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==Varna Classification==
==Varna Classification==
The [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] system of [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanic]] ritual ranking never really took hold in South Indian society. The two intermediate [[dvija]] varnas—the Kshatriyas<ref name="Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume 4">{{cite book|first=Edgar|last= Thurston|year=1909|title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume 4|publisher=Government Press|location=Madras|volume=4|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42994/42994-h/42994-h.htm}}:”In the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is recorded that “the term Kshatriya is, of course, wholly inapplicable to the Dravidian races, who might with as much, perhaps more, accuracy call themselves Turks.”</ref> and Vaishyas—did not exist. There were essentially three classes: Brahmin, non-Brahmin and Dalit.<ref>{{citation |title=Varna Schemes and Ideological Integration in Indian Society |first=Richard G. |last=Fox |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=11 |number=1 |date=January 1969 |pages=27–45 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500005132}}: "When recognition of a regional ''varna'' scheme has been unavoidable—such as the tripartite division into Brahmins, non-Brahmins, and Untouchables in much of the South— it has been explained in terms of an historical corruption or breakdown of the standard four-class system, rather than regarded as a functional entity in its own right."</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Ayesha |last=Jalal |title=Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=mHPok4epvlIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=democracy+and+authoritarianism+in+south+asia+ayesha+jalal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjqlauBp-vuAhW0FLcAHQEGCe8Q6AEwAHoECAEQAg#v=snippet&q=South%20india&f=false |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-47862-5 |page=204}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Jean Alphonse |last=Bernard |title=From Raj to the Republic: A Political History of India, 1935–2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dP9tAAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Har Anand Publications |page=37|isbn=9788124107669 }}</ref><ref name="isbn_978-0-521-22692-9 pages 27-28">{{cite book |first1=Tapan |last1=Raychaudhuri |first2=Irfan |last2=Habib |author-link2=Irfan Habib |first3=Dharma |last3=Kumar |title=The Cambridge Economic History of India: c.1200–c.1750 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 |year=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press Archive |isbn=978-0-521-22692-9 |pages=27–28}}</ref><ref name="Dirks 2001 205">{{cite book |last=Dirks |first=Nicholas B.|date=2001|title=Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lekITKy2rd4C&dq=castes+of+mind&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi2yI-6sevuAhXS7HMBHfmICDkQ6AEwAnoECAMQAg|location=Princeton, New Jersey|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=205}}:”Aside from Brahmans and Rajputs, few actual caste groups could be readily correlated with varna distinctions and few of these castes could be found across wide parts of India. Dominant caste groups in most regions were specific to those regions, as for example the Marathas of Bombay, the Vellalars of Madras, and the Vokkaligas of Mysore. Even the assumption that occupational differentiation provided both the most ready key to caste distinction and the most usable measure of caste significance for imperial purposes flew in the face of the recognition that formal caste titles only rarely indicated true occupation”</ref> Vokkaligas fell into the non-Brahmin class.

The Vokkaligas along with other ruling castes like Bunts, Kammas and Nairs were classified as “Upper shudra"/"Sat shudra" under the varna system.<ref name="Gundimeda">{{Cite book|last=Gundimeda|first=Sambaiah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjjbCgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA19&dq=kammas+sat-shudra&hl=en|title=Dalit Politics in Contemporary India|date=2015-10-14|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-38105-1|pages=19|language=en}}</ref><ref name="isbn_978-0-521-22692-9 pages 27-28"/> This ritual status was not accepted by the Vokkaligas<ref name="Heitzman 2004 32"/> and was misleading<ref>{{cite book |last=Dirks |first=Nicholas B.|date=2001|title=Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lekITKy2rd4C&dq=castes+of+mind&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi2yI-6sevuAhXS7HMBHfmICDkQ6AEwAnoECAMQAg|location=Princeton, New Jersey|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=203}}:”Varna was evacuated of meaning and utility even as it seemed the obvious ordering principle. In order to deal with the pitfalls of varna, Waterfield attempted a desultory inven- tory of different important castes in discrete regions of India. He mentions the Babhans of Behar, the Kayasths of Bengal, the Buniyas across India, the Chandals of eastern Bengal, the Aheers and Chamars of the Northwest and of Oudh, the Koormees of Bengal and the Central Provinces, the Wakkaleegas of Mysore, and, from Madras, the Vellalars, Chetties, and Vunniars. Waterfield complained that the use of occupations in Madras was invariably misleading, as it “must not be supposed that even a majority of any particular caste now follow the occupation according to which they are thus arranged.”</ref><ref name="Dirks 2001 205"/> as historically, dominant land-holding castes like the Vokkaligas, Vellalars and Reddys belonged to the ruling classes<ref>{{cite book |last=Prasad|first=S.Shyam |date=2018|title=Enigmas of Karnataka: Mystery meets History|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=d-NIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62&dq=Enigmas+of+Karnataka+Division+on+Caste+lines&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9tvr-2OvuAhV78HMBHV_DCbQQ6AEwAHoECAMQAg#v=onepage&q=Enigmas%20of%20Karnataka%20Division%20on%20Caste%20lines&f=false|location=Chennai|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=9781642491227}}:”In the 17th Century, Chikkadevaraja created the Urs caste and classified it into 31 clans. Of these, 13 clans were deemed superior, while the remaining 18 were placed lower in the hierarchy. This latter comprised ruling families in the domain he was rapidly expanding. The most populous caste in this region, the Gowdas (the caste name Vokkaliga was later affixed to it during the British Census), clearly had more families in the ruling classes.”</ref><ref name="Gundimeda"/><ref name="Stein 1990 82–83, 96–97"/> and were analogous to the [[Kshatriyas]] of the Brahmanical society.<ref name="Gundimeda"/><ref name="Ludden 1999 91,198,205"/><ref name="Stein 1980 131, 448–449"/><ref name="Prasad 2018"/>
The Vokkaligas along with other ruling castes like Bunts, Kammas and Nairs were classified as “Upper shudra"/"Sat shudra" under the varna system.<ref name="Gundimeda">{{Cite book|last=Gundimeda|first=Sambaiah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjjbCgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA19&dq=kammas+sat-shudra&hl=en|title=Dalit Politics in Contemporary India|date=2015-10-14|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-38105-1|pages=19|language=en}}</ref><ref name="isbn_978-0-521-22692-9 pages 27-28"/> This ritual status was not accepted by the Vokkaligas<ref name="Heitzman 2004 32"/> and was misleading<ref>{{cite book |last=Dirks |first=Nicholas B.|date=2001|title=Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lekITKy2rd4C&dq=castes+of+mind&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi2yI-6sevuAhXS7HMBHfmICDkQ6AEwAnoECAMQAg|location=Princeton, New Jersey|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=203}}:”Varna was evacuated of meaning and utility even as it seemed the obvious ordering principle. In order to deal with the pitfalls of varna, Waterfield attempted a desultory inven- tory of different important castes in discrete regions of India. He mentions the Babhans of Behar, the Kayasths of Bengal, the Buniyas across India, the Chandals of eastern Bengal, the Aheers and Chamars of the Northwest and of Oudh, the Koormees of Bengal and the Central Provinces, the Wakkaleegas of Mysore, and, from Madras, the Vellalars, Chetties, and Vunniars. Waterfield complained that the use of occupations in Madras was invariably misleading, as it “must not be supposed that even a majority of any particular caste now follow the occupation according to which they are thus arranged.”</ref><ref name="Dirks 2001 205"/> as historically, dominant land-holding castes like the Vokkaligas, Vellalars and Reddys belonged to the ruling classes<ref>{{cite book |last=Prasad|first=S.Shyam |date=2018|title=Enigmas of Karnataka: Mystery meets History|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=d-NIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62&dq=Enigmas+of+Karnataka+Division+on+Caste+lines&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9tvr-2OvuAhV78HMBHV_DCbQQ6AEwAHoECAMQAg#v=onepage&q=Enigmas%20of%20Karnataka%20Division%20on%20Caste%20lines&f=false|location=Chennai|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=9781642491227}}:”In the 17th Century, Chikkadevaraja created the Urs caste and classified it into 31 clans. Of these, 13 clans were deemed superior, while the remaining 18 were placed lower in the hierarchy. This latter comprised ruling families in the domain he was rapidly expanding. The most populous caste in this region, the Gowdas (the caste name Vokkaliga was later affixed to it during the British Census), clearly had more families in the ruling classes.”</ref><ref name="Gundimeda"/><ref name="Stein 1990 82–83, 96–97"/> and were analogous to the [[Kshatriyas]] of the Brahmanical society.<ref name="Gundimeda"/><ref name="Ludden 1999 91,198,205"/><ref name="Stein 1980 131, 448–449"/><ref name="Prasad 2018"/>


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Vokkaliga (also transliterated as Vokkaligar, Vakkaliga, Wakkaliga, Okkaligar, Okkiliyan) is a community, or a group of closely-related communities, from the Indian state of Karnataka. They are also present in the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu.[1]

As a community of warriors[2] and cultivators[3] they have historically had notable demographic, political, and economic dominance in Old Mysore (region).[4][5][6][7] The Vokkaligas occupied administrative positions in the Vijaynagar Empire.[8][9][6] They had the most families in the ruling classes of the 17th century when the Arasu caste of the Wodeyars was created to exclude them.[10][11][12][13] They were also heavily recruited into the Kingdom of Mysore’s army and militia.[14] They have produced one Indian prime minister and seven Karnataka chief ministers till date. The Vokkaligas formed the landed-gentry[15][16] and warrior class[2] of Karnataka.[17][8][3]

Most sections of the community are designated as forward castes by the central government of India. While others (particularly the rural communities), are designated as other backward castes by the Karnataka State Government reservation system.[18]

Etymology

Vokkaliga is a Kannada-language word found in some of the earliest available literary works of the language, such as the Kavirajamarga, Pampa Bharata, and Mangaraja's Nighantu. It has been used as an appellation for the cultivator community since time immemorial.[19][page needed][need quotation to verify] Generally, the term has come to mean an agriculturist though various etymological derivations are available, including:

Kempe Gowda I chieftain under the Vijayanagara Empire. The city of Bengaluru was founded by Kempe Gowda in 1537.
  • The word okka or okkalu is a Kannada word for a family or a clan[20][page needed] and an okkaliga is a person belonging to such a family.[19][page needed] This is an allusion to the totemistic exogamous clans which together form an endogamous sub group, of which there are many amongst the Vokkaligas. These clans are called Bali, Bedagu, Kutumba, Gotra or simply Okkalu all of which mean family. They are named after their progenitor, primary occupation or in most cases after various birds, animals or objects.[21][page needed]
  • Okkalutana in Kannada means agriculture[20]
  • Alternate etymologies include okku, which means "threshing" in Kannada, and Vokkaliga means someone from a family that threshes[20]

The Kannada linguist Shamba Joshi and others propose a derivation from the Sanskrit - gau (cow) and govala (keeper of Gau/Cow)(Govala->Goula->Gowda).[22] Moreover, though the Vokkaligas did practise animal husbandry, the traditional herdsmen community, Kurubas, form a separate caste group.[23]

Subgroups

The term Vokkaliga was used to refer to Canarese cultivators. Vokkaliga community has several sub-groups within its fold such as Gangadikara,Morasu, Kunchitiga, Halikkar(Palikkar) Vokkaliga, Reddy Vokkaliga,[24][25][26][18] Gounder,[24]Tulu Gowda.[25][26][27] etc.[24]

Exogamy at the family/clan level is strictly controlled by using the idiom of Mane Devaru (the patron god of the given exogamic clan) which dictates that the followers of same Mane Devaru are siblings and marriage is thus forbidden, allowing marital alliances only with another clan and not within.[28][need quotation to verify]

Gangadikara Vokkaliga

The Gangadikara Vokkaligas, also known as the Gangatkar[19][29] With various theories on the origins of the Gangas, this is hard to prove but some scholars do opine that the Gangas were local chieftains who ascertained their power and rose to dominance during the political unrest caused in South India after the invasion of Samudragupta I. It is however, a fact that the administrative setup of Gangas vested power, at various levels of administration and apart from administrative duties the Gauda was expected to raise militia when called for.[30] The Gangadikaras and the Kongu Vellalars are said to share a common origin and they regard themselves Ganga Kshatriyas. In fact, the word Kongu is the Tamil equivalent for Ganga. There is a significant number of Gounders in Kollegal and T. Narsipur in Chamarajanagar.[23][page needed]

The Gangadikara Vokkaligas have as many as 40 kulas, exogamous clans, known in Kannada as Bedagu.[28][page needed][31]

Morasu Vokkaliga

According to Burton Stein the region of modern-day Bangalore and Tumkur districts was known as Morasu Nadu, dominated by Morasu vokkaligas, who seemed to have been telugu migrants to the area in the fourteenth century.[32] In fact Hosur which borders Bangalore claims to have been called Murasu Nadu during the Sangam Age[33] and has a significant population of Morasu Vokkaligas.

The four main sub-divisions being the Musuku, Hosadevru (Beralu), Palyadasime and Morasu proper which is again divided into three lines called Salu viz. Kanu salu, Nerlegattada salu, Kutera salu. The Musuku sect is so-called because the bride wears a veil or 'Musuku' during the wedding ceremony.[23]

Although Morasu Vokkaligas are a sub-section of the Vokkaliga community, they are not a fully-defined caste as they can intermarry with other sections. Polygamy is rare, and child marriage was rare. Marriage is done outside bedagu lines, and marriage with a maternal uncle or paternal aunt or elder sister is especially promoted. In most cases, a younger sister's daughter is not married except in unusual cases. Varase, which regulates marriage between those considered analogous to parent and child or brother and sister, is also observed.

After consulting the astrologer, the two families meet for the first ceremony called Oppu-vilya: where the groom's father goes to the bride's house and receives food from them. On the next day, the Vilyada shastra occurs, where the groom's family presents new clothes and jewels to the bride's family. Placing a simhasana on a kambli and taking a kalasha, puja is done to this setup and the bride-to-be is smeared with saffron and presented with fruits and flowers. Marriage letters, called lagnapatrikas, are then exchanged between the families. On the first day, mooladarshina is done where the kuladevata is worshipped and the bride and bridgroom are smeared with arshna. The Pandal is raised next with atti or nerale wood, unless either's bedagu is one of the aforementioned woods. In the ceremony called elevara, another twig of nerale wood is tied to the main post. The bride's party arrives in the evening, and women of both families worship a pot filled with 9 types of grain in karaga puja. In some families, the bridegroom goes to an intersection of three paths and offers cooked food to a human figure then leaves silently without looking back. This biragudi is meant to appease evil spirits.

The next day, the bridegroom goes to the temple or an Aswhata tree and sits while his maternal uncle ties a bhasinga on his forehead and 5 married women pour rice on his head, shoulders and knees. The bridegroom and his party then go in procession to the bride's house 3 times, with the bridegroom only coming at the least time. They are then seated opposite each other, and the two exchange kanakanas and then the groom puts the thali over his bride's head. In the evening, they worship an anthill and take dirt from it and place balls at the bottom of 12 pillars of the pandal. At the Nagavali ceremony the next day, a lime and jewel are placed in a pot in front of the couple. It is said whoever picks up the jewel will be more important in domestic life, and the kanakanas are taken off. Finally there is a simhasina puja, where a trishula is drawn with areca nuts and betel leaves in the middle and ash at the edges. The headman of the caste now does puja to a group of beings in order of precedence. They then return to the bride's house (tiruvali) and throw a feast (maravali). A bride price is also paid. Divorce is allowed for both men and women, but divorced women can't remarry but live in concubinage only.

The community celebrates Osige, or the puberty function.

Kempe Gowda

The ancestors of Kempe Gowda I of the Yelahanka Nadaprabhus are recorded to be Chiefs who migrated to these districts from Alur of Kanchi around the 15th century[34] under Rana Bhaire Gowda, who built the fort at Devanahalli.[35][full citation needed] This fort would remain in their family for 3 centuries, until it was conquered by Mysore in 1749. Bhaire Gowda founded other forts at Palyapet and Doddaballapur. Other leaders of the community were in Hoskote, Kolar, Anekal and Koratagere who were subdued by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan in the 18th century, and some received pensions after Tipu's defeat and the Wodeyar restoration.

Kunchitiga Vokkaliga

Kunchitigas are concentrated mostly in Tumkur, Chitradurga and the cities of Bangalore and Mysore. They are also found in Salem, Coimbatore and Theni districts of Tamil Nadu.[36][37]

Namadhari Vokkaligas

The Namadhari Vokkaliga is the oldest and largest Vokkaliga sub-group.[19]

Hallikkar Vokkaliga

Hallikkar Vokkaligas or Pallikar Vokkaligas are a subsect of Vokkaligas. Halikkar is often confused with the Halakki Vokkaligas of North Karnataka who are distinct from and not a sub-sect of Vokkaligas.[38]

Varna Classification

The varna system of Brahmanic ritual ranking never really took hold in South Indian society. The two intermediate dvija varnas—the Kshatriyas[39] and Vaishyas—did not exist. There were essentially three classes: Brahmin, non-Brahmin and Dalit.[40][41][42][43][44] Vokkaligas fell into the non-Brahmin class.

The Vokkaligas along with other ruling castes like Bunts, Kammas and Nairs were classified as “Upper shudra"/"Sat shudra" under the varna system.[2][43] This ritual status was not accepted by the Vokkaligas[13] and was misleading[45][44] as historically, dominant land-holding castes like the Vokkaligas, Vellalars and Reddys belonged to the ruling classes[46][2][8] and were analogous to the Kshatriyas of the Brahmanical society.[2][9][17][10]

Economy

Before the 20th century, Vokkaligas were mainly involved in agriculture. They, along with the Lingayats, owned most of the cultivated land in the state and made up 27% of the population. Therefore they were considered "dominant-majority" communities. [47]

See also

References

  1. ^ V.T, Sundaramurthy (2007). "The Genesis, Divisions, Movement and Transformation of Okkaligar Community" (PDF). The Anthropologist. 9 (4): 305–313. doi:10.1080/09720073.2007.11891017. S2CID 74219783.
  2. ^ a b c d e Gundimeda, Sambaiah (14 October 2015). Dalit Politics in Contemporary India. Routledge. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-317-38105-1.
  3. ^ a b Ludden, David (1999). An Agrarian History of South Asia (The New Cambridge History of India). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 91. ISBN 9781139053396.
  4. ^ Robert, Bruce L. (1982). Agrarian organization and resource distribution in South India: Bellary District 1800-1979. University of Wisconsin--Madison. p. 88.
  5. ^ K, Seshadri (April–June 1988). "TOWARDS UNDERSTANDING THE POLITICAL CULTURE OF SOUTH INDIA". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 49 (2): 231–267.
  6. ^ a b (social activist.), Saki (1998). Making History: Stone age to mercantilism, Volume 1 of Making History: Karnataka's People and Their Past. Bangalore: Vimukthi Prakashana. p. 311.
  7. ^ "Born to be a force to reckon with". DNA India. 26 April 2010. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  8. ^ a b c Stein, Burton (1990). The New Cambridge History of India:Vijayanagara. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 82–83, 96–97. ISBN 9781139055611.
  9. ^ a b Ludden, David (1999). An Agrarian History of South Asia (The New Cambridge History of India). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 91,198,205. ISBN 9781139053396.
  10. ^ a b Prasad, S.Shyam (2018). Enigmas of Karnataka: Mystery meets History. Chennai: Notion Press. ISBN 9781642491227.:”In the 17th Century, Chikkadevaraja created the Urs caste and classified it into 31 clans. Of these, 13 clans were deemed superior, while the remaining 18 were placed lower in the hierarchy. This latter comprised ruling families in the domain he was rapidly expanding. The most populous caste in this region, the Gowdas (the caste name Vokkaliga was later affixed to it during the British Census), clearly had more families in the ruling classes. But that did not deter Chikkadevaraja from omitting them from the new caste of 'Urs' that he had created.”
  11. ^ Ikegame, Aya (7 May 2013). Princely India Re-imagined: A Historical Anthropology of Mysore from 1799 to ... Routledge. pp. 76–77.
  12. ^ Ikegame, Aya (2007). Royalty in Colonial and Post-Colonial India: A Historical Anthropology of Mysore from 1799 to the present (PhD). University of Edinburgh. p. 77-78,99-100.
  13. ^ a b Heitzman, James (2004). Network City: Planning the Information Society in Bangalore. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 9780195666069.:”The royal house came from an extremely small group, the Arasus (Urs), which claimed warrior (Kshatriya) status but were viewed by the state’s two largest landowning castes, the Lingayats and the Vokkaligas, as an inferior cowherd (Yadava) caste.”
  14. ^ (social activist.), Saki (1998). Making History: Stone age to mercantilism, Volume 1 of Making History: Karnataka's People and Their Past. p. 420,536.
  15. ^ Report of the second backward classes commission. Vol. 3. Bangalore: Government of Karnataka. 1986. p. 48.: “Vokkaligas are the landed gentry and the agriculturist caste of Karnataka.”
  16. ^ (social activist.), Saki (1998). Making History: Stone age to mercantilism, Volume 1 of Making History: Karnataka's People and Their Past. Bangalore: Vimukthi Prakashana. p. 173,311,431.
  17. ^ a b Stein, Burton (1980). Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 131, 448–449.
  18. ^ a b "PDF - National OBC list for Karnataka" (PDF).
  19. ^ a b c d Dr. Ambalike Hiriyanna (1999). Malenadina Vaishnava Okkaligara Samskruti. Kannada Pustaka Pradhikara, Government of Karnataka.
  20. ^ a b c Kannada Nighantu. Kannada Sahitya Parishat, Bangalore. 1970.
  21. ^ Ferreira, John Vincent (1965). Totemism in India. Oxford University Press.
  22. ^ Dr. Ganapati Gowda (2011). Grama Okkaligara Samsrutika Ananyate Mattu Samakaleena Sandarbhagalu. Kannad University, Hampi.
  23. ^ a b c Dr. Suryanath. V. Kamath (1988). Karnataka State Gazetteer. Government Press, Bangalore.
  24. ^ a b c Report of the Second Backward Classes Commission. Vol. 3. Bangalore: Government of Karnataka. 1986. p. 48-49.:”'Okkalu' means cultivation or agriculture. The main sub-divisions are 'Morasu Vokkaliga', 'Ganga- dikara Vokkaliga', Kudu Vokkaliga, Kunchitiga, Hallikar(Pallikar) Vokkaliga, Namdhari Vokkaliga, Reddy Vokkaliga, Telugu Vokkaliga, Sarpa Vokkaliga, Uppinakolagada Vokkaliga, Mustiku Vokkaliga, Kapu Vokkaliga, Pakanatha Reddy Vokkaliga, Nadashetty Vokkaliga, Gowdas, Gounder and Vokkaliga Hegde.”
  25. ^ a b Balfour, Edward (1885). The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia. Vol. 2. Graz, Austria: Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt. p. 261.
  26. ^ a b Lindsay, Alexander William Crawford (1874). Report on the Mysore General Census of 1871. Vol. 2–10. Mysore: Mysore Government Press. p. 72.
  27. ^ Lindsay, A.W.C (1874). Report on the Coorg General Census of 1871, with Appendices. Kodagu: Mysore Government Press. p. 26.
  28. ^ a b Banerjee, Bhavani (1966). Marriage and kinship of the Gangadikara vokkaligas of Mysore. Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Inst. p. 31. OCLC 833158967.
  29. ^ E.Stanley (1962). Economic Development and Social Change in South India. University of Manchester Press, Manchester.
  30. ^ B.Sheik Ali (1976). History of the Western Gangas. University Of Mysore.
  31. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  32. ^ Burton Stein (1987). Vijayanagara. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York. p. 82. ISBN 9780521266932.
  33. ^ "Krishnagiri District Website". Krishnagiri.tn.nic.in. 9 February 2004. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
  34. ^ Stein, Burton (1990). The New Cambridge History of India:Vijayanagara. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 82. ISBN 9781139055611.
  35. ^ Phalaksha (1999). Introduction to Karnataka History. Shashi Prakashana, Tumkur.
  36. ^ Thurston, Edgar (1909). Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume 5. Vol. 5. Madras: Government Press.
  37. ^ Nanjundayya, H.V; Iyer, L.K Ananthakrishna (1931). The Mysore Tribes and Castes. Mysore: The Mysore University. p. 17.
  38. ^ Report of the Second Backward Classes Commission. Vol. 3. Bangalore: Government of Karnataka. 1986. p. 38.:”Halwakki Wakkal is an agricultural class, who are relatively poor. Gam Vokkalu, Kare Vokkalu and Atte Vokkalu are grouped under this. They mainly live in North Kanara District and are distinct from Vokkaligas.”
  39. ^ Thurston, Edgar (1909). Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume 4. Vol. 4. Madras: Government Press.:”In the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is recorded that “the term Kshatriya is, of course, wholly inapplicable to the Dravidian races, who might with as much, perhaps more, accuracy call themselves Turks.”
  40. ^ Fox, Richard G. (January 1969), "Varna Schemes and Ideological Integration in Indian Society", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 11 (1): 27–45, doi:10.1017/S0010417500005132: "When recognition of a regional varna scheme has been unavoidable—such as the tripartite division into Brahmins, non-Brahmins, and Untouchables in much of the South— it has been explained in terms of an historical corruption or breakdown of the standard four-class system, rather than regarded as a functional entity in its own right."
  41. ^ Jalal, Ayesha (1995). Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-521-47862-5.
  42. ^ Bernard, Jean Alphonse (2001). From Raj to the Republic: A Political History of India, 1935–2000. Har Anand Publications. p. 37. ISBN 9788124107669.
  43. ^ a b Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan; Kumar, Dharma (1982). The Cambridge Economic History of India: c.1200–c.1750. Cambridge University Press Archive. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-0-521-22692-9.
  44. ^ a b Dirks, Nicholas B. (2001). Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 205.:”Aside from Brahmans and Rajputs, few actual caste groups could be readily correlated with varna distinctions and few of these castes could be found across wide parts of India. Dominant caste groups in most regions were specific to those regions, as for example the Marathas of Bombay, the Vellalars of Madras, and the Vokkaligas of Mysore. Even the assumption that occupational differentiation provided both the most ready key to caste distinction and the most usable measure of caste significance for imperial purposes flew in the face of the recognition that formal caste titles only rarely indicated true occupation”
  45. ^ Dirks, Nicholas B. (2001). Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 203.:”Varna was evacuated of meaning and utility even as it seemed the obvious ordering principle. In order to deal with the pitfalls of varna, Waterfield attempted a desultory inven- tory of different important castes in discrete regions of India. He mentions the Babhans of Behar, the Kayasths of Bengal, the Buniyas across India, the Chandals of eastern Bengal, the Aheers and Chamars of the Northwest and of Oudh, the Koormees of Bengal and the Central Provinces, the Wakkaleegas of Mysore, and, from Madras, the Vellalars, Chetties, and Vunniars. Waterfield complained that the use of occupations in Madras was invariably misleading, as it “must not be supposed that even a majority of any particular caste now follow the occupation according to which they are thus arranged.”
  46. ^ Prasad, S.Shyam (2018). Enigmas of Karnataka: Mystery meets History. Chennai: Notion Press. ISBN 9781642491227.:”In the 17th Century, Chikkadevaraja created the Urs caste and classified it into 31 clans. Of these, 13 clans were deemed superior, while the remaining 18 were placed lower in the hierarchy. This latter comprised ruling families in the domain he was rapidly expanding. The most populous caste in this region, the Gowdas (the caste name Vokkaliga was later affixed to it during the British Census), clearly had more families in the ruling classes.”
  47. ^ Thimmaiah, G.; Aziz, Abdul (1983). "The Political Economy of Land Reforms in Karnataka, A South Indian State". Asian Survey. 23 (7): 810–829. doi:10.2307/2644290. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2644290.
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