of prisoners at San Quentin and Folsom State Prisons in California and Walpole State Prison in Massachusetts found that recidivism rates were reduced by as much as 47%. Overall, the TM prisoners at Folsom were 43% less likely to return to prison compared to control groups. The study at Folsom also looked at anxiety measures and found a sharp reduction compared to controls. The review said that meditation studies may be subject to researcher bias and self-selection bias, but concluded that policy makers and prison officials may want to implement meditation programs in prisons.^[146]

A 2009 review looked at the effect of TM on addiction and noted that while many studies exist, they were conducted by researchers affiliated with Transcendental Meditation and were not randomized controlled trials. Thus the evidence for treating addictive disorders is speculative and inconsistent.^[129] It said that while the quasi-religious aspects and cost may deter people, the simplicity of the technique, the physiological changes it induces, and the apparent effectiveness in nonpsychiatric settings merit further study and that "the theoretical basis for meditation’s role in addressing substance use disorders is compelling" based on the physiological mechanisms that have been found.^[129] According to the Cambridge Textbook of Effective Treatments in Psychiatry, a randomized controlled trial that included the use of Transcendental Meditation in treating alcoholism found that TM and biofeedback increased abstinence in alcoholics. The textbook concluded that there is not yet sufficient evidence for use as treatment but that meditation can help alcoholic patients in a variety of ways.^[147]

Effects on the brain

Transcendental Meditation has been found to produce specific types of brain waves as measured by electroencephalography (EEG). Studies have found that, compared to a baseline, during meditation there is an increase in alpha amplitude followed by a slowing of the alpha frequency and the spread of this to the frontal cortex.^[148] Alpha brain waves are classically viewed as reflecting a relaxed brain.^[148] When compared to control groups using a different relaxation technique, the increase in alpha is similar and integrated alpha amplitude may even decrease compared to a baseline of eyes-closed rest.^[149]

Transcendental Meditation also produces alpha coherence, that is, large-scale integration of frequencies in different parts of the brain.^[148] This pattern is also sometimes seen while a subject is actively focusing his or her attention on an object or holding some information in mind. These brain patterns generally suggest a decrease in mental activity and are associated with a relaxed state.^[149] According to the Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, TM promotional material has said that this coherence represents a more orderly state of the brain and one that is unique to TM.^[150] The Cambridge Handbook says that these claims may be overstated or premature. "Because alpha rhythms are ubiquitous and functionally non-specific, the claim that alpha oscillations and alpha coherence are desirable or are linked to an original and higher state of consciousness seem quite premature" and "alpha frequencies frequently produce spontaneously moderate to large coherence (0.3-0.8 over large inter-electrode distance.) The alpha coherence values reported in TM studies, as a trait in the baseline or during meditation, belong to this same range. Thus a global increase of alpha power and alpha coherence might not reflect a more 'ordered' or 'integrated' experience, as frequently claimed in TM literature, but rather a relaxed, inactive mental state."^[150]

EEG studies have shown an increase in theta waves and a dominant pattern of alpha waves in the frontal and occipital lobes.^[129] Other EEG measurements that show neuronal hypersynchrony are similar to those found in epilepsy, leading to concerns about the potential risk of kindling of epilepsy from repetitive Transcendental Meditation.^[7] Other studies have found meditation to be a possible antiepileptic therapy, leading to calls for more research.^[7]

A 1999 paper by Lachaux et al. suggests that EEG coherence may be a less useful measurement^[151] since it does not separate the effects of amplitude and phase in the interrelations between two EEG signals.

Research quality

Various research reviews have identified some studies as being well-designed, rigorous, or high quality.^[136]^[142] Others have found problems with the body of research. According to newspaper reports and the Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology, some of the research has been "criticized for bias and a lack of scientific evidence",^[152] for "methodological flaws, vague definitions, and loose statistical controls",^[153] and for "failing to conduct double-blind experiments" and for "influencing test results with the prejudice of the tester".^[154] Articles in the Jerusalem Post and Wall Street Journal, and a review by Canter and Ernst (2004), said that many studies appear to have been conducted by devotees or researchers at universities tied to the Maharishi, including Maharishi University of Management in Iowa and Maharishi European Research University in Switzerland,^[130]^[155]^[156] which is disputed by Orme-Johnson, who cites the number of institutions worldwide where the research has been conducted.^[157]

According to TM researchers, studies on Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health have been conducted at over 200 different research institutions and universities in over 30 countries worldwide.^[119] Maharishi Ayurveda practitioner Roger A. Chalmers has compiled a list of 341 studies on TM that he says were published in "independent peer-reviewed journals or other edited scientific publications".^[158] Many hundreds of the 700 studies on TM have been produced by researchers directly associated with the TM movement and/or had not been peer reviewed, according to a 2003 review that looked at the effects of TM on cognitive function and an article in Student BMJ.^[130]^[159]

A 2004 review by Canter and Ernst said that the published studies had important methodological weaknesses and were potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.^[160] It concluded that there was "insufficient good-quality evidence to conclude whether or not TM has a cumulative positive effect on blood pressure". In response, TM researchers said that most of the studies in the review were funded by various institutes of the National Institutes of Health and that, as such, the methodologies were peer-reviewed by experts.^[119]

A 2007 U.S. government-sponsored review of research on meditation, including Transcendental Meditation, yoga, tai chi, qi gong, mindfulness, and others, said that firm conclusions on health effects cannot be drawn, as the majority of the studies are of poor methodological quality.^[18] The review included studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and substance abuse.^[161] The review used the Jadad scale to assess quality of the studies using control groups and Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for the others. The quality assessment portion of the 2007 review was published in 2008. The article stated that "Most clinical trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to validity in every major quality domain assessed". The authors found that there was a statistically significant increase in the quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956-2005. Of the 400 clinical studies, 10% were found to be good quality. A call was made for rigorous study of meditation.^[162] These authors also noted that this finding is not unique to the area of meditation research and that the quality of reporting is a frequent problem in other areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) research and related therapy research domains.

TM researchers said that the 2007 review suffered from various limitations related to data collection, analysis, and reporting procedures.^[163] TM researcher David Orme-Johnson said that the use of double blinding, which is required by the Jadad scale, is not appropriate to meditation research and that the review failed to assess more relevant determinants of research quality.^[164] Research reviews in science journals say that double blinding may not be possible in meditation research,^[165]^[166]^[167]^[168]^[169] although one of the earliest double-blinded, placebo studies of Transcendental Mediation was conducted in 1975.^[170]

Research funding

In 1999, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S.^[171] The research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention (INMP), was inaugurated on October 11, 1999, at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in Fairfield, Iowa.^[172]

By 2004, the U.S. government had awarded more than $20 million to Maharishi University of Management to fund research.^[173]

In 2009, the National Institutes of Health awarded an additional grant of $1,000,000 distributed over two years for research on the use of TM in the treatment of coronary heart disease in African-Americans. The award was for research in collaboration with the INMP and Columbia University Medical Center in New York City. The award was from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 via the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.^[174]

Maharishi Vedic approach to health

Transcendental Meditation is part of the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health (MVAH).^[22] MVAH (also known as Maharishi Ayurveda^[175]^[176] and Maharishi Vedic Medicine^[177]) was founded in the mid 1980s by the Maharishi. MVAH is considered an alternative medicine and aims at being a complementary system to modern western medicine.^[178] It is based on Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine developed in India in ancient times.

Maharishi Effect

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi predicted that the quality of life for an entire population would be noticeably improved if one percent of the population practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique. This is known as the "Maharishi Effect".^[179] With the introduction of the TM-Sidhi program including Yogic Flying, the Maharishi proposed that only the square root of 1% of the population practicing this advanced program would be required to create benefits in society, and this was referred to as the "Extended Maharishi Effect".^[180]

Practice of the TM and TM-Sidhi programs has been credited by the TM organization with the fall of the Berlin Wall, a reduction in global terrorism, a decrease in the rate of inflation in the US, the lowering of crime rates, and other positive effects.^[181] The Maharishi Effect has been endorsed by the former President of Mozambique Joaquim Chissano, who applied this technology in his country,^[182] and positive results have been reported in 42 independent scientific studies.^[183] Some have described this research as "pseudoscience".^[184] James Randi followed up on some of the claims attributed to the Maharishi Effect that Maharishi International University of faculty member Robert Rabinoff made at a talk in Oregon in 1978 attended by Ray Hyman. Randi spoke to the Fairfield Chief of Police who had not experienced any drop in crime rate and the regional Agriculture Department whose statistics on yield showed no difference between Jefferson County and the state average.^[185]

Views on human development

According to Vimal Patel, a pathologist at Indiana University, TM has been shown to produce states that are physiologically different from waking, dreaming and sleeping.^[29] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says in his 1963 book, The Science Of Being and Art Of Living, that, over time, the practice of allowing the mind to experience its deeper levels during the Transcendental Meditation technique brings these levels from the subconscious to within the capacity of the conscious mind. According to the Maharishi, as the mind quiets down and experiences finer thoughts, the Transcendental Meditation practitioner can become aware that thought itself is transcended and can have the experience of what he calls the 'source of thought', 'pure awareness' or 'transcendental Being'; 'the ultimate reality of life'.^[30]^[186]^[187] TM has been described by the movement as a technology of consciousness.^[31]

Girish Varma, a Brahmachari who heads the Maharishi Vidya Mandir school system and is a nephew of the Maharishi, says that scientific studies have shown that practitioners can achieve divine powers through TM.^[188]

Seven States of Consciousness

According to the Maharishi there are seven levels of consciousness: (i) waking; (ii) dreaming; (iii) deep sleep; (iv) Transcendental or Pure Consciousness; (v) Cosmic Consciousness (Skt: turiyatita); (vi) God Consciousness (Skt: bhagavat-chetana); and (vii) Supreme knowledge, or unity consciousness (Skt: brahmi-chetana). The Maharishi says that the fourth level of consciousness (Skt: turiya) can be experienced through Transcendental Meditation, and that the fifth state can be achieved by those who meditate diligently. The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness says that it may be premature to say that the EEG coherence found in TM is an indication of a higher state of consciousness.^[189] A sign of cosmic consciousness is “ever present wakefulness” that is present even during sleep.^{[citation needed]} Research on individuals experiencing cosmic consciousness as a result of practice of TM has found EEG profiles, muscle tone measurements, and REM indicators that suggest there is physiological evidence of this higher state.^[142]^[143]^[190]

School programs

For schools belonging to the Transcendental Meditation movement, see Educational institutions

TM in public schools in 1970s : Malnak v. Yogi

As of 1974, 14 states encouraged local schools to teach TM in the classroom, and it was taught at 50 universities.^[191] Among the public school systems where TM was taught were Shawnee Mission, Kansas,^[192] Maplewood, Paterson, Union Hill and West New York, New Jersey,^[193] Eastchester, New York^[191]^[194] and North York, Ontario.^[195]

In 1979, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the 1977 decision of the US District Court of New Jersey that a course in Transcendental Meditation and the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) was religious activity within the meaning of the Establishment Clause and that the teaching of SCI/TM in the New Jersey public high schools was prohibited by the First Amendment.^[196]^[197] The court ruled that, although SCI/TM is not a theistic religion, it deals with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions. The court found that the religious nature of the course was clear from careful examination of the textbook, the expert testimony elicited, and the uncontested facts concerning the puja ceremony, which it found involved "offerings to deities as part of a regularly scheduled course in the schools' educational programs".^[198] State action was involved because the SCI/TM course and activities involved the teaching of a religion, without an objective secular purpose.^[197]

The Malnak decision resulted in the dismantling of the Maharishi's programs to establish Transcendental Meditation in the public schools with governmental funding.^[42]

1990s–present : Charter School and "Quiet Time" programs

In recent years, TM is being used in schools, with some governmental sponsorship.^[42] A number of public charter schools began introducing Transcendental Meditation programs beginning in the 1990s. These include:

Fletcher Johnson Educational Center (1994) in Washington, D.C.^[199]^[200]

The Ideal Academy Public Charter School (1996) with the approval of the Washington, D.C. Board of Education.^[201]^[202] The 2005-2006 pilot project at Ideal Academy was conducted along with research to document the effects of the program.^[199]

The Nataki Talibah Schoolhouse in Detroit (1996). The program was featured on the Today Show in 2003.^[203] The school has since been classified by the Skillman Foundation as a "High-Performing Middle School".^[204] Over the years, the program at Nitaki Talibah has been funded by various foundations including General Motors, Daimler Chrysler, the Liebler Foundation and more recently, the David Lynch Foundation.

Since 2005, the David Lynch Foundation has promoted and provided funding for the teaching of TM in schools.^[205] It subsidizes the cost for training a student in TM, which was $650 per year as of 2004 in the US.^[206] In 2006, six public schools were each awarded $25,000 by the David Lynch Foundation to begin a TM program.^[207] By 2006, twenty five public, private, and charter schools in the United States had offered Transcendental Meditation to their students.^[201] The Lowel Whiteman Primary School in Steamboat Springs, Colorado began using Transcendental Meditation in their school in 2008.^[208]^{[clarification needed]}

Efforts to re-introduce Transcendental Meditation into public schools have resulted in increased tensions because it is viewed by some parents and critics as an overstepping of boundaries.^[43] Some parents have opposed these efforts based on concerns that it may lead to "lifelong personal and financial servitude to a corporation run by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi".^[205] In 2006, the Terra Linda High School in San Rafael, California canceled plans for Transcendental Meditation classes due to concerns of parents that it would be promoting religion.^[209]

According to a 2008 Newsweek article, critics believe that Transcendental Meditation is a repackaged, Eastern, religious philosophy that should not be used in public schools. Advocates say that Transcendental Meditation is purely a mechanical, physiological process.^[202] University of South Carolina sociologist Barry Markovsky describes teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique in schools as "stealth religion".^[210] According to Barry Lynn, executive director of Americans United for Separation of Church and State, Transcendental Meditation is rooted in Hinduism and, when introduced into public schools, it crosses the same constitutional line as in the Malnak case and decision of 1979. In May 2008, Lynn said that the Americans United for Separation of Church and State is keeping a close legal eye on the TM movement and that there are no imminent cases against them.^[202]^[211] Brad Dacus of the Pacific Justice Institute says doing Transcendental Meditation during a school's "quiet time" (a short period many schools have adopted that children use for prayer or relaxation) is constitutional.^[202]

According to the TM movement's school in South Africa, Consciousness-Based Education has also been introduced in the Netherlands, Australia, India, Ecuador, Thailand, China, and Great Britain.^[212]

Corporate programs

Transcendental Meditation has been utilized in corporations both in the U.S.A and in India. As of 2001, companies such as General Motors helped their salaried employees pay for TM; IBM reimbursed half the TM course fee for its US employees.^[213]

The Washington Post reported in 2005 that The Tower Companies, "one of Washington D.C.'s largest real estate development companies", has added classes in Transcendental Meditation to their employee benefit program in order "to contain stress-related ailments and health care costs". Seventy percent (70%) of the employees at The Tower Companies participate in the program.^[214]^[215]^[216]

A number of Indian companies give their managers training in Transcendental Meditation to reduce stress. These companies include: AirTel, Siemens, American Express, SRF and Wipro, Hero Honda, Ranbaxy, Hewlett Packard, BHEL, BPL, ESPN-Star Sports, Tisco, Eveready, Maruti, and Godrej. All employees at Marico practice Transcendental Meditation in groups as part of their standard workday. According to the Times of India, this practice benefits both employees and employers.^[217]

Characterizations

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi describes Transcendental Meditation as a technique which requires no preparation, is simple to do, and can be learned by anyone.^[218] The technique is described as being effortless^[219] and natural, involving neither contemplation nor concentration, and relying on the natural tendency of the mind to move in the direction of greater satisfaction.^[31]^[46]^[47]^[220]

In his book The TM Technique, Peter Russell, a teacher of Transcendental Meditation who had spent time with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says, Transcendental Meditation allows the mind to become still without effort, in contrast to meditation practices that attempt to control the mind by holding it on a single thought or by keeping it empty of all thoughts.^[28] He says trying to control the mind is like trying to go to sleep at night — if a person makes an effort to fall asleep, his or her mind remains active and restless.^[28] This is why, he says, Transcendental Meditation avoids concentration and effort.^[28]

According to Wayne Teasdale's book The Mystic Heart: Discovering a Universal Spirituality in the World’s Religions, Transcendental Meditation is what is called an open or receptive method that can be described as giving up control and remaining open in an inner sense.^[221]

Anthony Campbell says that because TM is a natural process, its practice requires no "special circumstances or preparations". Campbell writes that Transcendental Meditation is "complete in itself" and does "not depend upon belief" or require the practitioner to accept any theory.^[222]

Government

Transcendental Meditation and some of it associated organizations have been described as a religion or a cult. For example, three US courts have held it to be a religion in two cases: Malnak v Yogi (1977 and 1979) and Hendel v World Plan Executive Council (1996). In addition to the 3rd Circuit opinion in Malnak holding that Transcendental Meditation and the Science of Creative Intellingence were religious under the Establishment Clause, in 1996, the Superior Court for the District of Columbia ruled in Hendel v World Plan Executive Council that the practice of Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program were a religion and that trial of the fraud and other claims for damages by a former TM and TM-Sidhi practitioner against the World Plan Executive Council and Maharishi International University would involve the Court in excessive entanglement into matters of religious belief contrary to the First Amendment.^[192]

A 1980 report by the West German government's Institute for Youth and Society characterized TM as a "psychogroup". The TM organization^[who?] sued unsuccessfully to block the release of the report.^[2]^[223] The 1995 report of the Parliamentary Commission on Cults in France listed Transcendental Meditation as a cult.^[224] The state of Israel has condemned TM, commonly agreed by anti-cult groups there to be a cult.^[225]

Religion

Cardinal Jaime Sin, the Archbishop of Manila, wrote a pastoral statement in 1984 after Philippines President Ferdinand Marcos invited more than 1,000 members of the movement to Manila to reduce dissent through Yogic Flying. Sin said that neither the doctrine nor the practice of TM are acceptable to Christians.^[226] In 2003, the Roman Curia, a Vatican council, published a warning against mixing eastern meditation, such as TM, with Christian prayer.^[227] Other clergy, including Catholic clergy, have found the Transcendental Meditation to be compatible with their religious teachings and beliefs.^[228]^[229]^[230] Religion scholar Charles H. Lippy writes that earlier spiritual interest in the technique faded in the 1970s and it became a practical technique that anyone could employ without abandoning their religious affiliation.^[231] Bainbridge found Transcendental Meditation to be a "...highly simplified form of Hinduism, adapted for Westerners who did not possess the cultural background to accept the full panoply of Hindu beliefs, symbols, and practices",^[38]^[232] and describes the Transcendental Meditation puja ceremony as "...in essence, a religious initiation ceremony".^[38] Metropolitan Maximos of Pittsburgh of the Greek Orthodox Church describes TM as being "a new version of Hindu Yoga" based on "pagan pseudo-worship and deification of a common mortal, Guru Dev".^[233]

William Johnston, an Irish Jesuit living in Japan, says that despite its religious origins the TM technique as introduced by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi has no attachments to any particular religion.^[234] Former Maharishi University of Management Dean of College of Arts and Sciences, James Grant writes that the Maharishi's techniques for the development of consciousness are non-sectarian and require no belief system.^[235] The official TM web site says it is a non-religious mental technique for deep rest.^[236] The Maharishi refers to the technique as "a path to God".^[237] Andrew Sullivan, political commentator for The Atlantic and an openly gay Roman Catholic, wrote in 2010 that he does not consider his practice of Transcendental Meditation to be a “contradiction of my faith in Christ”.^[238]^[239] Martin Gardner, a mathematician, refers to it as "the Hindu cult".^[240]

Douglas Cowan, a professor of sociology and religious studies, gave Transcendental Meditation extensive coverage in his Cults and New Religions.^[241]

Transcendental Meditation movement

The Transcendental Meditation movement encompasses initiatives by Marishi Mahesh Yogi spanning multiple fields and across several continents.

The terms "Transcendental Meditation", "TM", and "Science of Creative Intelligence" are servicemarks owned by Maharishi Foundation Ltd., a UK non-profit organization.^[242] These servicemarks have been sub-licensed to the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation (MVED), an American non-profit, tax exempt organization which oversees teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique and related courses in the U.S.A.^[243]^[244]

Two entities, the Maharishi School of Vedic Sciences-Minnesota (as a successor to the World Plan Executive Council)^[245] in 1997 and the Maharishi Spiritual Center in 2001, were denied tax exempt status because they were found not to be educational organizations.^[246]

Transcendental Meditation is taught in the UK by the Maharishi Foundation, a registered educational charity (number 270157).^[247] TM is taught in South Africa by teachers registered with Maharishi Vedic Institute — a Non-Profit Organisation, registration number 025-663-NPO.^[248] TM is taught in Australia by a registered non-profit educational organisation called "Maharishi's Global Administration through Natural Law Limited".^[249]

The Skeptics Dictionary refers to TM as a "spiritual business".^[250]

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^ Overton, Penelope, "Group promotes meditation therapy in schools", Hartford Courant (September 15, 2003) pB1
^ Greening, Benedict, "TM courses halted as fees soar", Royal Gazette(Bermuda) (August 16, 2003)
^ Stevens, Jacqueline and Barkham, Patrick, "And now children, it's time for your flying lesson", The Guardian (January 27, 2009)
^ Johnson, Jenna "Colleges Use Meditation", Washington Post (December 20, 2009)
^ Carmiel,Osharat "Wall Street Meditators", Bloomberg (September 18, 2009)
^ UK TM
^ "Obituary: Maharishi Mahesh Yogi", '"BBC News (February 6, 2008)
^ Regush, Nicholas "No bargains on road to enlightenment", Montreal Gazette (July 30, 1977)
^ Simon, Alyssa, "David Wants to Fly", Variety (February 14, 2010)
^ Knopp, Lisa (1998-11). Flight Dreams: A Life in the Midwestern Landscape. University of Iowa Press. p. 167. ISBN 0877456453. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Scott, R. D. (1978-02). Transcendental misconceptions. Beta Books. pp. 30–31, 36–37. ISBN 0892930314. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Cazenave, Michel (1984-05). Science and consciousness: two views of the universe : edited proceedings of the France-Culture and Radio-France Colloquium, Cordoba, Spain. Pergamon Press. p. 103. ISBN 9780080281278. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Williamson, Lola, Transcendent in America: Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion", NYU Press, 2010 ISBN 0-8147-9450-5, 9780814794500, p. 97
^ ^a ^b Randi, James (1982). Flim-flam!: psychics, ESP, unicorns, and other delusions. Buffalo, N.Y: Prometheus Books. p. 106. ISBN 0-87975-198-3.
^ "'Maharishi Invincible Towers to be set up in 192 countries'". The Hindustan Times. New Delhi. February 10, 2008.
^ Deardorff, Julie (December 12, 2001). "Town sees meditation as way to peace". The Charleston Gazette. Charleston, W.V. p. 2.D.
^ Hutchinson, Brian (February 22, 2003). "Wasting away in Maharishi-ville". National Post. Don Mills, Ont. p. B.1.
^ Plagenz, George (September 4, 1996). "Is government ready for a dose of TM?". The Nevada Daily Mail. p. 3.
^ Rowland, Darrel (July 21, 1996). "PARTY HOPES TM PUTS MEMBERS IN POSITION TO LEAD". Columbus Dispatch. Columbus, Ohio. p. 01.C.
^ STATE OF MINNESOTA IN SUPREME COURT C4-96-1425 World Plan Executive Council-United States, et al., v. County of Ramsey, Filed March 20, 1997
^ Walpole Study of the Transcendental Meditation Program in Maximum Security Prisoners: Cross-Sectional Differences in Development and Psychopathology. Charles N. Alexander; Kenneth G. Walton; Rachel S. Goodman in Transcendental Meditation in Criminal Rehabilitation and Crime Prevention. Charles Nathaniel Alexander, Kenneth G Walton, David Orme-Johnson Routledge, 2003 ISBN 9780789020376 p. 159
^ Victory, Joy (May 18, 2004). "Meditation Controversy". The Journal News.
^ "Propectus for the issue and offering of three million RAAM" (PDF). Stichting Maharishi Global Financing Research. November 14, 2006. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
^ KAPICA, JACK (November 27, 1993). "VEDA LAND The New Incarnation of the Maharishi REJECTION BY THE VOTERS ONLY SERVES TO MAKE THE NATURAL LAW PARTY'S APPEALS MORE URGENT, ITS PLANS MORE GRANDIOSE, ITS CLAIMS MORE STRIDENT". The Globe and Mail. Toronto, Ont. p. D.3.
^ ^a ^b ^c Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI (2006). "Cardiovascular disease prevention and health promotion with the transcendental meditation program and Maharishi consciousness-based health care". Ethnicity & Disease. 16 (3 Suppl 4): S4–15–26. PMC 2267926. PMID 16938913. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Q&A with John Hagelin, 8 Great Reasons to Meditate" (PDF). Center for Leadership Performance. 2009. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
^ Paul-Labrador M, Polk D, Dwyer JH; et al. (2006). "Effects of a randomized controlled trial of transcendental meditation on components of the metabolic syndrome in subjects with coronary heart disease". Archives of Internal Medicine. 166 (11): 1218–24. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.11.1218. PMID 16772250. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Castillo-Richmond A, Schneider RH, Alexander CN; et al. (2000). "Effects of stress reduction on carotid atherosclerosis in hypertensive African Americans". Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 31 (3): 568–73. PMID 10700487. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Schneider RH, Staggers F, Alxander CN; et al. (1995). "A randomised controlled trial of stress reduction for hypertension in older African Americans". Hypertension. 26 (5): 820–7. PMID 7591024. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Nidich SI, Rainforth MV, Haaga DA; et al. (2009). "A randomized controlled trial on effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on blood pressure, psychological distress, and coping in young adults". American Journal of Hypertension. 22 (12): 1326–31. doi:10.1038/ajh.2009.184. PMID 19798037. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Schneider RH, Alexander CN, Staggers F; et al. (2005). "A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction in African Americans treated for hypertension for over one year". American Journal of Hypertension. 18 (1): 88–98. doi:10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.08.027. PMC 2224896. PMID 15691622. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Barnes VA, Treiber FA, Johnson MH (2004). "Impact of transcendental meditation on ambulatory blood pressure in African-American adolescents". American Journal of Hypertension. 17 (4): 366–9. doi:10.1016/j.amjhyper.2003.12.008. PMID 15062892. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Schneider RH, Alexander CN, Staggers F; et al. (2005). "Long-term effects of stress reduction on mortality in persons > or = 55 years of age with systemic hypertension". The American Journal of Cardiology. 95 (9): 1060–4. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2004.12.058. PMC 1482831. PMID 15842971. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Travis F, Haaga DA, Hagelin J; et al. (2009). "Effects of Transcendental Meditation practice on brain functioning and stress reactivity in college students". International Journal of Psychophysiology. 71 (2): 170–6. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.09.007. PMID 18854202. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Dakwar E, Levin FR (2009). "The emerging role of meditation in addressing psychiatric illness, with a focus on substance use disorders". Harv Rev Psychiatry. 17 (4): 254–67. doi:10.1080/10673220903149135. PMID 19637074. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Canter PH, Ernst E (2003). "The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials". Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 115 (21–22): 758–66. doi:10.1007/BF03040500. PMID 14743579. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Ospina p.130
^ Ospina p.4
^ Ospina p. 148
^ Ospina p. 187
^ Erin M. Fekete, Michael H. Antoni and Neil Schneiderman, “Psychosocial and behavioral interventions for chronic medical conditions,” Current Opinion in Psychiatry 2007, 20:152–157
^ ^a ^b ^c Anderson JW, Liu C, Kryscio RJ (2008). "Blood pressure response to transcendental meditation: a meta-analysis". Am. J. Hypertens. 21 (3): 310–6. doi:10.1038/ajh.2007.65. PMID 18311126. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Howard Settle: "Yogic Flyers, Create Invincible America today" — Deutsche Nachrichten Agentur".
^ Maxwell Rainforth, et. al., "Stress Reduction Programs in Patients with Elevated Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis," Current Hypertension Reports 2007, 9:520–528
^ Tanya M. Spruill, "Chronic Psychosocial Stress and Hypertension," Curr Hypertens Rep (2010) 12, p. 14
^ ^a ^b Black DS, Milam J, Sussman S (2009). "Sitting-Meditation Interventions Among Youth: A Review of Treatment Efficacy". Pediatrics. 124: e532. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-3434. PMID 19706568. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Should our schools teach children to 'dive within'?". The Guardian. London. April 14, 2009. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c The Humanistic Psychologist, 2003, 31(2-3) 86–113
^ ^a ^b Shauna L. Shapiro1, Roger Walsh2, & Willoughby B. Britton3, "An Analysis of Recent Meditation Research and Suggestions for Future Directions," Journal for Meditation and Meditation Research, 2003, Vol. 3, 69-90
^ Manzoni GM, Pagnini F, Castelnuovo G, Molinari E (2008). "Relaxation training for anxiety: a ten-years systematic review with meta-analysis". BMC Psychiatry. 8: 41. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-8-41. PMC 2427027. PMID 18518981. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Yin Paradies, "A Review of Psychosocial Stress and Chronic Disease for 4th World Indigenous Peoples and African Americans," Ethnicity & Disease, Volume 16, Winter 2006, p. 305
^ Samuel Himelstein, "Meditation Research: The State of the Art in Correctional Settings", International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, March 2010
^ Elizabeth Robinson, et al, in Peter Tyrer and Kenneth Silk, eds., Cambridge Textbook of Treatments in Psychiatry, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 345-347
^ ^a ^b ^c Philip Zelazo, et al, eds., The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, Cambridge University Press; 2007, p. 534
^ ^a ^b A. Lutz, et al, in Philip Zelazo, et al, eds., The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, Cambridge University Press; 2007, p. 535
^ ^a ^b Philip Zelazo, et al, eds., The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, Cambridge University Press; 2007, p. 535
^ Jean-Philippe Lachaux, Eugenio Rodriguez, Jacques Martinerie, and Francisco J. Varela; ;Measuring phase synchrony in brain signals; Human Brain Mapping, 1999
^ Bezalel, Mel (May 1, 2009). "Trance 101". Jerusalem Post. p. 14.
^ Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology (5th ed.). 2001. p. 1583.
^ Baxter, Bronte (2008). "Where Have All the Flower Children Gone? Part One". The Canadian.
^ Hecht, Esther (January 23, 1998). "Peace of Mind". Jerusalem Post. p. 12.
^ Carlton, Jim (April 15, 1991). "For $1,500 a Head, Maharishi Promises Mellower Inmates --- Transcendental Meditation Goes to Prison as Backers Try to Lock Up Contracts". Wall Street Journal. p. A.1.
^ Orme-Johnson, David (June 18, 1991). "Letters to the Editor: Turn Prisons Into Think Tanks". Wall Street Journal. p. 15.
^ Bibliography of peer-reviewed studies on Transcendental Meditation
^ Makin, Stephen (November 2003). "Yogis and yagyas: Stephen Makin went to Maharishi School and rebelled by deciding to study medicine. Here, he explains the impact that transcendental meditation has had on his life". Student BMJ (11): 426. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Canter PH, Ernst E (2004). "Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Journal of Hypertension. 22 (11): 2049–54. PMID 15480084. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research" (PDF). Evidence Report/technology Assessment (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2008). "Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 14 (10): 1199–213. doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0307. PMID 19123875. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Rainforth MV, Schneider RH, Nidich SI, Gaylord-King C, Salerno JW, Anderson JW (2007). "Stress reduction programs in patients with elevated blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Current Hypertension Reports. 9 (6): 520–8. doi:10.1007/s11906-007-0094-3. PMC 2268875. PMID 18350109. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Orme-Johnson DW (2008). "Commentary on the AHRQ report on research on meditation practices in health". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 14 (10): 1215–21. doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0464. PMID 19123876. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Ospina, Maria, et al, “Clinical Trials of Meditation Practices in Health Care: Characteristics and Quality,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210
^ Orme-Johnson, David, “Commentary on the AHRQ Report on Research on Meditation Practices in Health,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210
^ Rainforth, Maxwell, et al, “Stress Reduction in Patients with Elevate Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Analysis, Current Hypertension Reports 2007, 9, p. 522
^ Anderson, James, et al, “Blood Pressure Response to Transcendental Meditation: A Meta-analysis,” American Journal of Hypertension, March 2008, Volume 21 Number 3, p. 311
^ Linden W, Moseley, ?The efficacy of behavioral treatments for hypertension, Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback 2006, 31, pp. 51–63.
^ Smith, Jonathan, Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal, Blackwell Publishing (2010)
^ Pueschel, Matt (July 2000). "Vedic Medicine, Meditation Receive Federal Funds". U.S. Medicine. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved February 8, 2010.
^ NIH Awards $8 Million Grant to Establish Research Center on Natural Medicine
^ QUICK, SUSANNE (October 17, 2004). "Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding". Journal Sentinel. Milwaukee, WI.
^ "MUM gets $1 million research grant : News : KTVO3". Heartlandconnection.com. 2009-09-25. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Wallace 1993, pp. 64–66
^ Sharma & Clark 1998
^ Reddy & Egenes 2002
^ Sharma & Clark 1998, Preface
^ Wager, Gregg (December 11, 1987). "Musicians Spread the Maharishi's Message of Peace". Los Angeles Times. p. 12.
^ "Maharishi Effect Research on the Maharishi Effect". Maharishi University of Management. Retrieved December 29, 2009.
^ Fay, Liam (June 13, 2004). "Maharishi mob meditates on Limerick's ills". Sunday Times. London (UK). p. 32.
^ Roach, Mary, "The last tourist in Mozambique", Salon (December 1, 2000)
^ deFiebre, Conrad (October 7, 1994). "Meditation touted as crime-fighter // Study presented builds the case for 'Maharishi effect'". Star Tribune. Minneapolis, Minn. p. 03.B.
^ CALAMAI, PETER (October 9, 2004). "Stop the bleeping pseudoscience; Quantum physics film drowns in its own bunk science High point in What The Bleep is stunning animation sequence". Toronto Star. p. J.13.
^ Randi, James (1982). Flim-flam!: psychics, ESP, unicorns, and other delusions. Buffalo, N.Y: Prometheus Books. p. 100. ISBN 0-87975-198-3.
^ The Science of Being and Art of Living. Meridian. 1963. p. 53. JSTOR Mahesh Yogi Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. {{cite book}}: Check |jstor= value (help)
^ King, Larry (May 12, 2002). "Interview with Larry King". CNN.
^ "Develop virtue of Satoguni chetna:Brahmachari Dr.Girishji". Maha Media. March 16, 2010. Retrieved July 17, 2010.
^ Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction; The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, Cambridge University Press, 2007. p. 535
^ Walsh R, Shapiro SL (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and Western psychology: a mutually enriching dialogue". The American Psychologist. 61 (3): 227–39. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. PMID 16594839. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b Fair, Gloria "Transcendental Meditation is not anything like it sounds" Spartansburg Herald-Journal (August 14, 1974)
^ ^a ^b Hendel v World Plan Executive Council, 124 WLR 957 (January 2, 1996); affd 705 A.2d 656, 667 (DC, 1997)
^ AP, "New Jersey court bans TM courses", Eugene Register-Guard" (October 20, 1977)
^ Irwin, T.K. "What's new in science - Transcendental Meditation: Medical miracle or 'another kooky fad'?" Sarasota Herald-Tribune" (October 8, 1972)
^ Somerville, Barbara "To another state of being" Palm Beach Post (September 13, 1972)
^ Doug Linder. "Introduction to the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment". Law.umkc.edu. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ ^a ^b Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)
^ The TM puja ceremony is extensively described in the opinion of the US District Court in Malnak v Yogi, including the Sanskrit chant and the English translation thereof from the book "The Holy Tradition", written by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.
^ ^a ^b Pathways, Taking Care of the Student, Winter 2009, Cynthia E. Johnson,
^ Newsweek, Much dispute about Nothing, Eve Conant, May 29, 2008
^ ^a ^b Brody, Alison, Shin, Shirley & Street, Nick, "Transcendental Meditation in Schools", News 21 (July 24, 2007)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Conant, Eve, "Much dispute about nothing", Newsweek (May 29, 2008)
^ "Encouraging Wellness". Ntsd.com. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Skillman Foundation, Making The Grade
^ ^a ^b "Can Meditation Help At-Risk Kids? - Newsweek.com". Newsweek.
^ The Spokesman-Review - 29 Oct 2004
^ NEA Today, National Education Association,Clear Your Mind, May 2006,
^ Steamboat Pilot & Today, Mediation Soothes Lowell Whiteman Students, Zach Fidell, December 14, 2008
^ "School cancels plans for TM in school" USA Today
^ Man Fails To Fly, Sues Camelot Hotel Owner, GTR News Online, Nancy K. Owens
^ Newsweek, Can Meditation Help At-Risk Kids?
^ "Partner Schools | CBE Schools South Africa". Cbesa.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Hainsworth, Karen & Gardner, Darran, "It's the mind that matters" Sunday Herald (Glasgow, UK) (Oct 21, 2001), p 22
^ Washington Post, More Area Firms Paying Employees to Relax, Transcendental Meditation Seen As Health Care Boon, Annys Shin, Washington Post Staff Writer, March 3, 2005
^ Southwest Airlines Spirit magazine, Cubicle Karma, Mellisa Chessher, October 2005
^ Time magazine, How to Get Smarter One breathe at a Time, Lisa Cullen, January 16, 2006, p. 93
^ The Times of India, August 17, 2003, "TM: Corporate India’s latest stress buster", Sakina Ysuf Khan
^ Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi (1995) The Science of Being and Art of Living. New York, Meridian.
^ ABC7, Research Summary: ADHD Meditation, May 23, 2006, "William Stixrud, Ph.D., a clinical neuropsychologist, says:TM is a mental technique that involves simply narrowing the focus of the mind in a very effortless way that allows the mind to settle down."
^ Travis, Frederick; Chawkin, Ken (Sept-Oct, 2003). "Meditation Can Change The World". New Life magazine. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Teasdale, Wayne; Bruteau, Beatrice (2001-04-01). The Mystic Heart: Discovering a Universal Spirituality in the World's Religions. New World Library. pp. 137–139. ISBN 978-1-57731-140-9.
^ Seven States of Consciousness, Anthony Campbell, Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1980, Page 11
^ Library Information and Research Service (2001). The Middle East, abstracts and index, Part 1 24Ei. Northumberland Press. p. 609.
^ "Commission d'enquête sur les sectes". Assemblée nationale.
^ Gabriel Cavaglion (2008). "The Theoretical Framing of a Social Problem: The Case of Societal Reaction to Cults in Israel". Israel Affairs. 14 (1): 307–17. doi:10.1080/13537120701705882. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ "October 16, 1984 - The Basic Conflict Between Maharishi and Christianity". Rcam.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ moreorless. "The Vatican document on the New Age (Feb. 3, 2003)". Cesnur.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Vesely, Carolin, "Its All in Your Mind" Winnipeg Free Press, March 21, 2006.
^ Smith, Adrian (1993). A Key to the Kingdom of Heaven: Christian Understanding of Transcendental Meditation. Book Guild Ltd. ISBN 0-86332-863-6.
^ Pennington, M. Basil (1977). Daily we touch Him : practical religious experience. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. p. 73. ISBN 0-385-12478-3.
^ Lippy, Charles H. (2000). Pluralism comes of age: American religious culture in the twentieth century. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-7656-0151-3.
^ http://web.archive.org/web/20060831081613/religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/tm.html
^ Aghiorgoussis, Maximos (Spring 1999). "The challenge of metaphysical experiences outside Orthodoxy and the Orthodox response". Greek Orthodox Theological Review. 44 (1–4). Brookline: 21, 34. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Johnston, William. Silent Music:The Science of Meditation. Fordham University Press. p15. ISBN 978-0-8232-1774-8.
^ Inayatullah, Sohail; Gidley, Jennifer. (2000). The university in transformation : global perspectives on the futures of the university. Westport, Conn. : Bergin Garvey. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-89789-718-1.
^ "Meditation Techniques". Tm.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ Meditations of Maharishi. p. 59
^ [4] The Atlantic, The Daily Dish, Andrew Sullivan, April 2010
^ [5] Vanity Fair, Welcome, My Brother!, James Walcott, April 12, 2010
^ "CSI | Doug Henning and the Giggling Guru". Retrieved May 30, 2010.
^ "www.equinoxjournals.com".
^ Service Mark - Transcedental Meditation
^ "Conditions of Use - Maharishi University of Management". Mum.edu. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
^ "10 Facts About the Benefits of Transcendental Meditation".
^ World Plan Executive Council v County of Ramsey, 560 NW2d 87 (Minn 1997)
^ "Property Tax Commission Rules Against Maharishi Spiritual Center". Mountain Times. January 6, 2001.
^ TM UK Official web site
^ Official TM site for TM in South Africa
^ Official Australian TM web site
^ "Transcendental Meditation - The Skeptic's Dictionary - Skepdic.com".

Bibliography

Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP. (June 2007). Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research (PDF). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

Official site.

[1] "Beatles guru dies in Netherlands". USA Today. Associated Press. February 5, 2008.

[SFGate-2] Epstein, Edward, (December 29, 1995). "Politics and Transcendental Meditation". San Francisco Chronicle.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[3] Woo, Elaine (February 6, 2008). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi; founded Transcedental Meditation movement". Baltimore Sun. reprinted from LA Times

[4] Morris, Bevan (1992). "Maharishi's Vedic Science and Technology: The Only Means to Create World Peace" (PDF). Journal of Modern Science and Vedic Science. 5 (1–2): 200. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

[5] Morris, Bevan; Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (2001). "Forward". Science of Being and Art of Living. New York: Plume/The Penguin Group. ISBN 0452282667.

[The_Seven-Step_Course-6] "Learn the Transcendental Meditation Technique – Seven Step Program". Tm.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[Epi06-7] Lansky EP, St Louis EK (2006). "Transcendental meditation: a double-edged sword in epilepsy?". Epilepsy Behav. 9 (3): 394–400. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04.019. PMID 16931164. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[World1-8] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Thirty Years Around the World, Volume One, 1957-1964. MVU Press. pp. 213–237. ISBN 90-71750-02-7.

[books.google.com-9] Melton, J. Gordon (1992). Encyclopedic handbook of cults in Americ. New York: Garland Pub. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-8153-1140-9.

[Craze-10] "Behavior: THE TM CRAZE: 40 Minutes to Bliss". Time. 1975-10-13. ISSN 0040-718X. Retrieved 2009-11-15. {{cite news}}: Check |issn= value (help)

[latimes.com-11] "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi; founded Transcendental Meditation movement". Los Angeles Times. 2008-02-06. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[The_Times_London_2008,_pg_62-12] The Times London, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Feb 7 2008, pg 62

[13] Murphy M, Donovan S, Taylor E. The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931-1996. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences; 1997.

[14] Benson, Herbert; Klipper, Miriam Z. (2001). The relaxation respons. New York, NY: Quill. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-380-81595-1.

[15] Sinatra, Stephen T.; Roberts, James C.; Zucker, Martin (2007-12-20). Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late. Wiley. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-470-22878-4.

[16] Travis, Frederick; Chawkin, Ken (Sept-Oct, 2003). New Life magazine. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)

[17] MUM official web site with bibliography of the 200+ studies

[Ospina_p.v-18] Ospina p.v

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[160] Canter PH, Ernst E (2004). "Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Journal of Hypertension. 22 (11): 2049–54. PMID 15480084. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[161] Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research" (PDF). Evidence Report/technology Assessment (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[162] Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2008). "Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 14 (10): 1199–213. doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0307. PMID 19123875. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[163] Rainforth MV, Schneider RH, Nidich SI, Gaylord-King C, Salerno JW, Anderson JW (2007). "Stress reduction programs in patients with elevated blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Current Hypertension Reports. 9 (6): 520–8. doi:10.1007/s11906-007-0094-3. PMC 2268875. PMID 18350109. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[164] Orme-Johnson DW (2008). "Commentary on the AHRQ report on research on meditation practices in health". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 14 (10): 1215–21. doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0464. PMID 19123876. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[165] Ospina, Maria, et al, “Clinical Trials of Meditation Practices in Health Care: Characteristics and Quality,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210

[166] Orme-Johnson, David, “Commentary on the AHRQ Report on Research on Meditation Practices in Health,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210

[167] Rainforth, Maxwell, et al, “Stress Reduction in Patients with Elevate Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Analysis, Current Hypertension Reports 2007, 9, p. 522

[168] Anderson, James, et al, “Blood Pressure Response to Transcendental Meditation: A Meta-analysis,” American Journal of Hypertension, March 2008, Volume 21 Number 3, p. 311

[169] Linden W, Moseley, ?The efficacy of behavioral treatments for hypertension, Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback 2006, 31, pp. 51–63.

[170] Smith, Jonathan, Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal, Blackwell Publishing (2010)

[171] Pueschel, Matt (July 2000). "Vedic Medicine, Meditation Receive Federal Funds". U.S. Medicine. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved February 8, 2010.

[172] NIH Awards $8 Million Grant to Establish Research Center on Natural Medicine

[173] QUICK, SUSANNE (October 17, 2004). "Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding". Journal Sentinel. Milwaukee, WI.

[heartland-174] "MUM gets $1 million research grant : News : KTVO3". Heartlandconnection.com. 2009-09-25. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[175] Wallace 1993, pp. 64–66

[176] Sharma & Clark 1998

[177] Reddy & Egenes 2002

[178] Sharma & Clark 1998, Preface

[Wager-179] Wager, Gregg (December 11, 1987). "Musicians Spread the Maharishi's Message of Peace". Los Angeles Times. p. 12.

[180] "Maharishi Effect Research on the Maharishi Effect". Maharishi University of Management. Retrieved December 29, 2009.

[181] Fay, Liam (June 13, 2004). "Maharishi mob meditates on Limerick's ills". Sunday Times. London (UK). p. 32.

[182] Roach, Mary, "The last tourist in Mozambique", Salon (December 1, 2000)

[183] Fiebre, Conrad (October 7, 1994). "Meditation touted as crime-fighter // Study presented builds the case for 'Maharishi effect'". Star Tribune. Minneapolis, Minn. p. 03.B.

[184] CALAMAI, PETER (October 9, 2004). "Stop the bleeping pseudoscience; Quantum physics film drowns in its own bunk science High point in What The Bleep is stunning animation sequence". Toronto Star. p. J.13.

[185] Randi, James (1982). Flim-flam!: psychics, ESP, unicorns, and other delusions. Buffalo, N.Y: Prometheus Books. p. 100. ISBN 0-87975-198-3.

[186] The Science of Being and Art of Living. Meridian. 1963. p. 53. JSTOR Mahesh Yogi Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. {{cite book}}: Check |jstor= value (help)

[187] King, Larry (May 12, 2002). "Interview with Larry King". CNN.

[188] "Develop virtue of Satoguni chetna:Brahmachari Dr.Girishji". Maha Media. March 16, 2010. Retrieved July 17, 2010.

[189] Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction; The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, Cambridge University Press, 2007. p. 535

[190] Walsh R, Shapiro SL (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and Western psychology: a mutually enriching dialogue". The American Psychologist. 61 (3): 227–39. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. PMID 16594839. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[Fair-191] Fair, Gloria "Transcendental Meditation is not anything like it sounds" Spartansburg Herald-Journal (August 14, 1974)

[Hendel-192] Hendel v World Plan Executive Council, 124 WLR 957 (January 2, 1996); affd 705 A.2d 656, 667 (DC, 1997)

[193] AP, "New Jersey court bans TM courses", Eugene Register-Guard" (October 20, 1977)

[194] Irwin, T.K. "What's new in science - Transcendental Meditation: Medical miracle or 'another kooky fad'?" Sarasota Herald-Tribune" (October 8, 1972)

[195] Somerville, Barbara "To another state of being" Palm Beach Post (September 13, 1972)

[conlaw-196] Doug Linder. "Introduction to the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment". Law.umkc.edu. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[malnak-197] Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)

[198] The TM puja ceremony is extensively described in the opinion of the US District Court in Malnak v Yogi, including the Sanskrit chant and the English translation thereof from the book "The Holy Tradition", written by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.

[Pathways_2009-199] Pathways, Taking Care of the Student, Winter 2009, Cynthia E. Johnson,

[200] Newsweek, Much dispute about Nothing, Eve Conant, May 29, 2008

[Brody-201] Brody, Alison, Shin, Shirley & Street, Nick, "Transcendental Meditation in Schools", News 21 (July 24, 2007)

[Conant-202] Conant, Eve, "Much dispute about nothing", Newsweek (May 29, 2008)

[203] "Encouraging Wellness". Ntsd.com. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[204] Skillman Foundation, Making The Grade

[Newsweek08-205] "Can Meditation Help At-Risk Kids? - Newsweek.com". Newsweek.

[206] The Spokesman-Review - 29 Oct 2004

[207] NEA Today, National Education Association,Clear Your Mind, May 2006,

[208] Steamboat Pilot & Today, Mediation Soothes Lowell Whiteman Students, Zach Fidell, December 14, 2008

[209] "School cancels plans for TM in school" USA Today

[210] Man Fails To Fly, Sues Camelot Hotel Owner, GTR News Online, Nancy K. Owens

[211] Newsweek, Can Meditation Help At-Risk Kids?

[212] "Partner Schools | CBE Schools South Africa". Cbesa.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[213] Hainsworth, Karen & Gardner, Darran, "It's the mind that matters" Sunday Herald (Glasgow, UK) (Oct 21, 2001), p 22

[214] Washington Post, More Area Firms Paying Employees to Relax, Transcendental Meditation Seen As Health Care Boon, Annys Shin, Washington Post Staff Writer, March 3, 2005

[215] Southwest Airlines Spirit magazine, Cubicle Karma, Mellisa Chessher, October 2005

[216] Time magazine, How to Get Smarter One breathe at a Time, Lisa Cullen, January 16, 2006, p. 93

[217] The Times of India, August 17, 2003, "TM: Corporate India’s latest stress buster", Sakina Ysuf Khan

[218] Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi (1995) The Science of Being and Art of Living. New York, Meridian.

[219] ABC7, Research Summary: ADHD Meditation, May 23, 2006, "William Stixrud, Ph.D., a clinical neuropsychologist, says:TM is a mental technique that involves simply narrowing the focus of the mind in a very effortless way that allows the mind to settle down."

[220] Travis, Frederick; Chawkin, Ken (Sept-Oct, 2003). "Meditation Can Change The World". New Life magazine. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[221] Teasdale, Wayne; Bruteau, Beatrice (2001-04-01). The Mystic Heart: Discovering a Universal Spirituality in the World's Religions. New World Library. pp. 137–139. ISBN 978-1-57731-140-9.

[222] Seven States of Consciousness, Anthony Campbell, Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1980, Page 11

[223] Library Information and Research Service (2001). The Middle East, abstracts and index, Part 1 24Ei. Northumberland Press. p. 609.

[224] "Commission d'enquête sur les sectes". Assemblée nationale.

[225] Gabriel Cavaglion (2008). "The Theoretical Framing of a Social Problem: The Case of Societal Reaction to Cults in Israel". Israel Affairs. 14 (1): 307–17. doi:10.1080/13537120701705882. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[226] "October 16, 1984 - The Basic Conflict Between Maharishi and Christianity". Rcam.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[227] reorless. "The Vatican document on the New Age (Feb. 3, 2003)". Cesnur.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[228] Vesely, Carolin, "Its All in Your Mind" Winnipeg Free Press, March 21, 2006.

[229] Smith, Adrian (1993). A Key to the Kingdom of Heaven: Christian Understanding of Transcendental Meditation. Book Guild Ltd. ISBN 0-86332-863-6.

[230] Pennington, M. Basil (1977). Daily we touch Him : practical religious experience. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. p. 73. ISBN 0-385-12478-3.

[231] Lippy, Charles H. (2000). Pluralism comes of age: American religious culture in the twentieth century. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-7656-0151-3.

[web.archive.org-232] ttp://web.archive.org/web/20060831081613/religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/tm.html

[233] Aghiorgoussis, Maximos (Spring 1999). "The challenge of metaphysical experiences outside Orthodoxy and the Orthodox response". Greek Orthodox Theological Review. 44 (1–4). Brookline: 21, 34. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

[234] Johnston, William. Silent Music:The Science of Meditation. Fordham University Press. p15. ISBN 978-0-8232-1774-8.

[235] Inayatullah, Sohail; Gidley, Jennifer. (2000). The university in transformation : global perspectives on the futures of the university. Westport, Conn. : Bergin Garvey. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-89789-718-1.

[236] "Meditation Techniques". Tm.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[237] Meditations of Maharishi. p. 59

[238] [4] The Atlantic, The Daily Dish, Andrew Sullivan, April 2010

[239] [5] Vanity Fair, Welcome, My Brother!, James Walcott, April 12, 2010

[240] "CSI | Doug Henning and the Giggling Guru". Retrieved May 30, 2010.

[241] "www.equinoxjournals.com".

[242] Service Mark - Transcedental Meditation

[autogenerated1-243] "Conditions of Use - Maharishi University of Management". Mum.edu. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

[244] "10 Facts About the Benefits of Transcendental Meditation".

[245] World Plan Executive Council v County of Ramsey, 560 NW2d 87 (Minn 1997)

[246] "Property Tax Commission Rules Against Maharishi Spiritual Center". Mountain Times. January 6, 2001.

[247] TM UK Official web site

[248] Official TM site for TM in South Africa

[249] Official Australian TM web site

[250] "Transcendental Meditation - The Skeptic's Dictionary - Skepdic.com".

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@@ Line 126: / Line 126: @@
 ===Research quality===
-Various research reviews have identified some studies as being well-designed, rigorous, or high quality.<ref name="Anderson08"/><ref name="The Humanistic Psychologist 2003"/> However. according to newspaper reports and the Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology, some of the research has been "criticized for bias and a lack of scientific evidence",<ref>{{cite news|title=Trance 101|first=Mel|last=Bezalel|work=Jerusalem Post|date=May 1, 2009|page=14}}</ref> for "methodological flaws, vague definitions, and loose statistical controls",<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology|edition=5th |page=1583|year=2001}}</ref> and for "failing to conduct double-blind experiments" and for "influencing test results with the prejudice of the tester".<ref>{{cite news|title=Where Have All the Flower Children Gone? Part One|first=Bronte|last=Baxter|work=The Canadian|year=2008}}</ref> Articles in the ''[[Jerusalem Post]]'' and ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', and a review by Canter and Ernst (2004), said that many studies appear to have been conducted by devotees or researchers at universities tied to the Maharishi, including [[Maharishi University of Management]] in Iowa and Maharishi European Research University in Switzerland,<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr."/><ref>{{cite news|title=Peace of Mind|first=Esther|last=Hecht|work=Jerusalem Post|date=January 23, 1998|page=12}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=For $1,500 a Head, Maharishi Promises Mellower Inmates --- Transcendental Meditation Goes to Prison as Backers Try to Lock Up Contracts|first=Jim|last=Carlton|work=Wall Street Journal|date=April 15, 1991|page=A.1}}</ref> which is disputed by Orme-Johnson, who again cites the large number of institutions worldwide where the research has been conducted.<ref>{{cite news|first=David|last=Orme-Johnson|authorlink=David Orme-Johnson|title=Letters to the Editor: Turn Prisons Into Think Tanks|work=Wall Street Journal|date=June 18, 1991|page=15}}</ref>
+Various research reviews have identified some studies as being well-designed, rigorous, or high quality.<ref name="Anderson08"/><ref name="The Humanistic Psychologist 2003"/> Others have found problems with the body of research. According to newspaper reports and the ''Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology'', some of the research has been "criticized for bias and a lack of scientific evidence",<ref>{{cite news|title=Trance 101|first=Mel|last=Bezalel|work=Jerusalem Post|date=May 1, 2009|page=14}}</ref> for "methodological flaws, vague definitions, and loose statistical controls",<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology|edition=5th |page=1583|year=2001}}</ref> and for "failing to conduct double-blind experiments" and for "influencing test results with the prejudice of the tester".<ref>{{cite news|title=Where Have All the Flower Children Gone? Part One|first=Bronte|last=Baxter|work=The Canadian|year=2008}}</ref> Articles in the ''[[Jerusalem Post]]'' and ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', and a review by Canter and Ernst (2004), said that many studies appear to have been conducted by devotees or researchers at universities tied to the Maharishi, including [[Maharishi University of Management]] in Iowa and Maharishi European Research University in Switzerland,<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr."/><ref>{{cite news|title=Peace of Mind|first=Esther|last=Hecht|work=Jerusalem Post|date=January 23, 1998|page=12}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=For $1,500 a Head, Maharishi Promises Mellower Inmates --- Transcendental Meditation Goes to Prison as Backers Try to Lock Up Contracts|first=Jim|last=Carlton|work=Wall Street Journal|date=April 15, 1991|page=A.1}}</ref> which is disputed by Orme-Johnson, who cites the number of institutions worldwide where the research has been conducted.<ref>{{cite news|first=David|last=Orme-Johnson|authorlink=David Orme-Johnson|title=Letters to the Editor: Turn Prisons Into Think Tanks|work=Wall Street Journal|date=June 18, 1991|page=15}}</ref>
-A 2003 review that looked at the effects of TM on cognitive function said that many of the 700 studies on TM have been produced by researchers directly associated with the [[TM movement]] and/or had not been [[peer reviewed]]. According to a 2003 review of studies on cognitive function in Wien Klin Wochenschr and an article in ''[[Student BMJ]]'', many of the hundreds of studies have not been published in peer-reviewed journals.<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr."/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Yogis and yagyas: Stephen Makin went to Maharishi School and rebelled by deciding to study medicine. Here, he explains the impact that transcendental meditation has had on his life|work=Student BMJ|first=Stephen|last=Makin|issue=11|date=November 2003|page=426|ref=harv}}</ref> One TM researcher counts 341 papers on TM that have been published in peer-reviewed journals or other edited scientific publications.<ref name="truthabouttm.org">[http://www.truthabouttm.org/truth/TMResearch/TMResearchPublications/PublishedResearch/index.cfm Bibliography of peer-reviewed studies on Transcendental Meditation]</ref>  Maharishi Ayurveda practitioner  [[Maharishi_Vedic_Approach_to_Health#Chalmers_and_Davis |Roger A. Chalmers]] has compiled a list of over 300 studies on TM that he says were published in "independent peer-reviewed journals or other edited scientific publications".<ref name="truthabouttm.org"/> According to TM researchers, studies on Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health have been conducted at over 200 different research institutions and universities in over 30 countries worldwide.<ref name="Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI 2006 S4–15–26">{{cite journal |author=Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI |title=Cardiovascular disease prevention and health promotion with the transcendental meditation program and Maharishi consciousness-based health care |journal=Ethnicity & Disease |volume=16 |issue=3 Suppl 4 |pages=S4–15–26 |year=2006 |pmid=16938913 |pmc=2267926 |ref=harv}}</ref>
+According to TM researchers, studies on Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health have been conducted at over 200 different research institutions and universities in over 30 countries worldwide.<ref name="Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI 2006 S4–15–26">{{cite journal |author=Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI |title=Cardiovascular disease prevention and health promotion with the transcendental meditation program and Maharishi consciousness-based health care |journal=Ethnicity & Disease |volume=16 |issue=3 Suppl 4 |pages=S4–15–26 |year=2006 |pmid=16938913 |pmc=2267926 |ref=harv}}</ref> Maharishi Ayurveda practitioner  [[Maharishi_Vedic_Approach_to_Health#Chalmers_and_Davis |Roger A. Chalmers]] has compiled a list of 341 studies on TM that he says were published in "independent peer-reviewed journals or other edited scientific publications".<ref name="truthabouttm.org">[http://www.truthabouttm.org/truth/TMResearch/TMResearchPublications/PublishedResearch/index.cfm Bibliography of peer-reviewed studies on Transcendental Meditation]</ref>  Many hundreds of the 700 studies on TM have been produced by researchers directly associated with the [[TM movement]] and/or had not been [[peer reviewed]], according to a 2003 review that looked at the effects of TM on cognitive function and an article in ''[[Student BMJ]]''.<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr."/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Yogis and yagyas: Stephen Makin went to Maharishi School and rebelled by deciding to study medicine. Here, he explains the impact that transcendental meditation has had on his life|work=Student BMJ|first=Stephen|last=Makin|issue=11|date=November 2003|page=426|ref=harv}}</ref>
-A 2004 review by Canter and Ernst, examining the effects of TM on blood pressure which concluded that there was "insufficient good-quality evidence to conclude whether or not TM has a cumulative positive effect on blood pressure". The review said that the RCTs published had important methodological weaknesses and were potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=2049–54 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15480084 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0263-6352&volume=22&issue=11&spage=2049 |ref=harv}}</ref> In response, TM researchers said that most of the studies in the 2004 review were funded by various institutes of the National Institutes of Health and that, as such, the methodologies were peer-reviewed by experts.<ref name="Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI 2006 S4–15–26"/>
+A 2004 review by Canter and Ernst said that the published studies had important methodological weaknesses and were potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=2049–54 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15480084 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0263-6352&volume=22&issue=11&spage=2049 |ref=harv}}</ref> It concluded that there was "insufficient good-quality evidence to conclude whether or not TM has a cumulative positive effect on blood pressure". In response, TM researchers said that most of the studies in the review were funded by various institutes of the National Institutes of Health and that, as such, the methodologies were peer-reviewed by experts.<ref name="Schneider RH, Walton KG, Salerno JW, Nidich SI 2006 S4–15–26"/>
-A 2007 U.S. government-sponsored review of research on [[meditation]], including Transcendental Meditation, yoga, tai chi, qi gong, mindfulness, and others, said that firm conclusions on health effects cannot be drawn, as the majority of the studies are of poor methodological quality.<ref name="Ospina p.v"/> The review included studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and substance abuse.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evidence Report/technology Assessment |volume= |issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |url=http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref> The review used the [[Jadad scale]] to assess quality of the studies using control groups and [[Newcastle-Ottawa Scale]] for the others. The quality assessment portion of the 2007 review was published in 2008. The article stated that "Most clinical trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to [[validity]] in every major quality domain assessed". The authors found that there was a [[statistically significant]] increase in the quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956-2005. Of the 400 clinical studies, 10% were found to be good quality. A call was made for rigorous study of meditation.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1199–213 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19123875 |doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0307 |ref=harv}}</ref> These authors also noted that this finding is not unique to the area of meditation research and that the quality of reporting is a frequent problem in other areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) research and related therapy research domains. TM researchers said that the 2007 review suffered from various limitations related to data collection, analysis, and reporting procedures.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rainforth MV, Schneider RH, Nidich SI, Gaylord-King C, Salerno JW, Anderson JW |title=Stress reduction programs in patients with elevated blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Current Hypertension Reports |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=520–8 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18350109 |pmc=2268875 |doi=10.1007/s11906-007-0094-3 |ref=harv}}</ref>
+A 2007 U.S. government-sponsored review of research on [[meditation]], including Transcendental Meditation, yoga, tai chi, qi gong, mindfulness, and others, said that firm conclusions on health effects cannot be drawn, as the majority of the studies are of poor methodological quality.<ref name="Ospina p.v"/> The review included studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and substance abuse.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evidence Report/technology Assessment |volume= |issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |url=http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref> The review used the [[Jadad scale]] to assess quality of the studies using control groups and [[Newcastle-Ottawa Scale]] for the others. The quality assessment portion of the 2007 review was published in 2008. The article stated that "Most clinical trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to [[validity]] in every major quality domain assessed". The authors found that there was a [[statistically significant]] increase in the quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956-2005. Of the 400 clinical studies, 10% were found to be good quality. A call was made for rigorous study of meditation.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1199–213 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19123875 |doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0307 |ref=harv}}</ref> These authors also noted that this finding is not unique to the area of meditation research and that the quality of reporting is a frequent problem in other areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) research and related therapy research domains.
-TM researcher [[David Orme-Johnson]] said that the use of double blinding, which is required by the Jadad scale, is not appropriate to meditation research and that the review failed to assess more relevant determinants of research quality.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Orme-Johnson DW |title=Commentary on the AHRQ report on research on meditation practices in health |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1215–21 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19123876 |doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0464 |ref=harv}}</ref> Research reviews in science journals say that double blinding may not be possible in meditation research,<ref>Ospina, Maria, et al, “Clinical Trials of Meditation Practices in Health Care: Characteristics and Quality,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210</ref><ref>Orme-Johnson, David, “Commentary on the AHRQ Report on Research on Meditation Practices in Health,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210</ref><ref>Rainforth, Maxwell, et al, “Stress Reduction in Patients with Elevate Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Analysis, Current Hypertension Reports 2007, 9, p. 522</ref><ref>Anderson, James, et al, “Blood Pressure Response to Transcendental Meditation: A Meta-analysis,” American Journal of Hypertension, March 2008, Volume 21 Number 3, p. 311</ref><ref>Linden W, Moseley, ?The efficacy of behavioral treatments for hypertension, Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback 2006, 31, pp. 51–63.</ref> although one of the earliest double-blinded, placebo studies of Transcendental Mediation was conducted in 1975.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=ojd1sdVUydwC&pg=PR9&lpg=PR9&dq=Michigan+state+doctoral+thesis+double+blinded+transcendental&source=bl&ots=7YFpB9fdc9&sig=mldIB-c18Tuxar0_bHq8YWOFOws&hl=en&ei=OEJGTN3mEMP-8Abk97H0BA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false Smith, Jonathan, ''Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal'', Blackwell Publishing (2010)]</ref>
+TM researchers said that the 2007 review suffered from various limitations related to data collection, analysis, and reporting procedures.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rainforth MV, Schneider RH, Nidich SI, Gaylord-King C, Salerno JW, Anderson JW |title=Stress reduction programs in patients with elevated blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Current Hypertension Reports |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=520–8 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18350109 |pmc=2268875 |doi=10.1007/s11906-007-0094-3 |ref=harv}}</ref> TM researcher [[David Orme-Johnson]] said that the use of double blinding, which is required by the Jadad scale, is not appropriate to meditation research and that the review failed to assess more relevant determinants of research quality.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Orme-Johnson DW |title=Commentary on the AHRQ report on research on meditation practices in health |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1215–21 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19123876 |doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0464 |ref=harv}}</ref> Research reviews in science journals say that double blinding may not be possible in meditation research,<ref>Ospina, Maria, et al, “Clinical Trials of Meditation Practices in Health Care: Characteristics and Quality,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210</ref><ref>Orme-Johnson, David, “Commentary on the AHRQ Report on Research on Meditation Practices in Health,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Volume 14, Number 10, 2008, p. 1210</ref><ref>Rainforth, Maxwell, et al, “Stress Reduction in Patients with Elevate Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Analysis, Current Hypertension Reports 2007, 9, p. 522</ref><ref>Anderson, James, et al, “Blood Pressure Response to Transcendental Meditation: A Meta-analysis,” American Journal of Hypertension, March 2008, Volume 21 Number 3, p. 311</ref><ref>Linden W, Moseley, ?The efficacy of behavioral treatments for hypertension, Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback 2006, 31, pp. 51–63.</ref> although one of the earliest double-blinded, placebo studies of Transcendental Mediation was conducted in 1975.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=ojd1sdVUydwC&pg=PR9&lpg=PR9&dq=Michigan+state+doctoral+thesis+double+blinded+transcendental&source=bl&ots=7YFpB9fdc9&sig=mldIB-c18Tuxar0_bHq8YWOFOws&hl=en&ei=OEJGTN3mEMP-8Abk97H0BA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false Smith, Jonathan, ''Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal'', Blackwell Publishing (2010)]</ref>
 ===Research funding===

v t e Transcendental Meditation
Programs	History of Transcendental Meditation Maharishi Peace Palace Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health Transcendental Meditation in education Transcendental Meditation technique
Organizations	David Lynch Foundation (US) Global Country of World Peace Maharishi Heaven on Earth Development Natural Law Party Natural Law Party of Canada Natural Law Party (United States) Natural Law Party (Trinidad and Tobago) Transcendental Meditation movement
Education	Maharishi Institute of Management (IN) Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Vedic University (IN) Maharishi School (UK) Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment (US) Maharishi University of Management and Technology (IN) Maharishi International University (US) Maharishi Vidya Mandir Schools (IN)
People	Ashley Deans Bevan Morris Brahmananda Saraswati David Lynch David Orme-Johnson Deepak Chopra John Fagan John Hagelin Nancy Cooke de Herrera Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Nancy Lonsdorf Prudence Farrow Tony Nader The Beatles In Bangor In India
Places	Fairfield, Iowa (US) Golden Domes (US) Hararit (IL) Kolleg St. Ludwig (NL) Maharishi Vedic City, Iowa (US)
Media	Catching the Big Fish David Wants to Fly KSCI TM and Cult Mania Transcendence: Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation