Transnistria

Transnistria

(In detail) (In detail)
Administrative map of Moldova with Transnistria highlighted in yellow
Official languages	Moldovan, Russian and Ukrainian
Political status	unrecognized
Capital	Tiraspol
President	Igor Smirnov
Independence  – Declared  – Recognition	From Moldova  September 2, 1990  none
Area	3,567 km² (2001 est.)
Population	555,500 (2004 census)
Currency	Transnistrian ruble
Time zone	UTC +2
Internet TLD	none; in some cases .md is used
Calling Code	373 5xx

Transnistria or Trans-Dniester is currently an unrecognized state; it is internationally recognized as being part of Moldova, but claims independence and maintains sovereignty with the assistance of Russian forces. The region has been de facto independent since 1991, when it made a unilateral declaration of independence from Moldova and successfully defeated Moldovan forces, with Russian assistance, in the War of Transnistria. While a ceasefire has held ever since, the Council of Europe recognizes Transnistria as a "frozen conflict" region.

Names

The official names in the state's languages are:

• Moldovan Cyrillic: Република Молдовеняскэ Нистрянэ ("Dniestrian Moldovan Republic")
• Russian: Приднестровкая Молдавская Республика, ПМР; Pridnerstrovskaya Moldavskaya Respublika, PMR (officially translated as "Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic")
• Ukrainian: Придністровська Молдавська Республіка' (Prydnistrovs'ka Moldavs'ka Respublika)

The following names are also used:

• Moldovan Latin script: Republica Moldovenească Nistriană ("Dniestrian Moldovan Republic")
• Stînga Nistrului (Left Bank of the Nistru) (by official Moldovan sources);
• Moldavian Republic of Transdniestria or Moldovan Republic of Transnistria (MRT) (by European Court of Human Rights)
• Russian: Приднестровье, Pridnestrovye, literally "Subdniestria";

The name "Transnistria" comes from it being the area of Moldova "beyond the river Dniester (Nistru)". In Russian and Ukrainian languages the name has a more narrow meaning of "Subdniestria", i.e., "the area by the Dniester".

Political status

It is internationally considered to be part of Moldova, and previously part of the Moldavian SSR, but has declared independence as the Transdniestrian Moldovan Republic or Transnistrian Moldovan Republic (TMR) (officially named Pridnestrovian Moldovan Republic (Pridnestrovie) according to current constitution), with Tiraspol as its capital.

The Russian authorities contributed both militarily and politically to the creation of a separatist regime in Transnistria. The TMR remained under the effective authority, or at the very least under the decisive influence, of Russia, and in any event it survived by virtue of the military, economic, financial and political support that Russia gave it. Despite the Istanbul Agreement of 1999 Russia did not withdraw its military troops from Transnistria.

The Transnistrian parliament building in Tiraspol

Transnistrian local authorities put obstructions to public mother tongue education for ethnic Moldovans in the Latin script, insisting that any public educational institutions teaching the language use the official Cyrillic alphabet.

Arbitrary arrests of citizens, especially of pro-Moldovan and pro-Romanian political views, have likewise been reported.

See also:

• Russification
• Anti-Romanian discrimination
• Elections in Transnistria
• List of political parties in Transnistria

Internal politics

Formally, Transnistria has a multi-party system and an unicameral parliament, called Transnistrian Supreme Soviet. The president is elected by popular vote. The latest parliamentary elections were held in December 2005, however they were not monitorized by international organizations such as OSCE and were not recognized by other countries. The candidates were insistently asked not to argue, to be united and not give to the Republic of Moldova any reason to criticise them.

History

Ancient history

Tyras was an ancient Greek colony of Miletus, probably founded about 600 BC, situated on mouth of the Dniestr river (Tyras). It fell under the dominion of native kings whose names appear on its coins, and it was destroyed by the Dacians about 50 BC. In AD 56 it has been restored by the Romans and henceforth formed part of the province of Lower Moesia.

From the Middle Ages to the 20th Century

In the early Middle Ages, Transnistria was populated by Slavic tribes of Ulichs and Tivertsy as well as by Turkic nomads such as Pechenegs and the Cumans. It was part of Kievan Rus' at times, and a formal part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th century. Northern Transnistria was part of the historical region of Podolia while the southern area, which came under the control of the Ottoman Empire in 1504, was part of what came to be known as Yedisan. The Ottoman portion was eventually ceded to the Russian Empire in 1792. At that time, the population was sparse and mostly Romanian/Moldavian and Ukrainian, but also included a nomadic Nogai Tatar population.

The end of the 18th century marked the Russian Empire's colonization of the region, with the aim of defending what was at the time the Imperial Russian southwestern border, as a result of which large migrations were encouraged into the region, including people of Ukrainian, Russian, and German ethnicity.

Autonomous Moldavian Republic in Soviet Ukraine

Romania annexed (August 19 1941 - January 29 1944) the whole "Transnistrian" region between Dniester, Bug rivers and Black Sea coast. The region was divided into 13 judeţe (counties).

In 1918 the Directory of Ukraine proclaimed the sovereignty of the Ukrainian People's Republic over the left bank of the Dniester. At that time, the population was 48% Ukrainian, 30% Romanian/Moldavian, 9% Russian, and 8.5% Jewish. One third of that region (around Balta, with a Ukrainian majority) belongs today to Ukraine. In 1922 the Ukrainian SSR was created, and in 1924 the region became part of the Moldavian ASSR within the Ukrainian SSR. Romanian speakers made up a significant portion of the population of the region and Romanian-language schools were opened.

World War II

The Moldavian SSR, which was set up by a decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on 2 August 1940, was formed from a part of Bessarabia taken from Romania on 28 June, following the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, where the majority of the population were Romanian speakers, and a strip of land on the left bank of the Dniester in the Ukrainian SSR, which was transferred to it in 1940.

In 1941, after Axis forces invaded Bessarabia in the course of the Second World War, they advanced over the Dniester river. Romania annexed the entire region between Dniester and Southern Bug rivers, including the city of Odessa, as Transnistria. By March 1943, a total of 185,000 Ukrainian and Romanian Jews had been deported and murdered under Romanian and German occupation of Transnistria. The Soviet Union regained the area in 1944 when the Soviet Army advanced into the territory driving out the Axis forces.

Soviet Moldova

The Moldovian SSR became the subject of a systematic policy of Russification, even more so than in Czarist times. Cyrillic was made the official script for Moldavian. It had an official status in the republic, together with Russian, which was the language of "interethnic communication".

Most industry that was built in the Moldavian SSR was concentrated in Transnistria, while the rest of Moldova had a predominantly agricultural economy. In 1990, Transnistria accounted for 40% of Moldova's GDP and 90% of its electricity production.

The 14th Soviet army had been based there since 1956 and was kept there after the fall of the Soviet Union to safeguard what is probably the biggest weapons stockpile and ammunition depot in Europe, which was set up in Soviet times for possible operations on the Southeastern Theater in the event of World War III. Russia was negotiating with the Republic of Moldova, Transnistria and Ukraine for transit rights to be able to evacuate the military materiel back to Russia. In 1984, the 14th Army headquarters were moved from Moldovan capital Chişinău to Tiraspol.

The breakaway

Main article: War of Transnistria

During the last years of the 1980s, the political landscape of the USSR was changing owing to Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of perestroika, which allowed political liberalisation at the regional level. The incomplete democratisation was preliminary for the exclusivist nationalism to become the most dynamic political force. Some national minorities opposed these changes in the Moldovan political class of the republic, since during Soviet times, local politics had often been dominated by non-Romanians, particularly by those of Russian origin. The language laws — introducing the Latin alphabet for written Moldovan — presented a particularly volatile issue as a great proportion of the non-Romanian population of the Moldavian SSR did not speak Moldovan. The problem of official languages in the Republic of Moldova has become a Gordian knot, being exaggerated and, perhaps, intentionally politicized. This displeasure with the new policies was manifested in a more visible way in Transnistria, where urban centers such as Tiraspol, had a Slavic majority. The scenes of protests against the central government of the republic were more acute here. According to the census in 1989, the population in Transnistria was 39,9% Moldovan, 28,3% Ukrainian, 25,4% Russian, 1,9% Bulgarian.

On 2 September 1990 the Moldovan Republic of Transnistria was proclaimed. On 25 August 1991 the Supreme Council of the MRT adopted the declaration of independence of the MRT. On 27 August 1991 the Moldovan Parliament adopted the Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Moldova, whose territory included Transnistria. The Moldovan Parliament asked the Government of the USSR "to begin negotiations with the Moldovan Government in order to put an end to the illegal occupation of the Republic of Moldova and withdraw Soviet troops from Moldovan territory".

After Moldova became a member of the United Nations (2 March 1992), Moldovan President Mircea Snegur (president from 1990 to 1996) authorized concerted military action against rebel forces which had been attacking loyal Moldovan police outposts on the left bank of the river Nistru, and on a smaller section of the right bank around the southern city of Tighina (Bender). The rebels, aided by contingents of Russian Cossacks and the Russian 14th Army, consolidated their control over most of the disputed area.

Forces of the 14th Army (which had owed allegiance to the USSR, CIS and the Russian Federation in turn) stationed in Transdistria, had fought with and on behalf of the Transnistrian separatist forces. The separatists were able to arm themselves with weapons taken from the stores of the former 14th Army. The Russian 14th Army's role in the area was crucial to the outcome of the war. The Moldovan army was in a position of inferiority which prevented it from regaining control of Transnistria. A cease-fire agreement was signed on 21 July 1992.

Aftermath

Infantry vehicles on the disputed bridge between Tiraspol and Tighina

Even after the ceasefire agreement, Russia had continued to provide military, political and economic support to the separatist regime, thus enabling it to survive by strengthening itself and by acquiring a certain amount of autonomy vis-à-vis Moldova. General Aleksandr Lebed, commander of the Russian Operational Group (formerly Russian 14th Army) since June 1992, acted as a Transnistrian politician, said many times that his army was able to reach Bucharest in two hours. Although only some 2,600 troops of the Russian 14th Army still remain in the forces of the operational group, their presence has been used by Russia as an instrument of influence over the region. In the security zone controlled by the Russian peacekeeping forces, the MRT regime continued to deploy its troops illegally and to manufacture and sell weapons in breach of the agreement of 21 July 1992. In February 2003, the USA and EU imposed visa restrictions against the Transnistrian leadership. Also Moldovan and Ukrainian authorities share an interest in a resolution of the crisis within the framework of Moldovan sovereignty and in the removal of Russian forces from the region.^[1] OSCE is trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement and has had an observer mission in place for several years. The Russian army was still stationed in Moldovan territory in breach of the undertakings to withdraw them completely given by Russia at the OSCE summits in 1999 and 2001.

The agreement to withdraw all Russian forces was signed in 1994, but while the number of troops decreased, an immense stockpile of ammunition and equipment remained. The arsenal of the former 14th Army consists of 49,476 firearms, 805 artillery guns, 4,000 cars, and 655 units of various military equipment, which is enough to arm four rifle divisions.^[2] The military equipment and the remaining forces coupled with Moldova's dependency on Russian natural gas and electric energy are clear signs of the country's limited sovereignty. Eventually, Russia declared to unconditionally withdraw all the forces from Moldova by the end of 2002 during the OSCE Istanbul summit in November 1999. Since Boris Yeltsin placed the 14th Army under his direct control, the Russian authorities were a party to every significant document signed by Moldova and Transnistria. While the Istanbul declaration is a binding commitment within the OSCE framework, Vladimir Putin backtracked and stated in June 2000 that Russia would only 'try' to withdraw its troops from Transnistria. He also appointed Yevgeny Primakov, the former prime minister and architect of the 1997 memorandum, as the head the commission to resolve the crisis, which only led to increased anxiety among Moldovan politicians. Consequently, Russian policy regarding the obligation to withdraw its military forces has returned to its pre-Istanbul position. ^[3]

The Kozak Memorandum

In July 2002, OSCE, Russian, and Ukrainian mediators approved a document setting forth a blueprint for reuniting Moldova under a federal system. Fundamental disagreements over the division of powers remained, and a settlement proved elusive.

In mid-November 2003, Russia suddenly tabled a detailed memorandum providing the most detailed proposal to date for a constitution of a united asymmetric federal Moldavian state with an attached key proposal to locate a Russian military base on Moldavian soil for the next 20 years [4]. First published in Russian on the website of Transnistria's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the text was promoted by Dmitry Kozak, a senior figure on President Putin's staff. The Kozak memorandum represented a break with the Transnistria leadership's long-held position that Transnistria should have equal status with the rest of Moldova.

For the federal Moldova it was proposed that the competences of government be divided into three categories: those of the federation, those of the subjects and those of joint competences. The plan presented several issues risking to cause blockage in policy-making. A lower house, elected by proportional representation, would pass legislation by simple majority. All laws would also need the assent of the senate, however, whose representation would be highly disproportionate with respect to population figures: 13 senators elected by the federal lower house, 9 by Transnistria and 4 by Gagauzia. According to the 1989 census, Transnistria has 14% and Gagauzia 3.5% of Moldova's total population. By this plan, Transnistria would be an outright blocking minority.

Large demonstrations against the Kozak memorandum took place in Chişinău in the days following the publication of the Russian proposals. Moldova's leadership refused the signing of this memorandum without the coordination with the European organizations. A visit by President Putin to Moldova was cancelled. Later in 2005 on a preconference Moldavian president Vladimir Voronin made a statement that 2003 Kozak memorandum was rejected due to a contradiction with Moldavian constitution which defines Moldova as a neutral state and could not allow any foreign troops on its soil, while the country cannot join military alliances. Moldova and the Kozak memorandum was a key issue at the OSCE ministerial meeting in Maastricht in December 2003, and disagreement between Russia on the one hand and the EU and the US on the other on Moldova was one of the principal reasons why a final joint declaration was not adopted after the meeting.

2004 crisis

Roughly 11,200 children out of 79,000 Transnistrian schoolchildren are educated in the Moldovan language using Cyrillic script.

In the summer of 2004, the Transnistrian authorities forcibly closed six schools that taught the language using the Latin script. A number of the 3,400 enrolled children were affected by this measure. Several teachers and parents who opposed the closures were arrested. During the crisis, the Moldovan government decided to create a blockade that would isolate the autonomous republic from the rest of the country. The blockade was ineffective because of a lack of cooperation from Ukraine's government. Transnistria retaliated by a series of actions meant to destabilize the economic situation in Moldova, in particular, by cutting the power supply from the power plants that were built predominantly in Transnistria in Soviet times. As a result, this crisis generated power outages in parts of Moldova.

The closed schools were reopened but they still have the status of "non-governmental educational institutions".

Ukraine-sponsored talks

In May, 2005, the Ukrainian government of Viktor Yushchenko proposed a seven-point plan by which the separation of Transnistria and Moldova would be settled through a negotiated settlement and free elections. Under the plan, Transnistria would remain an autonomous region of Moldova. The United States, the EU and the MRT expressed some level of agreement with the project. In July, Ukraine opened five new customs posts on the Transnistria-Ukraine border. The posts, staffed by both Moldovan and Ukrainian officials, are intended to reduce the hitherto high incidence of smuggling between the breakaway state and its neighbors.

Human rights

File:Pro russian propaganda igor smirnov.jpg

Pro Russian election propaganda during 2001 presidential election in Transnistria.

The Republic of Moldova, as well as other foreign states and NGO's claim that the separatist government of Transnistria is authoritarian and has a poor human rights record, and is accused of arbitrary arrest and torture. Some organizations claim that the right of free assembly or association is not fully respected and that religious freedom is limited by withholding registration of religious groups, such as Baptists or Methodists.

The 2001 presidential elections were not considered free by some analysts and observers. Critics of the past elections claim that some parties and publications were banned just before the elections, and that the results were suspicious, as in some regions it was reported that Igor Smirnov collected 103.6 percent of the votes.

The Republic of Moldova also accuses the MRT administration of organizing incursions into left-bank villages controlled by the Moldovan government such as Vasilevca, which they claim also result in arbitrary arrests, beatings and sometimes even death.

There is a reference to harsh prisons in Transnistria in a US state department report [5]. The trafficking of women is a serious problem in Moldova and Transnistria, both women from Moldova and Transnistria and women transported through from other countries. [6] [7] [8] [9]

In the case of Ilaşcu and Others v. Moldova and Russia (2004), the European Court of Human Rights held unanimously that Moldova and Russia are to take all necessary measures to put an end to the arbitrary detention of Ilie Ilaşcu Group members, Andrei Ivanţoc and Tudor Petrov-Popa, still imprisoned in Transnistria. Ilie Ilaşcu was arrested, together with four other persons, at their homes in Tiraspol in early days of June 1992. They were subsequently charged with the murder of two "civil servants" and terrorist crimes against the MRT. It has been alleged that the real reason for their imprisonment was their political association or their lack of support for Transnistria.

Population

At the last census of 1989, the population was 546,400.

Recently, there has been a substantial emigration from the region due to economic hardships of the 1990s. This is one of the reasons why a disproportionately large part of the population is past the age of retirement.

File:Transnistria ethnicity.jpg

Ethnicity map, made by the Transnistrian officals, according to the 2004 census

Ethnicity

1989 census

• Total population on the left bank of the Nistru River (minus Tighina): 546,400
• Total population in raions mostly on the left bank of the Nistru River (minus Tighina): 600,700
• (note that percentages below are given from the second figure)

• Moldavians : 40%
• Ukrainians: 28%
• Russians: 24%
• Others: 8%

2004 census

• Total population (including Tighina): 555.500
• Total population (minus Tighina): est. at 425.000 - 477.000
• (note that percentages below are given from the first figure)

• Moldavians: 31.9%
• Russians: 30.3%
• Ukrainians: 28.8%

• Note: in less than 15 years, the moldovan population decreased from 41% to 32% of the total population

Economy

The GDP is about $420 million [10] and the GDP per capita, based on the exchange rate, is $662, making the area slightly poorer than Moldova, and possibly the poorest region in Europe.

Reports of visitors to Transnistria have confirmed that the average salary of a Transnistrian does not exceed $20-$40. Although the population of the republic was 555,500 in 2004, it is estimated that about 375,000 people actually reside in the region since the rest are usually working abroad.

The region has a number of factories, although some only possess older technology. One is a munitions factory in Tighina (Bender) while another important steel factory exists in Rîbniţa (Rybnitsa). The factory in Rîbniţa brings about 50% of the republic's revenue and is the main provider of jobs in that city.

Another important factory is the distillery "Kvint" of Tiraspol, famous for its strong spirits, which is also shown on the 5 Transnistrian ruble banknote.

An important company in the republic is Sheriff, which is owned by president Smirnov's eldest son. Sheriff controls an important part of the Transnistrian economy, owning a chain of supermarkets, a chain of petrol stations, a TV channel, the FC Sheriff Tiraspol football team and its newly constructed stadium.

Crime

Since partition, Transnistria has served as a haven for smugglers and traffickers in fuels, arms, and other contraband. Recently, a cache of 70 surface-to-air missile launchers disappeared from a former Soviet stockpile and officials are unable to account for their whereabouts. The government of Ukraine, which had long been seen as assisting in this illegal trade, had recently taken steps to prevent smuggling along its border by opening new customs posts and forming internal anti-smuggling squads.

In 2005, a reporter of British newspaper The Sunday Times impersonating a middleman for an Islamic terrorist group obtained a deal for an Alazan rocket and a radioactive warhead for $200,000. Moldovan authorities declared that 38 such dirty bombs are found in Transnistria, of which three are in the hands of the separatists and the rest are kept by the Russian army.

Administrative regions

Russian names are listed in parentheses.

• Camenca (Каменка), also Kamenka
• Dubăsari (Дубоссары), also Dubossary
• Grigoriopol (Григориополь)
• Rîbniţa (Рыбница), also Rybnitsa
• Slobozia (Слободзея)
• Tiraspol (Тирасполь)
• Tighina (Бендеры), also Bender or Bendery

References

1. ^ Oleksandr Pavliuk, Ivanna Klympush-Tsintsadze, The Black Sea Region: Cooperation and Security Building, EastWest Institute, ISBN 0765612259
2. ^ Janusz Bugajski, Toward an Understanding of Russia: New European Perspectives, ISBN 0876093101, page 102
3. ^ James Hughes, Gwendolyn Sasse, Ethnicity and Territory in the Former Soviet Union, Regions in conflict. Routledge Ed. ISBN 0714652261, page 114-115
4. ^ Gur Ofer, Richard Pomfret, Economic Prospects of the CIS - Sources of Long Term Growth, Edward Elgar Ed., ISBN 1843766159
5. ^ Foreign Broadcast Information Service - Soviet Union, Oct. 24, 2000.
6. ^ Alina Mungiu-Pippidi, Ivan Krastev, Nationalism After Communism Lessons Learned, ISBN 9639241768, page 152
7. ^ Graeme Herd, Jennifer Moroney, Security Dynamics in the Former Soviet Bloc, ISBN 041529732X, page 148

Bibliography

1. "Radioactive rockets 'for sale' in breakaway Soviet republic" - The Sunday Times, May 8, 2005
2. "Transnistria: alegeri nerecunoscute" - Ziua, December 13, 2005
3. U.S. Department of State: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices
4. Transnistria: relic of a bygone era (newspaper article from The Japan Times mirrored at archive.org)
5. BBC - Regions and territories: Trans-Dniester
6. Former Soviet war zones|The hazards of a long, hard freeze (The Economist, 19 August 2004)
7. Flying the Red-and-Green Flag (Russia Profile, 7 september 2005)
8. "Misery in a pariah state", BBC, April 1 2004

External links

Independent side

• Transnistrian war in pictures
• The decision in Ilascu and others v. Moldova and Russia
• The Plan for the Transnistrian Conflict Settlement Proposed by Ukraine
• OSCE Mission to Moldova
• Eurojournal.org
• Council of Europe: Frozen conflicts

Moldavian side

• Moldova Azi: News from Moldova
• Interlic News Agency
• BASA-press News Agency

Transnistrian side

• Olvia-Press: The information agency of Transnistria
• Armed conflict in and around the city of Bendery
• Constitutional Court of the Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublika
• MRT Presidential website
• Transdniestria English language voice of Transdniestria

Others (in Romanian language)

• Totul despre Transnistria I (ro)
• Totul despre Transnistria II (ro)
• Totul despre Transnistria III (ro)
• Totul despre Transnistria IV (ro)
• Totul despre Transnistria (ro)