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The Mbunda language spoken by the [[Bunda people|Mbunda group that remained in the DR Congo]], entirely separated from the rest of their people, is of course a special case. Due to passage of time and interaction with other languages, it has become quite different from the variants spoken in Angola, Zambia, and Namibia, and is today even considered as belonging to a different linguistic category.
The Mbunda language spoken by the [[Bunda people|Mbunda group that remained in the DR Congo]], entirely separated from the rest of their people, is of course a special case. Due to passage of time and interaction with other languages, it has become quite different from the variants spoken in Angola, Zambia, and Namibia, and is today even considered as belonging to a different linguistic category.


In the southern route, to the south of the confluence of Kwilu and Kasai rivers, the fifth Mbunda Monarch, [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|King Mwene Chinguli]] traveled all the way south to the now Kwandu Kuvango chasing the Bushmen and replacing them in the new found lands with the Mbunda descendants who were later known as the Chimbandi, the Ngonjelo, the Humbi, the Lwimbi and the Nyemba.
In the southern route, to the south of the confluence of Kwilu and Kasai rivers, the fifth Mbunda Monarch, [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|King Mwene Chinguli]] traveled all the way south to the now [[Cuando Cubango]] chasing the Bushmen and replacing them in the new found lands with the Mbunda descendants who were later known as the [[Chimbandi]], the [[Ngonjelo]], the [[Humbi]], the [[Luimbi]] and the [[Nyemba]].


In the second migration route and during the reign of [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|Queen Vamwene Kaamba]], the seventh Mbunda Monarch, the Mbunda explored and settled new lands to the east of the now Angola, where they discovered a great river, which they named Lindonga lya Mbayi, which literally means, "the great river of Mbayi", and abbreviated to Lyambayi, after one of the royal Princesses, Princess Vamunamwene Mbayi, one of the daughters of the sixth Mbunda Monarch, [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|Queen Vamwene Mbaao]], and who was a sister to Queen Vamwene Kaamba, drowned in this unnamed river's turbulent waters, in the process of crossing the river. Through the passage of time to this day, the Mbunda still call the [[Zambezi river]] “Lya Mbayi”. This was a very sandy area with small rivers which were all tributaries of the Zambezi River. Like the Zambezi these smaller rivers had very wide flood plains which were wonderful areas for grazing cattle. Even better the higher lands adjacent to the flood plains were ideal for planting their favorite crop, cassava. It was along these tributaries to the Zambezi that the first Mbunda decided to settle in Mbundaland, which is now part of Angola. <ref>Robert Papstein, ''The Zambia Journal of History,'' Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X</ref>.
In the second migration route and during the reign of [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|Queen Vamwene Kaamba]], the seventh Mbunda Monarch, the Mbunda explored and settled new lands to the east of the now [[Angola]], where they discovered a great river, which they named Lindonga lya Mbayi, which literally means, "the great river of Mbayi", and abbreviated to Lyambayi, after one of the royal Princesses, Princess Vamunamwene Mbayi, one of the daughters of the sixth Mbunda Monarch, [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|Queen Vamwene Mbaao]], and who was a sister to Queen Vamwene Kaamba, drowned in this unnamed river's turbulent waters, in the process of crossing the river. Through the passage of time to this day, the Mbunda still call the [[Zambezi river]] “Lya Mbayi”. This was a very sandy area with small rivers which were all tributaries of the Zambezi River. Like the Zambezi these smaller rivers had very wide flood plains which were wonderful areas for grazing cattle. Even better the higher lands adjacent to the flood plains were ideal for planting their favorite crop, cassava. It was along these tributaries to the Zambezi that the first Mbunda decided to settle in a land subsquently named after them as Mbundaland, which is now part of [[Angola]]. <ref>Robert Papstein, ''The Zambia Journal of History,'' Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X</ref>.


The Mbunda set their first capital at [[Mithimoyi]]. However, the need for more settlement land was still vital to the quickly growing population. Queen Kaamba sent some of the Mbunda to search for more settlement land to the south. The group settled at nearby river region called Luchathzi, who were later called after that river as [[Lucazi language|Luchazi]]‎.
The Mbunda set their first capital at [[Mithimoyi]]. However, the need for more settlement land was still vital to the quickly growing population. Queen Vamwene Kaamba sent some of the Mbunda to search for more settlement land to the south. The group settled at nearby river region called Luchathzi, who were later called after that river as [[Lucazi language|Luchazi]]‎.


This expansion also gave way to dialects such: Katavola (Mbunda Mathzi), Yauma,<ref>''[[Ethnologue]]'' lists Yauma as "[[unclassified languages|unclassified]]", an apparent error, as it also notes that it is "part of the Ngangela subgroup" of the Chokwe–Luchazi (K.10) Bantu languages.</ref> Nkangala,<ref>Not to be confused with the [[Ngangela language]]</ref> Mbalango, Sango, Ciyengele ("Shamuka"), and Ndundu, all of which are close.<ref>[http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/zonek.html Bantu-Languages.com], citing Maniacky 1997</ref> all of them alive in southeast Angola. Out of the two route migrations of the Mbunda from the confluence of Kwilu and Kasai rivers, southeast of the now Angola was inhabited by a thirteen Mbunda descendant enthnicity of the Mbunda Mathzi, the Chimbandi, the Humbi, the Ngonjelo, the Lwimbi, the Nyemba, the Luchazi, the Sango, the Mbalango, the Nkangala, the Yauma, the Ndundu and the Mashaka. The Mbunda continued expanding southwards to a larger settlement, where the Mbunda Kingdom continued to flourish in what became known as Mbundaland from Lungwevungu river to Chibanda or southern border with [[Namibia]], with [[Lumbala Nguimbo]] becaming their capital, where [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|His Majesty King Mbandu III Mbandu Lifuti]] reigns today.
This expansion, which was later spearheaded by the 12th and 13th Mbunda monarchs, [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|King Mwene Kathangila ka Mukenge]] and [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|King Yambayamba Kapanda]] expeditions respectively, also gave way to dialects such: Katavola (Mbunda Mathzi), Yauma,<ref>''[[Ethnologue]]'' lists Yauma as "[[unclassified languages|unclassified]]", an apparent error, as it also notes that it is "part of the Ngangela subgroup" of the Chokwe–Luchazi (K.10) Bantu languages.</ref> Nkangala,<ref>Not to be confused with the [[Ngangela language]]</ref> Mbalango, Sango, Ciyengele ("Shamuka"), and Ndundu, all of which are close.<ref>[http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/zonek.html Bantu-Languages.com], citing Maniacky 1997</ref> all of them alive in southeast Angola. Out of the two route migrations of the Mbunda from the confluence of Kwilu and Kasai rivers, southeast of the now Angola was inhabited by a thirteen Mbunda descendant enthnicity of the Mbunda Mathzi(Katavola], the Chimbandi, the Humbi, the Ngonjelo, the Luimbi, the Nyemba, the Luchazi, the Sango, the Mbalango, the Nkangala, the Yauma, the Ndundu and the Mashaka. The Mbunda continued expanding southwards to a larger settlement, where the Mbunda Kingdom continued to flourish in what became known as Mbundaland from Lungwevungu river to Chibanda or southern border with [[Namibia]], while [[Lumbala Nguimbo]] became their capital, where [[List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom|His Majesty King Mbandu III Mbandu Lifuti]] reigns today.


At the end of the 18th century some of the Mbunda migranted to Barotseland [[Mongu]]. <ref>''The elites of Barotseland, 1878-1969: a political history of Zambia's Western Province'': a. Gerald L. Caplan ISBN: 0900966386 Publisher: C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1970</ref> upon the migration of among others, the Ciyengele <ref>[http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/zonek.html Bantu-Languages.com], citing Maniacky 1997</ref> The Aluyi and their leader, the Litunga especially prized the Mbunda for their ability to fight. When the Luvale also known as [[Lovale]] invaded Barotseland from the north, the Mbunda to countered the invasion and were victorious, ending the Lovale invasions.<ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref> King Mulambwa also cemented the bond of friendship between the Aluyi and the Mbunda with a ten (10) point Mulambwa/ Chiyengele Treaty and ceremonially giving a sharp pointed pole called mulombwe to Mwene Chitengi Chiyengele and confirmed his stay in Barotseland as the Senior Chief of the Mbunda. This and other factors earned the Mbunda to be included on the Barotse National Council.<ref>Mupatu, Y. Mulambwa Santulu Uamuhela Bo Mwene, London, 1954</ref><ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref>
At the end of the 18th century some of the Mbunda migrated to [[Barotseland]] [[Mongu]].<ref>''The elites of Barotseland, 1878-1969: a political history of Zambia's Western Province'': a. Gerald L. Caplan ISBN: 0900966386 Publisher: C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1970</ref> upon the migration of among others, the Ciyengele <ref>[http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/zonek.html Bantu-Languages.com], citing Maniacky 1997</ref> The Aluyi and their leader, the Litunga Mulambwa especially prized the Mbunda for their ability to fight. When the Luvale also known as [[Lovale]] invaded [[Barotseland]] from the north, the Mbunda countered the invasion and were victorious, ending the Lovale invasions.<ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref> King Mulambwa also cemented the bond of friendship between the Aluyi and the Mbunda with a ten (10) point Mulambwa/ Chiyengele Treaty and ceremonially giving a sharp pointed pole called mulombwe to Mwene Chitengi Chiyengele and confirmed his stay in Barotseland as the Senior Chief of the Mbunda. This and other factors earned the Mbunda to be included on the Barotse National Council.<ref>Mupatu, Y. Mulambwa Santulu Uamuhela Bo Mwene, London, 1954</ref><ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref>


Secondly, the Mbunda fought alongside Aluyi in the Aluyi/Makololo war in 1830, which ousted the Makololo occupation of Barotseland, leading to the establishment of the Mbunda Chieftainship at Lukwakwa under Mwene Sikufele now in Kabompo District, being a descendant of the Mbunda that supported Prince Mubukwanu of the Aluyi.<ref>''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760</ref> The Makololo from the south introduced the [[Sotho language]] spoken not only in Western Province today but also Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa and Caprivi Strip.<ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=X4VmAWdXPD0C&lpg=PA392&ots=uybcCJ2LBP&dq=politicalorganizationofthekabompodistrictanditsinhabitants&pg=PA336#v=onepage&q&f=false White, C.M.N. ''Notes on the Political Organization of the Kabompo District and its Inhabitants'', African Studies, IX, (1950), pp. 185-93]</ref>
Secondly, the Mbunda fought alongside Aluyi in the Aluyi/Makololo war in 1830, which ousted the Makololo occupation of Barotseland, leading to the establishment of the Mbunda Chieftainship at Lukwakwa under Mwene Sikufele now in Kabompo District, being a descendant of the Mbunda that supported Prince Mubukwanu of the Aluyi.<ref>''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760</ref> The Makololo from the south introduced the [[Sotho language]] spoken not only in Western Province today but also Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa and Caprivi Strip.<ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=X4VmAWdXPD0C&lpg=PA392&ots=uybcCJ2LBP&dq=politicalorganizationofthekabompodistrictanditsinhabitants&pg=PA336#v=onepage&q&f=false White, C.M.N. ''Notes on the Political Organization of the Kabompo District and its Inhabitants'', African Studies, IX, (1950), pp. 185-93]</ref>
The Mbunda also fought alongside the Aluyi against the Tonga in the 1880’s, ermaging victory as the Tonga had no defense against the Mbunda‘s skill with a bow and arrow, resulting in the Lozi/Mbunda and Tonga Cousinship. Later the Kaonde/Lozi war which Lozis warn with the help of the Mbunda war machinery, resulting in the Mbunda Chieftainship of Mwene Kasimba having firmly been established there at the confluence of the Lalafuta and Kyamenge in 1893, opposite Chief Mushima Njivumina of the Kaonde. In honoring the Mulambwa/Chiyengele Treaty, the Mbunda have remained the true allies of the Aluyi both in military and political matters.<ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref> The Mbunda lived peacefully, tendeing their cattle and growing cassava, maize and rice, while many of the men left their homes to work in the South African mines. With independence from British rule came in 1964 the practice was discouraged and the men were then recruited to work on the sugar plantations of Zambia.
The Mbunda also fought alongside the Aluyi against the Tonga in the 1880’s, emerging victory as the Tonga had no defense against the Mbunda‘s skill with a bow and arrow, resulting in the Lozi/Mbunda and Tonga Cousinship. Later the Kaonde/Lozi war which Lozis won with the help of the Mbunda war machinery, resulting in the Mbunda Chieftainship of [[Mwene Kasimba]] having firmly been established there at the confluence of the Lalafuta and Kyamenge in 1893, opposite Chief Mushima Njivumina of the Kaonde. In honoring the Mulambwa/Chiyengele Treaty, the Mbunda have remained the true allies of the Aluyi both in military and political matters.<ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref> The Mbunda lived peacefully, tendering their cattle and growing cassava, maize and rice, while many of the men left their homes to work in the South African mines. With [[Zambia]] independence from British rule came in 1964 the practice was discouraged and the men were then recruited to work on the sugar plantations of Zambia.


At the beginning of the 20th century due to their resistance to Portuguese colonial occupation, when the Portuguese colonialists abducted the twenty first (21st) Mbunda Monarch, King [[Mwene Mbandu Kapova I of Mbunda|Mwene Mbandu I Lyondthzi Kapova]], the Mbunda waged a fierce armed campaigns in defending their Mbundaland. Technology However, aided the Portuguese forces in gaining an upper hand in the war as they had a consitant supply of gunpowder for their guns. Without the knowledge to make gunpowder, the Mbunda eventually found their muzzle-loaders useless and increasingly relied on their bows and arrows as well as a few other traditional arms which were suited for close contact warfare. The Portuguese firepower took a heavy toll of the Mbunda, some of whom started to throw their muzzle-loaders in the rivers for lack of gunpowder. The Portuguese eventually dislodged the Mbunda Kingdom extending [[Angola]] territory over Mbundaland. This caused the second migration of the Mbunda to Barotseland.<ref>René Pélissier, ''La révolte des Bunda (1916-1917)'', pp. 408 - 412 (French for "the Mbunda revolt"), section footnotes citing sources: Luís Figueira, Princesa Negra: ''O preço da civilização em África, Coimbra'' Edição do autor, 1932.</ref>
At the beginning of the 20th century due to their resistance to Portuguese colonial occupation, when the Portuguese colonialists abducted the twenty first (21st) Mbunda Monarch, King [[Mwene Mbandu Kapova I of Mbunda|Mwene Mbandu I Lyondthzi Kapova]], the Mbunda waged a fierce armed campaigns in defending their Mbundaland. Technology However, aided the Portuguese forces in gaining an upper hand in the war as they had a consitant supply of gunpowder for their guns. Without the knowledge to make gunpowder, the Mbunda eventually found their muzzle-loaders useless and increasingly relied on their bows and arrows as well as a few other traditional arms which were suited for close contact warfare. The Portuguese firepower took a heavy toll of the Mbunda, some of whom started to throw their muzzle-loaders in the rivers for lack of gunpowder. The Portuguese eventually dislodged the Mbunda Kingdom extending [[Angola]] territory over Mbundaland. This caused the second migration of the Mbunda to Barotseland.<ref>René Pélissier, ''La révolte des Bunda (1916-1917)'', pp. 408 - 412 (French for "the Mbunda revolt"), section footnotes citing sources: Luís Figueira, Princesa Negra: ''O preço da civilização em África, Coimbra'' Edição do autor, 1932.</ref>


And later because of the impact of the [[Angolan War of Independence]] (1961–1974), the decolonization conflict in Angola (1974/75)<ref>Franz-Wilhelm Heimer, ''Der Entkolonisierungskonflikt in Angola'', Munich: Weltforum Verlag, 1979 ISBN 3-8039-0179-0</ref>. Independence came to neighboring Angola in 1974 and with independence came [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002). Again many of the Mbunda fled Angola to relocate in nearby western Zambia, this marked the third and fourth wave of Mbunda immigration to the now Western Province of Zambia. These refugees were related to those Mbundas who were already living around [[Kalabo]], [[Senanga]], [[Mongu]], [[Kaoma]], [[Lukulu]] and [[Kabompo]] in Zambia. As a consequence of the latter, a number of Mbunda also took refuge in Northern Namibia, the west and east of [[Kavango]] region, around [[Rundu]] and [[Nkurenkuru]] and [[Caprivi Strip]].<ref>Franz-Wilhelm Heimer, ''Der Entkolonisierungskonflikt in Angola'', Munich: Weltforum Verlag, 1979 ISBN 3-8039-0179-0</ref>
And later because of the impact of the [[Angolan War of Independence]] (1961–1974), the decolonization conflict in Angola (1974/75)<ref>Franz-Wilhelm Heimer, ''Der Entkolonisierungskonflikt in Angola'', Munich: Weltforum Verlag, 1979 ISBN 3-8039-0179-0</ref>. Independence came to neighboring Angola in 1974 and with independence came [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002). Again many of the Mbunda fled Angola to relocate in nearby western Zambia, this marked the third and fourth wave of Mbunda immigration to the now Western Province of Zambia. These refugees were related to the Mbunda who were already living around [[Kalabo]], [[Senanga]], [[Mongu]], [[Kaoma]], [[Lukulu]] and [[Kabompo]] in Zambia. As a consequence of the latter, a number of the Mbunda also took refuge in Northern Namibia, the west and east of [[Kavango]] region, around [[Rundu]] and [[Nkurenkuru]] and [[Caprivi Strip]].<ref>Franz-Wilhelm Heimer, ''Der Entkolonisierungskonflikt in Angola'', Munich: Weltforum Verlag, 1979 ISBN 3-8039-0179-0</ref>


=== Economic Activities ===
=== Economic Activities ===
The '''Vambunda''' are talented iron (vutale) and copper (vunegu) workers and proficient hunters and soldiers with their bows and arrows. They were also remarkably skilled at the art of making pots and jars of baked clay. The Mbunda cultivated the tropical forest which was found in where they grew assorted crops. They grew [[maize]], [[millet]], [[sorghum]], [[bean]]s, and [[sweet potato]]es and [[cassava]] being teir staple food. They also kept domestic stock. Their traders came into contact with the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and [[Ovimbundu]] traders of [[Bié Plateau]] of central [[Angola]], who largely traded in [[bee wax]], [[ivory trade]] and [[rubber]], in exchange with guns and cloth material.<ref>Robert Papstein, ''The Zambia Journal of History,'' Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X</ref>
The '''Vambunda''' are talented iron (vutale) and copper (vunegu) workers and proficient hunters and soldiers with their bows and arrows.<ref>[[http://books.google.co.zm/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA416&lpg=PA416&dq=mbunda+kingdom&source=bl&ots=uZUnIxhux9&sig=Sw3gdMiW5vKHioD5JrOpU8EnDnw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OkXMUNybPKmW0QW33YCACA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history'', Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]]</ref> They were also remarkably skilled at the art of making pots and jars of baked clay. The Mbunda cultivated the tropical forest which was found in where they grew assorted crops. They grew [[maize]], [[millet]], [[sorghum]], [[bean]]s, and [[sweet potato]]es and [[cassava]] being teir staple food. They also kept domestic stock. Their traders came into contact with the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and [[Ovimbundu]] traders of [[Bié Plateau]] of central [[Angola]], who largely traded in [[bee wax]], [[ivory trade]] and [[rubber]], in exchange with guns and cloth material.<ref>Robert Papstein, ''The Zambia Journal of History,'' Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X</ref>


=== Religion ===
=== Religion ===
Overwhelmingly the Vambunda follow [[Christianity]], with roughly equal shares falling to the Catholic Church and to different Protestant denominations, mainly the ''Igreja Evangélica Congregacional de Angola (IECA)'', founded by American missionaries. However, some still retain beliefs and practices from [[African traditional religion]]s, believeing in [[Njambi Kalunga (African deity)|Njambi]] as a supreme creator of the world who created everything of existence on earth. Their religion did not address Njambi directly, but through the spirits of their ancestors.<ref>Robert Papstein, ''The Zambia Journal of History,'' Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X</ref>
Overwhelmingly the Vambunda follow [[Christianity]], with roughly equal shares falling to the Catholic Church and to different Protestant denominations, mainly the ''Igreja Evangélica Congregacional de Angola (IECA)'', founded by American missionaries. However, some still retain beliefs and practices from [[African traditional religion]]s, believeing in [[Njambi Kalunga (African deity)|Njambi]] as a supreme creator of the world who created everything of existence on earth. Their religion did not address Njambi directly, but through the spirits of their ancestors.<ref>Robert Papstein, ''The Zambia Journal of History,'' Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X</ref>


The Mbunda have maintained most of their old traditions such as respect for their ancestors, “coming of age” rituals for both boys (Mukanda and their not less than fifty Makishi artifacts), girls (Litungu or Bwali), relying on cattle and cassava for their food, men carry weapons such as bow and arrows, spears or machetes when traveling away from their villages and women still creating baskets from makenge roots. <ref>Robert Papstein, ''The Zambia Journal of History,'' Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X</ref>
The Mbunda have maintained most of their old traditions such as respect for their ancestors, “coming of age” rituals for both boys (Mukanda Initiation Ceremony and their not less than fifty Makishi artifacts), girls (Litungu or Bwali), relying on cattle and cassava for their food, men carry weapons such as bow and arrows, spears or machetes when traveling away from their villages and women still creating baskets from makenge roots.<ref>Robert Papstein, ''The Zambia Journal of History,'' Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 19:44, 6 September 2013

Mbunda Mbúùnda
PersonKambunda
PeopleVambunda
LanguageChimbunda
CountryAngola, DR Congo, Zambia, Namibia

The Vambunda (singular Kambunda, adjective and language Mbunda, Mbúùnda or Chimbunda), are a Bantu peoples ethnic group who, during the Bantu migrations, came from the north, probably from somewhere near the present-day Sudan.[1] They are now found on the Southeast of Angola from the Lunguevungu river in Moxico to Cuando Cubango Provinces. In their migration they first settled in KOLA in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo along the Kalanyi River, where they interacted with the Kingdom of Lunda and Kingdom of Luba,[2] in the 15th century under their ruler, King (Mwene) Nkuungu, with their capital at Namampongwe [3]. From there they settled for some time at the confluence of the Kwilu and Kasai rivers (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) in the 16th century, where they re-established their Kingdom.[4] A significant group of them still lives there, and The Mbunda language spoken by the Mbunda group that remained in the DR Congo, entirely separated from the rest of their people, is of course a special case. Due to passage of time and interaction with other languages, it has become quite different from the variants spoken in Angola, Zambia, and Namibia, and is today even considered as belonging to a different linguistic category. [5]

Vambunda is one of the largest ethnic group in Angola, which is made up of several dialects: Yauma language,[6] Nkangala language,[7] Mbalango language, Sango dialect, Shamuka dialect and Ndundu language, all of them alive in southeast Angola.[8]

Origins and the legend of migration history

The Vambunda were among a group of Bantu people who left what is now Sudan during the Bantu migration in the early centuries [9] to form one of the oldest and biggest ethnic grouping in Southern Africa and a Mbunda Kingdom in 15th Century [10]

The first Mbunda Monarch was King Mwene Nkuungu. Thereafter, the Mbunda shifted their base within the Kola area and settled in a place more favourable than their previous habitation, where they found Ruund (Luunda) people already settled. While there, Queen Vamwene Yamvu, the third Mbunda Monarch, married a Ruund (Luunda) hunter and relinguished her rulership to the husband.[11]. Her brother Prince Munamwene Nkonde was so incensed with her conduct that he led the majority of the disenchanted Mbunda populace away from the area and later settled near the confluence of the Kwilu and Kasai rivers.[12] Later, due to unfavourable weather conditions, the Mbunda in a two migration route moved south and south east into the now Angola in the 1600.

The Mbunda language spoken by the Mbunda group that remained in the DR Congo, entirely separated from the rest of their people, is of course a special case. Due to passage of time and interaction with other languages, it has become quite different from the variants spoken in Angola, Zambia, and Namibia, and is today even considered as belonging to a different linguistic category.

In the southern route, to the south of the confluence of Kwilu and Kasai rivers, the fifth Mbunda Monarch, King Mwene Chinguli traveled all the way south to the now Cuando Cubango chasing the Bushmen and replacing them in the new found lands with the Mbunda descendants who were later known as the Chimbandi, the Ngonjelo, the Humbi, the Luimbi and the Nyemba.

In the second migration route and during the reign of Queen Vamwene Kaamba, the seventh Mbunda Monarch, the Mbunda explored and settled new lands to the east of the now Angola, where they discovered a great river, which they named Lindonga lya Mbayi, which literally means, "the great river of Mbayi", and abbreviated to Lyambayi, after one of the royal Princesses, Princess Vamunamwene Mbayi, one of the daughters of the sixth Mbunda Monarch, Queen Vamwene Mbaao, and who was a sister to Queen Vamwene Kaamba, drowned in this unnamed river's turbulent waters, in the process of crossing the river. Through the passage of time to this day, the Mbunda still call the Zambezi river “Lya Mbayi”. This was a very sandy area with small rivers which were all tributaries of the Zambezi River. Like the Zambezi these smaller rivers had very wide flood plains which were wonderful areas for grazing cattle. Even better the higher lands adjacent to the flood plains were ideal for planting their favorite crop, cassava. It was along these tributaries to the Zambezi that the first Mbunda decided to settle in a land subsquently named after them as Mbundaland, which is now part of Angola. [13].

The Mbunda set their first capital at Mithimoyi. However, the need for more settlement land was still vital to the quickly growing population. Queen Vamwene Kaamba sent some of the Mbunda to search for more settlement land to the south. The group settled at nearby river region called Luchathzi, who were later called after that river as Luchazi‎.

This expansion, which was later spearheaded by the 12th and 13th Mbunda monarchs, King Mwene Kathangila ka Mukenge and King Yambayamba Kapanda expeditions respectively, also gave way to dialects such: Katavola (Mbunda Mathzi), Yauma,[14] Nkangala,[15] Mbalango, Sango, Ciyengele ("Shamuka"), and Ndundu, all of which are close.[16] all of them alive in southeast Angola. Out of the two route migrations of the Mbunda from the confluence of Kwilu and Kasai rivers, southeast of the now Angola was inhabited by a thirteen Mbunda descendant enthnicity of the Mbunda Mathzi(Katavola], the Chimbandi, the Humbi, the Ngonjelo, the Luimbi, the Nyemba, the Luchazi, the Sango, the Mbalango, the Nkangala, the Yauma, the Ndundu and the Mashaka. The Mbunda continued expanding southwards to a larger settlement, where the Mbunda Kingdom continued to flourish in what became known as Mbundaland from Lungwevungu river to Chibanda or southern border with Namibia, while Lumbala Nguimbo became their capital, where His Majesty King Mbandu III Mbandu Lifuti reigns today.

At the end of the 18th century some of the Mbunda migrated to Barotseland Mongu.[17] upon the migration of among others, the Ciyengele [18] The Aluyi and their leader, the Litunga Mulambwa especially prized the Mbunda for their ability to fight. When the Luvale also known as Lovale invaded Barotseland from the north, the Mbunda countered the invasion and were victorious, ending the Lovale invasions.[19] King Mulambwa also cemented the bond of friendship between the Aluyi and the Mbunda with a ten (10) point Mulambwa/ Chiyengele Treaty and ceremonially giving a sharp pointed pole called mulombwe to Mwene Chitengi Chiyengele and confirmed his stay in Barotseland as the Senior Chief of the Mbunda. This and other factors earned the Mbunda to be included on the Barotse National Council.[20][21]

Secondly, the Mbunda fought alongside Aluyi in the Aluyi/Makololo war in 1830, which ousted the Makololo occupation of Barotseland, leading to the establishment of the Mbunda Chieftainship at Lukwakwa under Mwene Sikufele now in Kabompo District, being a descendant of the Mbunda that supported Prince Mubukwanu of the Aluyi.[22] The Makololo from the south introduced the Sotho language spoken not only in Western Province today but also Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa and Caprivi Strip.[23][24]

The Mbunda also fought alongside the Aluyi against the Tonga in the 1880’s, emerging victory as the Tonga had no defense against the Mbunda‘s skill with a bow and arrow, resulting in the Lozi/Mbunda and Tonga Cousinship. Later the Kaonde/Lozi war which Lozis won with the help of the Mbunda war machinery, resulting in the Mbunda Chieftainship of Mwene Kasimba having firmly been established there at the confluence of the Lalafuta and Kyamenge in 1893, opposite Chief Mushima Njivumina of the Kaonde. In honoring the Mulambwa/Chiyengele Treaty, the Mbunda have remained the true allies of the Aluyi both in military and political matters.[25] The Mbunda lived peacefully, tendering their cattle and growing cassava, maize and rice, while many of the men left their homes to work in the South African mines. With Zambia independence from British rule came in 1964 the practice was discouraged and the men were then recruited to work on the sugar plantations of Zambia.

At the beginning of the 20th century due to their resistance to Portuguese colonial occupation, when the Portuguese colonialists abducted the twenty first (21st) Mbunda Monarch, King Mwene Mbandu I Lyondthzi Kapova, the Mbunda waged a fierce armed campaigns in defending their Mbundaland. Technology However, aided the Portuguese forces in gaining an upper hand in the war as they had a consitant supply of gunpowder for their guns. Without the knowledge to make gunpowder, the Mbunda eventually found their muzzle-loaders useless and increasingly relied on their bows and arrows as well as a few other traditional arms which were suited for close contact warfare. The Portuguese firepower took a heavy toll of the Mbunda, some of whom started to throw their muzzle-loaders in the rivers for lack of gunpowder. The Portuguese eventually dislodged the Mbunda Kingdom extending Angola territory over Mbundaland. This caused the second migration of the Mbunda to Barotseland.[26]

And later because of the impact of the Angolan War of Independence (1961–1974), the decolonization conflict in Angola (1974/75)[27]. Independence came to neighboring Angola in 1974 and with independence came Angolan Civil War (1975–2002). Again many of the Mbunda fled Angola to relocate in nearby western Zambia, this marked the third and fourth wave of Mbunda immigration to the now Western Province of Zambia. These refugees were related to the Mbunda who were already living around Kalabo, Senanga, Mongu, Kaoma, Lukulu and Kabompo in Zambia. As a consequence of the latter, a number of the Mbunda also took refuge in Northern Namibia, the west and east of Kavango region, around Rundu and Nkurenkuru and Caprivi Strip.[28]

Economic Activities

The Vambunda are talented iron (vutale) and copper (vunegu) workers and proficient hunters and soldiers with their bows and arrows.[29] They were also remarkably skilled at the art of making pots and jars of baked clay. The Mbunda cultivated the tropical forest which was found in where they grew assorted crops. They grew maize, millet, sorghum, beans, and sweet potatoes and cassava being teir staple food. They also kept domestic stock. Their traders came into contact with the Portuguese, and Ovimbundu traders of Bié Plateau of central Angola, who largely traded in bee wax, ivory trade and rubber, in exchange with guns and cloth material.[30]

Religion

Overwhelmingly the Vambunda follow Christianity, with roughly equal shares falling to the Catholic Church and to different Protestant denominations, mainly the Igreja Evangélica Congregacional de Angola (IECA), founded by American missionaries. However, some still retain beliefs and practices from African traditional religions, believeing in Njambi as a supreme creator of the world who created everything of existence on earth. Their religion did not address Njambi directly, but through the spirits of their ancestors.[31]

The Mbunda have maintained most of their old traditions such as respect for their ancestors, “coming of age” rituals for both boys (Mukanda Initiation Ceremony and their not less than fifty Makishi artifacts), girls (Litungu or Bwali), relying on cattle and cassava for their food, men carry weapons such as bow and arrows, spears or machetes when traveling away from their villages and women still creating baskets from makenge roots.[32]

References

  1. ^ The Bantu in Ancient Egypt
  2. ^ Almanac of African Peoples & Nations, page 523. By Muḥammad Zuhdī Yakan, Transaction Publishers, Putgers - The State University, 35 Berrue Circle, Piscataway, New Jersey 008854-8042, ISBN: 1-56000-433,
  3. ^ Robert Papstein, The Zambia Journal of History, Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X
  4. ^ >Almanac of African Peoples & Nations, page 523. By Muḥammad Zuhdī Yakan, Transaction Publishers, Putgers - The State University, 35 Berrue Circle, Piscataway, New Jersey 008854-8042, ISBN: 1-56000-433,
  5. ^ name='ethnol'>Mbunda languageMpuono language
  6. ^ Ethnologue lists Yauma as "unclassified", an apparent error, as it also notes that it is "part of the Ngangela subgroup" of the Chokwe–Luchazi (K.10) Bantu languages.
  7. ^ Not to be confused with the Ngangela language
  8. ^ Bantu-Languages.com, citing Maniacky 1997
  9. ^ Terms of trade and terms of trust: the history and contexts of pre-colonial, pages 104 & 105...By Achim von Oppen, LIT Verlag Münster Publishers, 1993, ISBN: 3894732466, 9783894732462
  10. ^ Almanac of African Peoples & Nations, page 523. By Muḥammad Zuhdī Yakan, Transaction Publishers, Putgers - The State University, 35 Berrue Circle, Piscataway, New Jersey 008854-8042, ISBN: 1-56000-433
  11. ^ Robert Papstein, The Zambia Journal of History, Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X
  12. ^ Almanac of African Peoples & Nations, page 523. By Muḥammad Zuhdī Yakan, Transaction Publishers, Putgers - The State University, 35 Berrue Circle, Piscataway, New Jersey 008854-8042, ISBN: 1-56000-433
  13. ^ Robert Papstein, The Zambia Journal of History, Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X
  14. ^ Ethnologue lists Yauma as "unclassified", an apparent error, as it also notes that it is "part of the Ngangela subgroup" of the Chokwe–Luchazi (K.10) Bantu languages.
  15. ^ Not to be confused with the Ngangela language
  16. ^ Bantu-Languages.com, citing Maniacky 1997
  17. ^ The elites of Barotseland, 1878-1969: a political history of Zambia's Western Province: a. Gerald L. Caplan ISBN: 0900966386 Publisher: C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1970
  18. ^ Bantu-Languages.com, citing Maniacky 1997
  19. ^ [Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history, Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]
  20. ^ Mupatu, Y. Mulambwa Santulu Uamuhela Bo Mwene, London, 1954
  21. ^ [Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history, Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]
  22. ^ Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history, Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760
  23. ^ [Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history, Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]
  24. ^ White, C.M.N. Notes on the Political Organization of the Kabompo District and its Inhabitants, African Studies, IX, (1950), pp. 185-93
  25. ^ [Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history, Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]
  26. ^ René Pélissier, La révolte des Bunda (1916-1917), pp. 408 - 412 (French for "the Mbunda revolt"), section footnotes citing sources: Luís Figueira, Princesa Negra: O preço da civilização em África, Coimbra Edição do autor, 1932.
  27. ^ Franz-Wilhelm Heimer, Der Entkolonisierungskonflikt in Angola, Munich: Weltforum Verlag, 1979 ISBN 3-8039-0179-0
  28. ^ Franz-Wilhelm Heimer, Der Entkolonisierungskonflikt in Angola, Munich: Weltforum Verlag, 1979 ISBN 3-8039-0179-0
  29. ^ [Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and Middle East, Facts On File library of world history, Facts On File, Incorporated, Social Science, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN: 143812676X, 9781438126760]
  30. ^ Robert Papstein, The Zambia Journal of History, Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X
  31. ^ Robert Papstein, The Zambia Journal of History, Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X
  32. ^ Robert Papstein, The Zambia Journal of History, Central African Oral History Project, University of Zambia, ISBN: 998203006X

See also

14°06′44″S 21°26′07″E / 14.11222°S 21.43528°E / -14.11222; 21.43528

Category:Populated places in Moxico Province Category:Municipalities of Angola


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