Jesus: Difference between revisions
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''This article is about Jesus Christ, founder of the Christian faith. For other uses of'' Jesus'', please see [[Jesus (disambiguation)]]'' |
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'''Jesus''', also known as '''Jesus of Nazareth''', '''Jesus the Nazarene''', and, among Christians, as '''Jesus Christ''', is the central figure in [[Christianity]] and is considered an important prophet in [[Islam]]. On account of his significance in these world religions, he is frequently named as one of the most influential historical figures of all time. The primary sources about Jesus and his teachings are the [[Gospel#Canonical Gospels|four canonical Gospels]], which depict him as a [[Judaism|Jewish]] preacher and healer often at odds with the Jewish authorities of his time. |
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The historicity, teachings, and nature of Jesus are subject to debate and controversy among Christians and outside Christian communities. |
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'''Jesus''' (between [[8 BC]] and [[4 BC]] to c.AD [[29]]), also known as '''Jesus Christ''', '''Jesus of Nazareth''' or '''Jesus the Nazarene''', is the central figure in [[Christianity]] and is considered an important prophet in [[Islam]], where he is known as '''Isa'''. The primary sources about Jesus and his teachings are the [[Gospel#Canonical Gospels|four Gospels]], which depict him as a [[Judaism|Jewish]] preacher and healer often at odds with Jewish authorities at that time. |
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[[Image:Christ pantocrator daphne1090-1100.jpg|frame|right|This [[11th century|11th-century]] [[portrait]] is one of many [[images of Jesus]] in which a [[halo]] with a cross is used. Such depictions are characteristic of [[Eastern Orthodox]] [[iconography]]. Characteristically, he is portrayed as similar in features and skin tone to the culture of the artist.]] |
[[Image:Christ pantocrator daphne1090-1100.jpg|frame|right|This [[11th century|11th-century]] [[portrait]] is one of many [[images of Jesus]] in which a [[halo]] with a cross is used. Such depictions are characteristic of [[Eastern Orthodox]] [[iconography]]. Characteristically, he is portrayed as similar in features and skin tone to the culture of the artist.]] |
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The Gospels concentrate on the last one to three years of his life, particularly the last week before a death by crucifixion, sometime around the years [[29]] to [[33]]. Those gospels depict little of his early life, apart from stories surrounding his birth, which according to best estimates would have been about [[6 BC|6]]–[[4 BC]]. |
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"Jesus" transliterates the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Ιησους'' [''Iēsoûs''] found in the Greek text of the Gospels, and is assumed to be itself a transliteration from [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] or [[Biblical Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (''Yehoshua'' or ''Yeshua''). "Christ" is a theological title, transliterating the Greek ''Χριστός'' [''Christos''], in turn a translation of the Hebrew ''Mashiach'' (משיח), meaning "anointed" or "the anointed one and his anointing". (''See [[Messiah]]''.) |
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Though mention is made of a Jesus in the complete works of [[Josephus]], and possibly as [[Yeshu]] in the [[Talmud]], there are no other known contemporaneous textual references to Jesus outside of the [[Biblical canon|canonical]] Christian texts and several [[New Testament apocrypha|non-canonical gospels]] such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. He is also mentioned in a number of other works, most significantly post-dating the first century. |
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The gospels mostly portray his last one to three years, particularly the last week before a death by crucifixion, which, based on some historical data mentioned, would have been anywhere from the years [[29]] to [[33]]. Those gospels depict little of his early life, apart from stories surrounding his birth, which according to best estimates would have been about [[6 BC|6]]–[[4 BC]], or 6–4 [[Common Era|BCE]] in the [[Common Era]] system of reckoning years. Both the [[Anno Domini]] system and the derived [[Common Era]] system of reckoning years have their origins in a faulty [[6th century|6th-century]] attempt to establish his birth date. |
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== Life and teaching according to the New Testament == |
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Mention is made of a Jesus in the complete works of [[Josephus]] (in a [[Josephus on Jesus|passage]] considered by most scholars to be at least partially altered), and possibly as [[Yeshu]] in the [[Talmud]], though this is widely disputed. There are no other known nearly contemporaneous textual references to Jesus outside of the [[Biblical canon|canonical]] Christian texts and several [[New Testament apocrypha|non-canonical gospels]] such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. He is also mentioned in a number of other works, most significantly post-dating the first century, and thus their historical significance is disputable. |
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[[Image:Birth.jpg|thumb|left|This stained glass window shows Jesus' birth in Bethlehem.]] |
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While most historians and scholars have either assumed or concluded that Jesus probably lived, a number have seriously questioned this — and many have found the issue undecidable by historical means alone. |
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''Main articles'': [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus]] |
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Jesus was born in [[Bethlehem]] to a Jewish family, while [[Nazareth]] in [[Galilee]] was his childhood home, the son of [[Mary,_the_mother_of_Jesus|Mary]] (depicted as a virgin), and [[God]] Himself. Mary's husband was [[Joseph]]. The New Testament mentions others as relatives of Jesus — particularly James, Joseph, Jude, and Simon, as well as some unnamed sisters. There is considerable argument between religious and academic factions as to whether Mary was their mother, if they were Jesus' half-brothers from a prior marriage of Joseph, or if they were simply cousins. |
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The [[Gospels]] do not describe any of Jesus' life between the ages of 12 and 30, the last incident before the gap being that he instructed the scholars in the temple. Neither is much of his childhood discussed, though [[New Testament apocrypha|some non-Biblical texts]] go into this detail, some quite extensively. |
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[[Image:Jesus and the doctors of the Faith dsc01783.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Jesus Christ, aged 12, teaching the doctors of the Faith]] |
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Just after he was [[baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]] aged about 30, he began his public teaching. Jesus used a variety of methods in his teaching, such as [[paradox]], [[metaphor]] and [[parable]], leaving it unclear how literally he wished to be taken and precisely what he meant. Jesus also performed various [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]] in the course of his ministry, ranging from cures to [[exorcism]]s, with several others that show a dominion over nature. Scholars in mainstream Christian traditions as well as some secular scholars view these as claims of supernatural power. However, others consider the stories to be [[allegory|allegorical]]—"He made the blind to see, and the deaf to hear" can be taken as meaning "He opened the eyes of people to the truth". |
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Jesus debated with many religious leaders including the opposing forces of [[Sadducee]]s and [[Pharisees]], and produced an argument which a few modern scholars think indicates that Jesus may have been a liberal Pharisee, or an [[Essenes|Essene]] (although they were strict vegetarians, unlike Jesus). For many years in the first millennium, Jesus was cast as an enemy of the Pharisees, as the Pharisees had become the dominant sect of Judaism. In his role as a social reformer, and with his followers holding the inflammatory view that he was the [[Jewish Messiah]], Jesus threatened the status quo. |
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Jesus also preached the imminent end of the current era (αίών) of history, in some sense a literal end of the world as people of his time knew it; in this sense he was an [[apocalyptic]] preacher bringing a message about the imminent end of the world the Jews knew. Some interpretations of the text, particularly amongst [[Protestant]]s, suggest that Jesus opposed stringent interpretations of [[Halakha|Jewish law]], supporting the spirit more than the letter. |
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The Bible does not explicitly indicate that Jesus had any romantic relationships, and most scholars and Christians think that he had none. However, some contrary interpretations are based on references to "the disciple whom Jesus loved", usually thought to refer to [[John the Apostle]] though some think it might be a reference to [[Lazarus]] (see [[Secret Gospel of Mark]], and a lesser number still think it may be [[Mary Magdalene]]. |
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[[Image:Michelangelo.pieta.650pix.jpg|thumb|right|[[Michelangelo]]'s ''[[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]]'' shows Mary holding the dead body of Jesus.]] |
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===Arrest and trial=== |
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Jesus is reported to have declared himself to be the long awaited [[Jewish Messiah]], but was rejected as an [[apostate]] by the people generally considered to be the [[Jew]]ish authorities. Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the [[Passover]] festival, created a disturbance at the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] by overturning the tables of the moneychangers ([[tax]] collectors) there. |
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He was subsequently arrested on the orders of the [[Sanhedrin]] and the High Priest, [[Caiaphas|Joseph Caiaphas]]. He was identified to the guards by one of his Apostles, [[Judas Iscariot]], who is portrayed as having betrayed Jesus by a kiss. |
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He was condemned for [[blasphemy]] by the Sanhedrin and turned over to the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] for execution. According to the gospels, Jesus was crucified by the Romans on the reluctant orders of [[Pontius Pilate]], bowing to the Jewish religious leaders' pressure. Some scholars argue that it was an ordinary Roman trial of a rebel.See article "Barabbas" for alternative views. |
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The formal charge cited in his execution was leading a rebellion: he was called the "King of the Jews" by Pontius Pilate on the ''titulus crucis'' or statement of the charge hung over the condemned on the cross (the [[Latin]] initials for the charge would have been [[INRI]]). |
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Following the crucifixion, a deal with Pilate by [[Joseph of Arimathea]] resulted in the body being taken down and entombed, during the presence of Mary and other women, notably Mary Magdalene. |
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===Resurrection and Ascension=== |
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Jesus was raised from the dead on the third day after his [[crucifixion]]. This event is referred to in [[Christianity|Christian]] terminology as the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus Christ]], and is commemorated and celebrated by most groups who consider themselves Christians each year at [[Easter]] (on the Sunday). |
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No one was a witness to the [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], though those who went to anoint the body found the tomb empty. Jesus' disciples encountered him again on the third day after his death, raised back to life. After the resurrection, the Gospels give various accounts of Jesus meeting various people in various places over a period of forty days before "ascending into heaven". |
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Most Christians — even those who do not hold to the literal truth of everything in the gospels — accept the [[New Testament]] story of the Resurrection as a [[historical]] account of an actual event central to their [[faith]] — although some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection (e.g. [[Bishop Spong|John Shelby Spong]]). |
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Additionally, members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]], the [[Mormon]]s, believe that after his resurrection Jesus visited other people who believed in him around the world, including those in America, as related by the [[Book of Mormon]]. |
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According to most Christian interpretations of the [[Bible]], the theme of Jesus' preaching was that of apocalyptic repentance. Later, Jesus extensively trained twelve [[Apostle]]s to continue his teachings. Most Christians who hold that Jesus' miracles were literally true, not allegory, think that the Apostles gained the power to perform healing for both Jews and [[Gentiles]] alike after they had been empowered by the Holy Spirit which he was to send to them following his [[Ascension]] (this event is variously referred to as [[Pentecost]] or [[Whitsun]]). |
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===Christianity=== |
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The acts and words attributed to Jesus by the gospels constitute Christianity's basic teachings. At least one of the Gospels states each of the following: |
The acts and words attributed to Jesus by the gospels constitute Christianity's basic teachings. At least one of the Gospels states each of the following: |
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* In [[Jerusalem]] during [[Passover]], he was sentenced to death by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] prefect [[Pontius Pilate]], and executed by [[crucifixion]]. |
* In [[Jerusalem]] during [[Passover]], he was sentenced to death by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] prefect [[Pontius Pilate]], and executed by [[crucifixion]]. |
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* He was dead and entombed, but was [[Resurrection|resurrected]] or became alive on the third day. |
* He was dead and entombed, but was [[Resurrection|resurrected]] or became alive on the third day. |
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* His teachings were initially spread by a group led by twelve followers |
* His teachings were initially spread by a group led by twelve followers usually referred to as his [[disciple]]s or [[Apostle]]s. |
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Most |
Most Christians further believe, based on those gospels, [[tradition]], or personal experiences, that Jesus was the promised Messiah, the Saviour of all mankind, the [[Son of God]], and one of the persons in the [[Godhead]] of the [[Trinity]]. Most Christians would equate Jesus with God himself, and when using pronouns to refer to him, use the honorifically capitalized "He", "Him", and "His", derived from their belief that Jesus was God [[Incarnation|incarnate]]. |
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==Cultural and historical background== |
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== Historicity == |
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''Main article:'' [[Cultural and historical background of Jesus]] |
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[[Image:Judea.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Desert hills in southern Judea, looking east from the town of [[Arad, Israel|Arad]]]] |
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{{main2|Historicity of Jesus|Jesus and textual evidence}} |
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The world in which Jesus lived was volatile, marked by cultural and political dilemmas. Culturally, [[Jew]]s had to grapple with the values and philosophy of [[Hellenism]], together with the paradox that their [[Torah]] applied only to them, but revealed universal truths. This situation led to new interpretations of the Torah, influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism. |
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All of the [[Land of Israel]] belonged to the [[Roman Empire]] at the time given for Jesus' birth, but it was directly ruled by King [[Herod the Great]]. After Herod's death in [[4 BC]], [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]] were combined into the Roman province of Palestina, ruled by the Jewish High Priest under the supervision of a Roman [[procurator]]. Galilee, where Jesus grew up (according to the gospels), remained under the jurisdiction of Herod's son, the Tetrarch [[Herod Antipas]]. |
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The primary sources for information about Jesus are the four canonical [[Gospel]]s and several [[New Testament apocrypha|apocryphal gospels]]. Some historians, citing the lack of external evidence, argue that no such person as Jesus ever existed. Other historians, however, maintain that the source documents (see [[Two-source hypothesis]], [[Q document]], and [[Gospel of John]]), on which the four canonical Gospels are based were written within living memory of Jesus's lifetime. They therefore consider that the accounts of the life of Jesus in those Gospels provide a reasonable basis of evidence for the historical existence of Jesus and the basic facts of his life and death (E.P. Sanders, for example, has argued that the documentary evidence for Jesus' existence is as strong or stronger than the documentary evidence for the existence of [[Alexander the Great]]). Even among those who do believe in his existence there are divisions over the extent of historicity of the Gospels' accounts. Some say that the Gospel accounts are neither objective nor accurate, since they were written or compiled by his followers. Those who have a naturalistic view of history do not believe in divine intervention or [[miracles]] without any evidence for them, such as the resurrection of Jesus mentioned by the Gospels. |
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Within Judaism, there were several parties, primarily the [[Sadducees]], closely connected with the priesthood and the Temple, and the [[Pharisees]], who were teachers and leaders of the [[synagogue]]s. They resented Roman occupation, but at Jesus' time were not particularly political. Isolated in small communities from these main groups, by choice, lived the [[Essenes]], whose theology and philosophy are perceived as having influenced Jesus and/or [[John the Baptist]] by many scholars. The [[Zealots]], who advocated direct action against the Romans (eventually leading to the destruction of the temple, and the subsequent decline of the Saducees and Essenes), may have been active at this time (though this is debated). |
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There are many similarities between stories about Jesus and myths of Pagan Godmen such as [[Mithras]], [[Apollo]], [[Attis]] and [[Osiris Dionysus]], leading to conjectures that the pagan myths were adopted by early accounts of Jesus. |
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Many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king (or [[Messiah]]) of the line of David — in their view the last legitimate Jewish regime. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Therefore the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention; thus, the majority of Jews accepted Roman rule. Some like John the Baptist in the first half of the century, and Yehoshua ben Ananias in the second, claimed that a messianic age was at hand. Others believed that the kingdom should be restored immediately, through violent human action. |
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In the original, [[History of the Greek language|Koine Greek]], form of the Gospels, Jesus is referred to by the name Iesous (from which the more recent spelling "Jesus" derives). It is usually suggested that this is the Greek rendering of either the Hebrew name Yehoshua (Joshua) or Yeshua (a shortened form of Yehoshua used in [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] and [[Book of Chronicles|Chronicles]]). In Greek language Jewish texts such as the writings of [[Philo of Alexandria]], [[Josephus]] and the [[Septuagint]] these names are rendered Iesous. Josephus, a first century Jewish historian, mentions no fewer than nineteen different people with this name, about half of them contemporaries of Jesus of Nazareth. Connection with the designation [[Yeshu]] found in the [[Talmud]] has also been suggested. |
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== Historicity == |
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[[Benjamin Urrutia]], a modern scholar, contends that Rabbi [[Yeshua Bar Abba]] was the historical Jesus of Nazareth and was the leader of the successful nonviolent Jewish resistance to Pilate's attempt to place Roman Eagles - symbols of the worship of Jupiter - on Jerusalem's Temple Hill. This episode is found in Josephus, who does not say who the leader of this resistance was, but shortly afterwards, in a passage whose authenticity is heavily disputed, states that Pontius Pilate had Jesus crucified. |
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{{main2|Historicity of Jesus|Jesus and textual evidence}} |
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It is commonly thought that Jesus preached for a period of three years, yet it is never mentioned explicitly in any of the gospels. However, many interpretations of the [[synoptic gospels]] suggest only one year, and to achieve consistency with the [[Gospel of John]], one theory suggests that the last gospel describes a timeline which depicts a ministry time period of approximately one year. This theory of a one year, Passover to Passover, ministry, would coincide with the type and shadow of the Passover lamb (lamb of God) being a yearling lamb. This, however, is not commonly taught (although it has a strong following in academic circles), and thus is not a widespread theory in general. |
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The primary sources for information about Jesus are the four canonical [[Gospel]]s and several [[New Testament apocrypha|apocryphal gospels]]. A very small number of historians, citing the lack of external evidence, argue that no such person as Jesus ever existed. Other historians, however, maintain that the source documents (see [[Two-source hypothesis]], [[Q document]], and [[Gospel of John]]), on which the four canonical Gospels are based were written within living memory of Jesus's lifetime. They therefore consider that the accounts of the life of Jesus in those Gospels provide a reasonable basis of evidence for the historical existence of Jesus and the basic facts of his life and death (E.P. Sanders, for example, has argued that the documentary evidence for Jesus' existence is as strong or stronger than the documentary evidence for the existence of [[Alexander the Great]]). |
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==Religious |
==Religious perspective== |
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{{Jesus}} |
{{Jesus}} |
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''Main article'': [[Religious perspectives on Jesus]] |
''Main article'': [[Religious perspectives on Jesus]] |
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The vast majority of Christians believe Jesus was [[God]] [[incarnation|Incarnate]] (a man who was the earthly aspect of God, as part of the [[Holy Trinity]]), who came to earth to save [[mankind]] from [[sin]] and [[death]] through the shedding of his own [[blood]] in [[sacrifice]] ([[salvation]]), and who rose from the dead and later ascended into [[Heaven]]. |
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===Christianity=== |
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Christianity has undergone several schisms in its understanding of Jesus. The vast majority of Christians subscribe to the creed that Jesus was [[God]] [[incarnation|Incarnate]] (a man who was the earthly aspect of God, as part of the [[Holy Trinity]]), who was conceived immaculately and came to earth to save [[mankind]] from [[sin]] and [[death]] through the shedding of his own [[blood]] in [[sacrifice]] ([[salvation]]), and who rose from the dead and later ascended into [[Heaven]]. |
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Some groups identifying themselves as Christian, such as [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and [[Christian Science|Christian Scientists]], believe Jesus was divinely inspired but not God [[incarnate]]. See also [[Nicene Creed]]. Others such as [[Mormons]] believe in the Trinity, but maintain that God the Father created Jesus as God the Son, that Jesus created the universe, and add their own sacred texts that continue on past the [[New Testament]]; and thus form a different sort of overall Christian history. |
Some groups identifying themselves as Christian, such as [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and [[Christian Science|Christian Scientists]], believe Jesus was divinely inspired but not God [[incarnate]]. See also [[Nicene Creed]]. Others such as [[Mormons]] believe in the Trinity, but maintain that God the Father created Jesus as God the Son, that Jesus created the universe, and add their own sacred texts that continue on past the [[New Testament]]; and thus form a different sort of overall Christian history. |
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===Unitarians=== |
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[[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] believe in the unity of God, and do not believe in the Trinity. While Unitarians generally hold Jesus in high regard, they do not believe he was divine (though some believe he was the human son of God who thus became immortal). Some Unitarians consider themselves Christian in the sense that they are followers of Jesus, while others do not self-identify as Christian. |
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===Hinduism=== |
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[[Hinduism]] is divided on the issue of Jesus—some hold that it is unlikely he existed, or that he was just a man, others say he was a great [[guru]] or [[yogi]], others still equate Jesus with an [[avatar]]. A great deal of earlier inclusion of Jesus within the Hindu pantheon is connected to the emergence of the [[Saint Thomas Christians]]. The [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] sect of Hinduism believes that Jesus is the son of Krishna (who they believe is God the Father that Jesus spoke of), and they accept many of his teachings. |
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===Islam=== |
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[[Islam]] teaches that: |
[[Islam]] teaches that: |
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Some Muslims accept the [[Gospel of Barnabas]] as the most accurate testament of Jesus. |
Some Muslims accept the [[Gospel of Barnabas]] as the most accurate testament of Jesus. |
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===Judaism=== |
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To the extent that Jesus is promoted as the Messiah, this claim is broadly rejected as [[false messiah|heretical]] to [[Judaism]]. Religious Jews view the world as unredeemed and are still awaiting the Messianic era. As for the historical personality of Jesus, Judaism has fewer objections to quotes attributed to him than they do with subsequent confessions by early Christian adherents, Paul in particular. Many Jews see Jesus as a minor miracle worker or failed rebel leader, and a small number consider him a great teacher. Others object to teachings attributed to Jesus by noting a passage in Deuteronomy 13:1-6, which speaks of not adding or subtracting from the commandments, and of prophets who tell you to go against God or the commandments. Some believe that Jesus is mentioned as [[Yeshu]] in the Jewish [[Talmud]], although many scholars dispute this. |
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Jewish religious authorities view [[Messianic Judaism]] as a Christian and not a Jewish movement. |
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===Other perspectives=== |
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[[Atheism|Atheists]], by definition, do not believe in a divinity — and thus not in any divinity of Jesus. Some doubt he lived, some regard him as an important moral teacher, and some as a historical preacher like any other. |
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The [[Bahá'í Faith]] considers Jesus to be a manifestation (prophet) of God, while not being God incarnate. Some [[Buddhists]] believe Jesus may have been a [[Bodhisattva]], one who gives up his own [[Nirvana]] to help others reach theirs. |
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The [[New Age]] movement has reinterpreted the life and teaching of Jesus in a large variety of ways (For example, see [[A Course in Miracles]]). He has also been claimed as an [[Ascended Master]] by [[Theosophical Society|Theosophy]] and some of its offshoots; related speculations have him studying [[mysticism]] in the [[Himalaya]] or [[hermeticism]] in [[Egypt]] in the period between his childhood and his public career. |
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The discipline of [[Christology]] discusses who Jesus was or was not from a philosophical and theological perspective. The [[Christological argument]] attempts to prove the existence of God based on the existence of Jesus and his claims about himself as presented in the gospels. |
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The questions of the divinity of Jesus was discussed and voted on by [[Ecumenical council|Ecumenical Councils]], starting with [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]]'s attempts at producing unity, enforcement of the resulting decision thus suggesting an air of politicisation to the supposedly religious issue. It is not the case that all scholars reject Jesus' divinity, yet some may choose to describe the social and cultural implications of claiming divinity in the [[1st century]]. As such, scholars are interested in providing an historical context to the beliefs and tenets of Jesus' apparant [[Kingdom of God]] movement. As a consequence, some secular scholars believe he was simply a [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[apocalyptic]] [[teacher]] and [[faith healer]] who was crucified, and was subsequently the inspiration for Christianity. |
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==Date of birth and death== |
==Date of birth and death== |
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|Suggested birth (earliest). |
|Suggested birth (earliest). |
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|''c''. [[4 BC |
|''c''. [[4 BC]] |
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|Herod's death. |
|Herod's death. |
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|''c''. [[6]] |
|''c''. AD [[6]] |
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|Suggested birth (latest).<br/>Quirinius census. |
|Suggested birth (latest).<br/>Quirinius census. |
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</div> |
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The most detailed information about Jesus' birth and death is contained in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]]. There is considerable debate about the details of Jesus' birth |
The most detailed information about Jesus' birth and death is contained in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]]. There is considerable debate about the details of Jesus' birth. |
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Based on a [[lunar eclipse]] that Josephus reports shortly before the death of [[Herod the Great]], the birth of Christ would have been some time before the year [[4 BC]], probably [[5 BC|5]] or [[6 BC]]. This estimate itself relies on the historicity of the [[Massacre of the Innocents]] involving Herod around the time of Jesus' birth. The accounts in the Gospels of the shepherds' activities, indicate that the time of year depicted for Jesus' birth could be spring or summer. |
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Based on the accounts in the gospels of the shepherds' activities, the time of year depicted for Jesus' birth could be spring or summer. However, as early as [[354]], Roman Christians celebrated it following the [[December]] [[solstice]] in an attempt to replace the Roman pagan festival of [[Saturnalia]]. Before then, Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on [[January 6]] as part of the feast of [[Theophany]], also known as [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his baptism by [[John the Baptist|John]] in the [[Jordan Valley|Jordan]] and possibly additional events in Jesus' life. |
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However, as early as [[354]], Roman Christians celebrated it following the [[December]] [[solstice]] in an attempt to replace the Roman pagan festival of [[Saturnalia]]. Before then, Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on [[January 6]] as part of the feast of [[Theophany]], also known as [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his baptism by [[John the Baptist|John]] in the [[Jordan Valley|Jordan]] and possibly additional events in Jesus' life. |
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In the 248th year of the [[Diocletian]] [[Calendar era|Era]] (based on Diocletian's accession to the Roman throne), [[Dionysius Exiguus]] attempted to pinpoint the number of years since Jesus' birth, arriving at a figure of 753 years after the founding of Rome. Dionysius then set Jesus' birth as being [[December 25]] [[1 BC]], and assigned AD [[1]] to the following year — thereby establishing the system of numbering years from the birth of Jesus: ''[[Anno Domini]]'' (making the then current year [[532]]). This system won acceptance and became the established calendar due to its championing by the [[Bede|Venerable Bede]]. The [[Common Era]] (CE) reckoning of years is a derivation of the ''Anno Domini'' (AD) system, in which the numbering of the years coincide, but there is no implication that Jesus is Lord. |
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In the 248th year of the [[Diocletian]] [[Calendar era|Era]] (based on Diocletian's accession to the Roman throne), [[Dionysius Exiguus]] attempted to pinpoint the number of years since Jesus' birth, arriving at a figure of 753 years after the founding of Rome. Dionysius then set Jesus' birth as being [[December 25]] [[1 BC]], and assigned AD [[1]] to the following year — thereby establishing the system of numbering years from the birth of Jesus: ''[[Anno Domini]]'' (making the then current year [[532]]). This system won acceptance and became the established calendar due to its championing by the [[Bede|Venerable Bede]]. |
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However, based on a [[lunar eclipse]] that Josephus reports shortly before the death of [[Herod the Great]], the birth of Christ would have been some time before the year [[4 BC|4 BC/BCE]], probably [[5 BC|5]] or [[6 BC|6 BC/BCE]]. This estimate itself relies on the historicity of the New Testament [[Massacre of the Innocents|story]] involving Herod around the time of Jesus' birth. |
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As for Jesus' death, the exact date is also unclear. All the [[synoptic gospels]] depict the crucifixion just '''after''' the [[Passover]], whereas St John's Gospel depicts the crucifixion just '''before''' the Passover festival. Further, the Jews followed a [[lunisolar calendar]] with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. Allowing for the time of the [[procurator]]ship of [[Pontius Pilate]] and the dates of the [[Passover]] in those years, his death can be placed most probably in [[30]] or [[33]]. |
As for Jesus' death, the exact date is also unclear. All the [[synoptic gospels]] depict the crucifixion just '''after''' the [[Passover]], whereas St John's Gospel depicts the crucifixion just '''before''' the Passover festival. Further, the Jews followed a [[lunisolar calendar]] with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. Allowing for the time of the [[procurator]]ship of [[Pontius Pilate]] and the dates of the [[Passover]] in those years, his death can be placed most probably in [[30]] or [[33]]. |
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== Life and teaching according to the New Testament == |
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[[Image:Birth.jpg|thumb|left|This stained glass window shows Jesus' birth in Bethlehem.]] |
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''Main articles'': [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus]] |
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Jesus was born in [[Bethlehem]] to a Jewish family, while [[Nazareth]] in [[Galilee]] was his childhood home. He is, according to the texts of Christianity, the son of [[Mary,_the_mother_of_Jesus|Mary]] (depicted as a virgin), and [[God]] himself. Mary's husband was [[Joseph]]. The New Testament mentions others as relatives of Jesus — particularly James, Joseph, Jude, and Simon, as well as some unnamed sisters. There is considerable argument between religious and academic factions as to whether Mary was their mother, if they were Jesus' half-brothers from a prior marriage of Joseph, or if they were simply cousins. |
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The [[Gospels]] do not describe any of Jesus' life between the ages of 12 and 30, the last incident before the gap being that he instructed the scholars in the temple, neither is much of his childhood discussed (though [[New Testament apocrypha|some non-Biblical texts]] go into this detail, some quite extensively). However, just after he was [[baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]], a cousin of Jesus, he began his public teaching. |
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[[Image:Jesus and the doctors of the Faith dsc01783.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Jesus Christ, aged 12, teaching the doctors of the Faith]] |
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Jesus used a variety of methods in his teaching, such as [[paradox]], [[metaphor]] and [[parable]], leaving it unclear how literally he wished to be taken and precisely what he meant. Jesus also performed various [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]] in the course of his ministry, ranging from cures to [[exorcism]]s, with several others that show a dominion over nature. Scholars in mainstream Christian traditions as well as some secular scholars view these as claims of supernatural power. However, others consider the stories to be [[allegory|allegorical]]—"He made the blind to see, and the deaf to hear" can be taken as meaning "He opened the eyes of people to the truth." |
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Jesus debated with many religious leaders including the opposing forces of [[Sadducee]]s and [[Pharisees]], and produced an argument which a few modern scholars think indicates that Jesus may have been a liberal Pharisee, or an [[Essenes|Essene]] (although they were strict vegetarians, unlike Jesus). For many years in the first millennium, Jesus was cast as an enemy of the Pharisees, as the Pharisees had become the dominant sect of Judaism. In his role as a social reformer, and with his followers holding the inflammatory view that he was the [[Jewish Messiah]], Jesus threatened the status quo. |
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Jesus also preached the imminent end of the current era (αίών) of history, in some sense a literal end of the world as people of his time knew it; in this sense he was an [[apocalyptic]] preacher bringing a message about the imminent end of the world the Jews knew. Some interpretations of the text, particularly amongst [[Protestant]]s, suggest that Jesus opposed stringent interpretations of [[Halakha|Jewish law]], supporting the spirit more than the letter. |
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The Bible does not explicitly indicate that Jesus had any romantic relationships, and most scholars and Christians think that he had none. However, some contrary interpretations are based on references to "the disciple whom Jesus loved", usually thought to refer to [[John the Apostle]] though some think it might be a reference to [[Lazarus]] (see [[Secret Gospel of Mark]], and a lesser number still think it may be [[Mary Magdalene]]. |
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[[Image:Michelangelo.pieta.650pix.jpg|thumb|right|[[Michelangelo]]'s ''[[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]]'' shows Mary holding the dead body of Jesus.]] |
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===Arrest and trial=== |
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Jesus, is reported to have declared himself to be the long awaited [[Jewish Messiah]], but was rejected as an [[apostate]] by the people generally considered to be the [[Jew]]ish authorities. Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the [[Passover]] festival, created a disturbance at the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] by overturning the tables of the moneychangers ([[tax]] collectors) there. |
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He was subsequently arrested on the orders of the [[Sanhedrin]] and the High Priest, [[Caiaphas|Joseph Caiaphas]]. He was identified to the guards by one of his Apostles, [[Judas Iscariot]], who is portrayed as having betrayed Jesus by a kiss. |
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He was condemned for [[blasphemy]] by the Sanhedrin and turned over to the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] for execution. According to the gospels, Jesus was crucified by the Romans on the reluctant orders of [[Pontius Pilate]], bowing to the Jewish religious leaders' pressure. Some scholars argue that it was an ordinary Roman trial of a rebel. See article "Barabbas" for alternative views. |
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The formal charge cited in his execution was leading a rebellion: he was called the "King of the Jews" by Pontius Pilate on the ''titulus crucis'' or statement of the charge hung over the condemned on the cross (the [[Latin]] initials for the charge would have been [[INRI]]). |
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Following the crucifixion, a deal with Pilate by [[Joseph of Arimathea]] resulted in the body being taken down and entombed, during the presence of Mary and other women, notably Mary Magdalene. |
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===Resurrection and Ascension=== |
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Jesus was raised from the dead on the third day after his [[crucifixion]]. This event is referred to in [[Christianity|Christian]] terminology as the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus Christ]], and is commemorated and celebrated by most groups who consider themselves Christians each year at [[Easter]] (on the Sunday). |
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No one was a witness to the [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], though those who went to anoint the body found the tomb empty. Jesus' disciples encountered him again on the third day after his death, raised back to life. After the resurrection, the Gospels give various accounts of Jesus meeting various people in various places over a period of forty days before "ascending into heaven". |
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Most Christians — even those who do not hold to the literal truth of everything in the gospels — accept the [[New Testament]] story of the Resurrection as a [[historical]] account of an actual event central to their [[faith]] — although some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection (e.g. [[Bishop Spong|John Shelby Spong]]). |
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Additionally, members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]], the [[Mormon]]s, believe that after his resurrection Jesus visited other people who believed in him around the world, including those in America, as related by the [[Book of Mormon]]. |
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Non-Christians generally view the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus as [[mythical|myth]] or [[fictional]] to varying degrees. |
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According to most Christian interpretations of the [[Bible]], the theme of Jesus' preaching was that of apocalyptic repentance. Later, Jesus extensively trained twelve [[Apostle]]s to continue his teachings. Most Christians who hold that Jesus' miracles were literally true, not allegory, think that the Apostles gained the power to perform healing for both Jews and [[Gentiles]] alike after they had been empowered by the Holy Spirit which he was to send to them following his [[Ascension]] (this event is variously referred to as [[Pentecost]] or [[Whitsun]]). |
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== Names and titles== |
== Names and titles== |
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''Main article:'' [[Names and titles of Jesus]] |
''Main article:'' [[Names and titles of Jesus]] |
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"Jesus" transliterates the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Ιησους'' [''Iēsoûs''], and is assumed to be itself a transliteration from [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] or [[Biblical Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (''Yehoshua'' or ''Yeshua''). "Christ" is a theological title, transliterating the Greek ''Χριστός'' [''Christos''], in turn a translation of the Hebrew ''Mashiach'' (משיח), meaning "anointed" or "the anointed one and his anointing". (''See [[Messiah]]''.) |
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''Jesus'' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Ιησους'' (''Iēsoûs'') via Latin. The earliest use of ''Iēsoûs'' is found in the [[Septuagint]], as a [[transliterate|transliteration]] of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name ''Yehoshua'' (יהושע — known in English as [[Joshua]] when transliterated directly from Hebrew), and also ''[[Yeshua]]'' (ישוע). Jesus' original name is not reported by contemporary or near-contemporary sources, but modern scholars have suggested that Jesus' name was the [[Aramaic]] ישׁוע / Yēšûaʿ (as in the [[Syriac]] New Testament) which was a fairly common name at the time. His patronymic would have been, ''ben Yosef'', for "son of Joseph". |
''Jesus'' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Ιησους'' (''Iēsoûs'') via Latin. The earliest use of ''Iēsoûs'' is found in the [[Septuagint]], as a [[transliterate|transliteration]] of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name ''Yehoshua'' (יהושע — known in English as [[Joshua]] when transliterated directly from Hebrew), and also ''[[Yeshua]]'' (ישוע). Jesus' original name is not reported by contemporary or near-contemporary sources, but modern scholars have suggested that Jesus' name was the [[Aramaic]] ישׁוע / Yēšûaʿ (as in the [[Syriac]] New Testament) which was a fairly common name at the time. His patronymic would have been, ''ben Yosef'', for "son of Joseph". |
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In the Gospels, Jesus has many other titles, including [[Prophet]], [[Lord]], and [[INRI|King of the Jews]]. Together, the majority of Christians understand these titles as attesting to Jesus' divinity. Some historians argue that when used in other Hebrew and Aramaic texts of the time, these titles have other meanings, and therefore may have other meanings when used in the Gospels as well. |
In the Gospels, Jesus has many other titles, including [[Prophet]], [[Lord]], and [[INRI|King of the Jews]]. Together, the majority of Christians understand these titles as attesting to Jesus' divinity. Some historians argue that when used in other Hebrew and Aramaic texts of the time, these titles have other meanings, and therefore may have other meanings when used in the Gospels as well. |
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==Cultural and historical background== |
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''Main article:'' [[Cultural and historical background of Jesus]] |
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[[Image:Judea.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Desert hills in southern Judea, looking east from the town of [[Arad, Israel|Arad]]]] |
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The world in which Jesus lived was volatile, marked by cultural and political dilemmas. Culturally, [[Jew]]s had to grapple with the values and philosophy of [[Hellenism]], together with the paradox that their [[Torah]] applied only to them, but revealed universal truths. This situation led to new interpretations of the Torah, influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism. |
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All of the [[Land of Israel]] belonged to the [[Roman Empire]] at the time given for Jesus' birth, but it was directly ruled by King [[Herod the Great]]. After Herod's death in [[4 BC]], [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]] were combined into the Roman province of Palestina, ruled by the Jewish High Priest under the supervision of a Roman [[procurator]]. Galilee, where Jesus grew up (according to the gospels), remained under the jurisdiction of Herod's son, the Tetrarch [[Herod Antipas]]. |
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Within Judaism, there were several parties, primarily the [[Sadducees]], closely connected with the priesthood and the Temple, and the [[Pharisees]], who were teachers and leaders of the [[synagogue]]s. They resented Roman occupation, but at Jesus' time were not particularly political. Isolated in small communities from these main groups, by choice, lived the [[Essenes]], whose theology and philosophy are perceived as having influenced Jesus and/or [[John the Baptist]] by many scholars. The [[Zealots]], who advocated direct action against the Romans (eventually leading to the destruction of the temple, and the subsequent decline of the Saducees and Essenes), may have been active at this time (though this is debated). |
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Many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king (or [[Messiah]]) of the line of David — in their view the last legitimate Jewish regime. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Therefore the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention; thus, the majority of Jews accepted Roman rule. Some like John the Baptist in the first half of the century, and Yehoshua ben Ananias in the second, claimed that a messianic age was at hand. Others believed that the kingdom should be restored immediately, through violent human action. |
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==Relics== |
==Relics== |
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==Sources and further reading== |
==Sources and further reading== |
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<!--Please keep this for general sources and further reeadings, and in MLA style. Thanks.--> |
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*The New Testament of the [[Bible]], especially the [[Gospels]]. |
*The New Testament of the [[Bible]], especially the [[Gospels]]. |
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*The Greek New Testament, Aland, United Bible Societies |
*The Greek New Testament, Aland, United Bible Societies |
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*A Textual Commentary on the Greek NT, Metzger |
*A Textual Commentary on the Greek NT, Metzger |
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*Teach Yourself NT Greek, Hudson, ISBN 0844237892 |
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*The Apostolic Fathers, Lightfoot, Harmer, Holmes |
*The Apostolic Fathers, Lightfoot, Harmer, Holmes |
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*Akers, Keith, "The Lost Religion of Jesus," ISBN 1930051263 |
*Akers, Keith, "The Lost Religion of Jesus," ISBN 1930051263 |
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*Albright, William F. ''Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: An Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths'', ISBN 0931464013 |
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*Badenas, Robert. ''Christ the End of the Law, Romans 10.4 in Pauline Perspective'', ISBN 0905774930 |
*Badenas, Robert. ''Christ the End of the Law, Romans 10.4 in Pauline Perspective'', ISBN 0905774930 |
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*Brown, Raymond. ''Does the NT call Jesus God?'', Theological Studies #26, 1965 |
*Brown, Raymond. ''Does the NT call Jesus God?'', Theological Studies #26, 1965 |
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*Crossan, John Dominic. ''Who Killed Jesus?: Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus'' |
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*Dunn, James D.G. ''Jesus, Paul and the Law'', ISBN 0664250955 |
*Dunn, James D.G. ''Jesus, Paul and the Law'', ISBN 0664250955 |
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*Ehrman, Bart. ''Jesus: apocalyptic prophet of the new millennium'', ISBN 019512474X |
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*Ehrman, Bart. ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings'', ISBN 0195154622 |
*Ehrman, Bart. ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings'', ISBN 0195154622 |
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*Fredriksen, Paula. ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity'' ISBN 0679767460 |
*Fredriksen, Paula. ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity'' ISBN 0679767460 |
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*Fredriksen, Paula. ''From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ'' ISBN 0300084579, ISBN 0300040180 |
*Fredriksen, Paula. ''From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ'' ISBN 0300084579, ISBN 0300040180 |
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*Funk, Robert W. ''The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus'' |
*Funk, Robert W. ''The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus'' |
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*Gaus, Andy. ''The Unvarnished New Testament'', A new translation from the original Greek free of doctrines and dogmas, ISBN 0933999992 |
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*McDowell, Josh. ''Evidence that Demands a Verdict'', Two volumes looking at Jesus from the point of view of evidence. Vol I: ISBN 0918956463 , Vol. II: ISBN 0918956730 |
*McDowell, Josh. ''Evidence that Demands a Verdict'', Two volumes looking at Jesus from the point of view of evidence. Vol I: ISBN 0918956463 , Vol. II: ISBN 0918956730 |
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*Meier, John P. ''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'' |
*Meier, John P. ''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'' |
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*Mendenhall, George E. ''The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition'', The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8018-1654-8. A study of the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats the teachings and followers of Jesus in that context. |
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*Mendenhall, George E. ''Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction to the Bible in Context'', Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. ISBN 0-664-22313-3. Another, less technical, study of the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats the teachings and followers of Jesus in that context. |
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*Miller, Robert, ''The Complete Gospels'', the Scholars Version translation of gospels from the first three centuries, includes canonical gospels, thomas, james, mary, infancy gospels, fragments, ISBN 0944344305 |
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*Pelikan, Jaroslav. ''Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture'', [http://www.yale.edu/yup/ Yale University Press], 1985, hardcover, 270 pages, ISBN 0300034962; trade paperback, HarperCollins reprint, 304 pages, ISBN 0060970804; trade paperback, Yale University Press, 1999, 320 pages, ISBN 0300079877 |
*Pelikan, Jaroslav. ''Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture'', [http://www.yale.edu/yup/ Yale University Press], 1985, hardcover, 270 pages, ISBN 0300034962; trade paperback, HarperCollins reprint, 304 pages, ISBN 0060970804; trade paperback, Yale University Press, 1999, 320 pages, ISBN 0300079877 |
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*Messori, Vittorio. ''Jesus hypotheses'', St Paul Publications, 1977, ISBN 0854391541; The translation from Italian ''Ipotesi su Gesù''. An amazing and very readable book that shows how [[Vittorio Messori]], a recognized Italian historian who didn't care about faith, explores the question of Jesus, starting from two points of view, mythical (Jesus never lived) and critical (Jesus was not God) and finally comes to the third hypothesis, the one of the faith. The author is also famous as one of the rare who did an interview with [[Pope John Paul II]]. |
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*Sanders, E.P. ''The historical figure of Jesus'', Penguin, 1996, ISBN 0140144994. An up-to-date, popular, but thoroughly scholarly book. |
*Sanders, E.P. ''The historical figure of Jesus'', Penguin, 1996, ISBN 0140144994. An up-to-date, popular, but thoroughly scholarly book. |
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*Sanders, E.P. ''Jesus and Judaism'', Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615. More specialistic than the previous book, though not inaccessible. |
*Sanders, E.P. ''Jesus and Judaism'', Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615. More specialistic than the previous book, though not inaccessible. |
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*Schaberg, Jane. ''Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives'' |
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*Theissen, Gerd, and Annette Merz. ''The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide'', Fortress Press, 2003, ISBN 0800631226. An amazing book, tough but rewarding, exceptionally detailed. |
*Theissen, Gerd, and Annette Merz. ''The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide'', Fortress Press, 2003, ISBN 0800631226. An amazing book, tough but rewarding, exceptionally detailed. |
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*Theissen, Gerd. ''The Shadow of the Galilean: The Quest of the Historical Jesus in Narrative Form''. Fortress Press. |
*Theissen, Gerd. ''The Shadow of the Galilean: The Quest of the Historical Jesus in Narrative Form''. Fortress Press. |
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*''In Quest of the Hero:(Mythos Series)'' — Otto Rank, Lord Fitzroy Richard Somerset Raglan and Alan Dundes, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0691020620 |
*''In Quest of the Hero:(Mythos Series)'' — Otto Rank, Lord Fitzroy Richard Somerset Raglan and Alan Dundes, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0691020620 |
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*Carlyle, Thomas. ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History''. |
*Carlyle, Thomas. ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History''. |
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*''The Superhuman life of Gesar of Ling'' — Alexandra David-Neel (A divine hero still in oral tradition) |
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*The Jewish historian [[Josephus]] allegedly wrote about Jesus in ''Jewish Antiquities'', Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph 3 [http://www.josephus-1.com/ www.josephus-1.com] in the year 94. Most scholars regard this passage as a later insertion. |
*The Jewish historian [[Josephus]] allegedly wrote about Jesus in ''Jewish Antiquities'', Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph 3 [http://www.josephus-1.com/ www.josephus-1.com] in the year 94. Most scholars regard this passage as a later insertion. |
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* ''Bloodline of the Holy Grail'' by Laurence Gardner. A popular book, but with a hypothesis that would not be accepted by mainstream scholars. |
* ''Bloodline of the Holy Grail'' by Laurence Gardner. A popular book, but with a hypothesis that would not be accepted by mainstream scholars. |
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* ''Jesus and the Victory of God'' [[Tom Wright|N.T.Wright]], SPCK (London), 1996 ISBN 0281047170. Second in a projected massive five or six volume series on Christian origins, dealing with the life and death of Christ from a very open Evangelical perspective. The author is now Bishop of [[Durham]] (Church of England). |
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* [[Michael H. Hart]], ''[[The 100 (book)|The 100]]'', Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500 |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [http://www.insecula.com/contact/A004143.html/ 864 pictures] |
* [http://www.insecula.com/contact/A004143.html/ 864 pictures] |
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* [http://www.jesuschristonly.com/ Jesus Christ Only — Articles, Sermons & Quotes Dedicated to Jesus Christ] |
* [http://www.jesuschristonly.com/ Jesus Christ Only — Articles, Sermons & Quotes Dedicated to Jesus Christ] |
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* [http://www.allaboutjesuschrist.org/ All About Jesus Christ — Articles and FAQs] |
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* [http://www.alamoministries.com/ Literature about Jesus in english and many other languages] |
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* [http://st-takla.org/Gallery/Gallery-Jesus-01.html Jesus Gallery] Full from http://St-Takla.org |
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===Historical=== |
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*[http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/jesus.htm Overview of the Life of Jesus] A summary of New Testament accounts. |
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* [http://www.jcsm.org/biblelessons/JesusGod.htm Did Jesus Claim To Be God?] |
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*[http://www.hypemakers.net/resurrection/go.php?v=r&adv=2920 Perspectives on the Resurrection] ABC News 20/20 Special |
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* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/ From Jesus to Christ] – A [[Frontline_(PBS_TV_series)|Frontline]] documentary on Jesus and early [[Christianity]]. |
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* [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/jesus1.html A reconstructed portrait] of Jesus based on historical sources |
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* [http://www.Jesus-Institute.org The Words and Life of Historical Jesus] by Jesus Institute |
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* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/sw_unknown_life.asp The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ] by Nicholas Notovitch |
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* [http://www.uncc.edu/jdtabor/index.html The Jewish Roman World of Jesus] |
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* [http://religion.rutgers.edu/iho/index.html Into His Own: Perspective on the World of Jesus] |
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* [http://www.united.edu/portrait/ A Portrait of Jesus: From Galilean Jew to the Face of God] |
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* [http://www.ntgateway.com/Jesus/ University of Birmingham: The Historical Jesus] |
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* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit-the_christ_of_india.asp The Christ of India] Alleged evidence of what happened during the "lost years". |
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* [http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/oct1993/v50-3-article8.htm Historical context of Jesus' time] |
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* [http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/jesus.htm Jewish sects during Jesus' time] |
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* [http://www.vatican.va/jubilee_2000/magazine/documents/ju_mag_01031997_p-29_en.html Christ and the Other Religions] |
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===Views of religious groups=== |
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* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/christ.html Jesus Christ (Christology)] – Essays on the Deity of Jesus, Jesus' Offices of Prophet, Priest & King & The Historic Jesus. |
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* [http://www.christnotes.org/ Christ Notes] |
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* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374c.htm Jesus Christ Catholic Encyclopedia article] |
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* [http://www.ewtn.com/faith/teachings/JESUMENU.HTM EWTN's Jesus Christ webpage] |
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* [http://www.thewords.com/ The Words] – Website that organises Jesus' sayings by topic |
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* [http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2001/11/15/article_02.htm Jehovah's Witnesses' perspective] |
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* [http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,810-1,00.html Latter-day Saint (Mormon) beliefs about Jesus] |
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* [http://mama.indstate.edu/users/nizrael/jesusrefutation.html A Jewish response to Christian missionaries] |
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* [http://aaiil.org/text/books/others/khwajanazirahmad/jesusinheavenonearth/jesusinheavenonearth.shtml Jesus in Heaven on Earth: A Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement perspective] |
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* [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Jesus%20-%20An%20Islamic%20Perspective.html An Islamic perspective on Jesus] |
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* [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%285-116%20to%20120%29.html The qur'an on Jesus' divinity] |
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* [http://www.allaboutjesuschrist.org Jesus Christ] – A conservative Christian view |
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* [http://www.AllAboutGOD.com/is-Jesus-God.htm Is Jesus God?] – A fundamentalist view |
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===Other views=== |
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* [http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/jhcjp.htm The Jesus Puzzle] |
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* [http://www.geocities.com/paulntobin/jesus.html Skeptic's Guide to Jesus] |
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* [http://www.users.bigpond.com/pontificate/bindex.htm The Creation of Christ] The theory that Jesus was a myth based on Julius Caesar. |
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* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_jckr.htm The theory that the story of Jesus is based on the older Hindu story of Krishna] |
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* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_jcno.htm Religious Tolerance website about Jesus] |
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* [http://www.uua.org/pamphlet/3040.html Unitarian Universalist Views of Jesus]: prophet; dissident; one of many Christs |
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* [http://www.mind.net/rvuuf/pages/quests.htm The Many Quests for the Historical Jesus] (Unitarian summary of historical quests) |
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* [http://reluctant-messenger.com/issa.htm The theory and evidence of Jesus having lived in Ladakh, in the Himalaya from 12 to 29 years] |
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* [http://www.swami-center.org/en/chpt/jesusteaching/index.shtml The Original Teaching of Jesus Christ] Online book purporting to reconstruct the original teachings of Jesus. |
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* [http://www.eliyah.com/nameson.htm Jesus was actually called Yahushua] |
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Revision as of 14:50, 14 May 2005
This article is about Jesus Christ, founder of the Christian faith. For other uses of Jesus, please see Jesus (disambiguation)
Jesus (between 8 BC and 4 BC to c.AD 29), also known as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus the Nazarene, is the central figure in Christianity and is considered an important prophet in Islam, where he is known as Isa. The primary sources about Jesus and his teachings are the four Gospels, which depict him as a Jewish preacher and healer often at odds with Jewish authorities at that time.
The Gospels concentrate on the last one to three years of his life, particularly the last week before a death by crucifixion, sometime around the years 29 to 33. Those gospels depict little of his early life, apart from stories surrounding his birth, which according to best estimates would have been about 6–4 BC.
Though mention is made of a Jesus in the complete works of Josephus, and possibly as Yeshu in the Talmud, there are no other known contemporaneous textual references to Jesus outside of the canonical Christian texts and several non-canonical gospels such as the Gospel of Thomas. He is also mentioned in a number of other works, most significantly post-dating the first century.
Life and teaching according to the New Testament
Main articles: New Testament view on Jesus' life and Resurrection of Jesus
Jesus was born in Bethlehem to a Jewish family, while Nazareth in Galilee was his childhood home, the son of Mary (depicted as a virgin), and God Himself. Mary's husband was Joseph. The New Testament mentions others as relatives of Jesus — particularly James, Joseph, Jude, and Simon, as well as some unnamed sisters. There is considerable argument between religious and academic factions as to whether Mary was their mother, if they were Jesus' half-brothers from a prior marriage of Joseph, or if they were simply cousins.
The Gospels do not describe any of Jesus' life between the ages of 12 and 30, the last incident before the gap being that he instructed the scholars in the temple. Neither is much of his childhood discussed, though some non-Biblical texts go into this detail, some quite extensively.
Just after he was baptized by John the Baptist aged about 30, he began his public teaching. Jesus used a variety of methods in his teaching, such as paradox, metaphor and parable, leaving it unclear how literally he wished to be taken and precisely what he meant. Jesus also performed various miracles in the course of his ministry, ranging from cures to exorcisms, with several others that show a dominion over nature. Scholars in mainstream Christian traditions as well as some secular scholars view these as claims of supernatural power. However, others consider the stories to be allegorical—"He made the blind to see, and the deaf to hear" can be taken as meaning "He opened the eyes of people to the truth".
Jesus debated with many religious leaders including the opposing forces of Sadducees and Pharisees, and produced an argument which a few modern scholars think indicates that Jesus may have been a liberal Pharisee, or an Essene (although they were strict vegetarians, unlike Jesus). For many years in the first millennium, Jesus was cast as an enemy of the Pharisees, as the Pharisees had become the dominant sect of Judaism. In his role as a social reformer, and with his followers holding the inflammatory view that he was the Jewish Messiah, Jesus threatened the status quo.
Jesus also preached the imminent end of the current era (αίών) of history, in some sense a literal end of the world as people of his time knew it; in this sense he was an apocalyptic preacher bringing a message about the imminent end of the world the Jews knew. Some interpretations of the text, particularly amongst Protestants, suggest that Jesus opposed stringent interpretations of Jewish law, supporting the spirit more than the letter.
The Bible does not explicitly indicate that Jesus had any romantic relationships, and most scholars and Christians think that he had none. However, some contrary interpretations are based on references to "the disciple whom Jesus loved", usually thought to refer to John the Apostle though some think it might be a reference to Lazarus (see Secret Gospel of Mark, and a lesser number still think it may be Mary Magdalene.
Arrest and trial
Jesus is reported to have declared himself to be the long awaited Jewish Messiah, but was rejected as an apostate by the people generally considered to be the Jewish authorities. Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival, created a disturbance at the Temple by overturning the tables of the moneychangers (tax collectors) there. He was subsequently arrested on the orders of the Sanhedrin and the High Priest, Joseph Caiaphas. He was identified to the guards by one of his Apostles, Judas Iscariot, who is portrayed as having betrayed Jesus by a kiss.
He was condemned for blasphemy by the Sanhedrin and turned over to the Romans for execution. According to the gospels, Jesus was crucified by the Romans on the reluctant orders of Pontius Pilate, bowing to the Jewish religious leaders' pressure. Some scholars argue that it was an ordinary Roman trial of a rebel.See article "Barabbas" for alternative views. The formal charge cited in his execution was leading a rebellion: he was called the "King of the Jews" by Pontius Pilate on the titulus crucis or statement of the charge hung over the condemned on the cross (the Latin initials for the charge would have been INRI).
Following the crucifixion, a deal with Pilate by Joseph of Arimathea resulted in the body being taken down and entombed, during the presence of Mary and other women, notably Mary Magdalene.
Resurrection and Ascension
Jesus was raised from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion. This event is referred to in Christian terminology as the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, and is commemorated and celebrated by most groups who consider themselves Christians each year at Easter (on the Sunday).
No one was a witness to the resurrection, though those who went to anoint the body found the tomb empty. Jesus' disciples encountered him again on the third day after his death, raised back to life. After the resurrection, the Gospels give various accounts of Jesus meeting various people in various places over a period of forty days before "ascending into heaven".
Most Christians — even those who do not hold to the literal truth of everything in the gospels — accept the New Testament story of the Resurrection as a historical account of an actual event central to their faith — although some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection (e.g. John Shelby Spong).
Additionally, members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, the Mormons, believe that after his resurrection Jesus visited other people who believed in him around the world, including those in America, as related by the Book of Mormon.
According to most Christian interpretations of the Bible, the theme of Jesus' preaching was that of apocalyptic repentance. Later, Jesus extensively trained twelve Apostles to continue his teachings. Most Christians who hold that Jesus' miracles were literally true, not allegory, think that the Apostles gained the power to perform healing for both Jews and Gentiles alike after they had been empowered by the Holy Spirit which he was to send to them following his Ascension (this event is variously referred to as Pentecost or Whitsun).
Christianity
The acts and words attributed to Jesus by the gospels constitute Christianity's basic teachings. At least one of the Gospels states each of the following:
- Jesus preached primarily in Galilee and Judea, with a message of repentance and forgiveness of sins through faith in him.
- In Jerusalem during Passover, he was sentenced to death by the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, and executed by crucifixion.
- He was dead and entombed, but was resurrected or became alive on the third day.
- His teachings were initially spread by a group led by twelve followers usually referred to as his disciples or Apostles.
Most Christians further believe, based on those gospels, tradition, or personal experiences, that Jesus was the promised Messiah, the Saviour of all mankind, the Son of God, and one of the persons in the Godhead of the Trinity. Most Christians would equate Jesus with God himself, and when using pronouns to refer to him, use the honorifically capitalized "He", "Him", and "His", derived from their belief that Jesus was God incarnate.
Cultural and historical background
Main article: Cultural and historical background of Jesus
The world in which Jesus lived was volatile, marked by cultural and political dilemmas. Culturally, Jews had to grapple with the values and philosophy of Hellenism, together with the paradox that their Torah applied only to them, but revealed universal truths. This situation led to new interpretations of the Torah, influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism.
All of the Land of Israel belonged to the Roman Empire at the time given for Jesus' birth, but it was directly ruled by King Herod the Great. After Herod's death in 4 BC, Judea and Samaria were combined into the Roman province of Palestina, ruled by the Jewish High Priest under the supervision of a Roman procurator. Galilee, where Jesus grew up (according to the gospels), remained under the jurisdiction of Herod's son, the Tetrarch Herod Antipas.
Within Judaism, there were several parties, primarily the Sadducees, closely connected with the priesthood and the Temple, and the Pharisees, who were teachers and leaders of the synagogues. They resented Roman occupation, but at Jesus' time were not particularly political. Isolated in small communities from these main groups, by choice, lived the Essenes, whose theology and philosophy are perceived as having influenced Jesus and/or John the Baptist by many scholars. The Zealots, who advocated direct action against the Romans (eventually leading to the destruction of the temple, and the subsequent decline of the Saducees and Essenes), may have been active at this time (though this is debated).
Many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king (or Messiah) of the line of David — in their view the last legitimate Jewish regime. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Therefore the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention; thus, the majority of Jews accepted Roman rule. Some like John the Baptist in the first half of the century, and Yehoshua ben Ananias in the second, claimed that a messianic age was at hand. Others believed that the kingdom should be restored immediately, through violent human action.
Historicity
The primary sources for information about Jesus are the four canonical Gospels and several apocryphal gospels. A very small number of historians, citing the lack of external evidence, argue that no such person as Jesus ever existed. Other historians, however, maintain that the source documents (see Two-source hypothesis, Q document, and Gospel of John), on which the four canonical Gospels are based were written within living memory of Jesus's lifetime. They therefore consider that the accounts of the life of Jesus in those Gospels provide a reasonable basis of evidence for the historical existence of Jesus and the basic facts of his life and death (E.P. Sanders, for example, has argued that the documentary evidence for Jesus' existence is as strong or stronger than the documentary evidence for the existence of Alexander the Great).
Religious perspective
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Main article: Religious perspectives on Jesus
The vast majority of Christians believe Jesus was God Incarnate (a man who was the earthly aspect of God, as part of the Holy Trinity), who came to earth to save mankind from sin and death through the shedding of his own blood in sacrifice (salvation), and who rose from the dead and later ascended into Heaven.
Some groups identifying themselves as Christian, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, and Christian Scientists, believe Jesus was divinely inspired but not God incarnate. See also Nicene Creed. Others such as Mormons believe in the Trinity, but maintain that God the Father created Jesus as God the Son, that Jesus created the universe, and add their own sacred texts that continue on past the New Testament; and thus form a different sort of overall Christian history.
Islam teaches that:
- Jesus (Isa in Arabic) was one of God's many human prophets who were chosen to teach Islam to mankind at different stages; the final and completed stage being taught by God's final prophet, Muhammad.
- Jesus was one of God's most highest ranked and beloved prophet sent for the guidance of Children of Israel and who was born miraculously without any human biological father by the will of God.
- There is no god except the one true God. God does not have a son. Thus, as with all prophets, Jesus was a human being.
- As with all prophets, Jesus was able to perform miracles, but only by the will of God.
- Jesus was neither killed nor crucified; but God made it appear so to his enemies.
- Jesus is alive and shall return to the world in the flesh along with the Mahdi once the world has become filled with injustice.
Ahmadiyya Muslims believe that Jesus survived the crucifixion and travelled to Kashmir (See Yuz Asaf). They also believe that references to the Second Coming of Jesus in religious scriptures are allegorical and refer to the arrival of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.
Some Muslims accept the Gospel of Barnabas as the most accurate testament of Jesus.
Date of birth and death
Main article: Chronology of Jesus' birth and death
Brief timeline of Jesus
of important years from empirical sources.
| c. 8 BC | Suggested birth (earliest). |
| c. 4 BC | Herod's death. |
| c. AD 6 | Suggested birth (latest). Quirinius census. |
| c. 26/27 | Pilate appointed Judea governor. |
| c. 27 | Suggested death (earliest). |
| c. 36 | Suggested death (latest). |
| c. 36/37 | Pilate removed from office. |
The most detailed information about Jesus' birth and death is contained in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. There is considerable debate about the details of Jesus' birth.
Based on a lunar eclipse that Josephus reports shortly before the death of Herod the Great, the birth of Christ would have been some time before the year 4 BC, probably 5 or 6 BC. This estimate itself relies on the historicity of the Massacre of the Innocents involving Herod around the time of Jesus' birth. The accounts in the Gospels of the shepherds' activities, indicate that the time of year depicted for Jesus' birth could be spring or summer.
However, as early as 354, Roman Christians celebrated it following the December solstice in an attempt to replace the Roman pagan festival of Saturnalia. Before then, Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on January 6 as part of the feast of Theophany, also known as Epiphany, which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his baptism by John in the Jordan and possibly additional events in Jesus' life.
In the 248th year of the Diocletian Era (based on Diocletian's accession to the Roman throne), Dionysius Exiguus attempted to pinpoint the number of years since Jesus' birth, arriving at a figure of 753 years after the founding of Rome. Dionysius then set Jesus' birth as being December 25 1 BC, and assigned AD 1 to the following year — thereby establishing the system of numbering years from the birth of Jesus: Anno Domini (making the then current year 532). This system won acceptance and became the established calendar due to its championing by the Venerable Bede.
As for Jesus' death, the exact date is also unclear. All the synoptic gospels depict the crucifixion just after the Passover, whereas St John's Gospel depicts the crucifixion just before the Passover festival. Further, the Jews followed a lunisolar calendar with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. Allowing for the time of the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate and the dates of the Passover in those years, his death can be placed most probably in 30 or 33.
Names and titles
Main article: Names and titles of Jesus
"Jesus" transliterates the Greek Ιησους [Iēsoûs], and is assumed to be itself a transliteration from Aramaic or Hebrew (Yehoshua or Yeshua). "Christ" is a theological title, transliterating the Greek Χριστός [Christos], in turn a translation of the Hebrew Mashiach (משיח), meaning "anointed" or "the anointed one and his anointing". (See Messiah.)
Jesus is derived from the Greek Ιησους (Iēsoûs) via Latin. The earliest use of Iēsoûs is found in the Septuagint, as a transliteration of the Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושע — known in English as Joshua when transliterated directly from Hebrew), and also Yeshua (ישוע). Jesus' original name is not reported by contemporary or near-contemporary sources, but modern scholars have suggested that Jesus' name was the Aramaic ישׁוע / Yēšûaʿ (as in the Syriac New Testament) which was a fairly common name at the time. His patronymic would have been, ben Yosef, for "son of Joseph".
Christ is not a name but a title, which comes from the Greek Χριστός (Christos) via Latin, meaning anointed with chrism. The Greek form is a liberal translation of Messiah from Hebrew mashiach (משיח) or Aramaic m'shikha (משיחא), a word which occurs often in the Hebrew Bible and typically refers to the "high priest" or "king". The title Christ is also sometimes identified with the Greek chrestos, meaning "good", although the words are unrelated in terms of etymology, and Chrestus was often used as a pet name for slaves.
The Gospels record Jesus referring to himself both as Son of Man and as Son of God, but not as God the Son. However, some scholars have argued that Son of Man was an expression that functioned as an indirect first person pronoun, and that Son of God was an expression that signified "a righteous person". Evidence for these positions is provided by similar use by other persons than Jesus at a similar time to the writing of the Gospels, such as Jewish priests and judges.
In the Gospels, Jesus has many other titles, including Prophet, Lord, and King of the Jews. Together, the majority of Christians understand these titles as attesting to Jesus' divinity. Some historians argue that when used in other Hebrew and Aramaic texts of the time, these titles have other meanings, and therefore may have other meanings when used in the Gospels as well.
Relics
Main article: Relics of Jesus
There are many items that are purported to be authentic relics of the Gospel account, which are listed in the main article. The most famous alleged relics of Jesus are the Shroud of Turin, which is claimed to be the burial shroud used to wrap his body, and the Holy Grail which is said to have been used to collect his blood during his crucifixion and possibly used at The Last Supper. Many modern Christians, however, do not accept any of these as true relics. Indeed, this skepticism has been around for centuries, with Erasmus joking that so much wood formed parts of the True Cross, that Jesus must have been crucified on a whole forest.
Artistic portrayals
Main articles: Dramatic portrayals of Jesus Christ, Images of Jesus
Jesus has been portrayed in countless paintings and sculptures throughout the middle ages, renaissance, and modern times. Often he is portrayed as looking like a male from the region of the artist creating the portrait. According to historians, forensic scientists, and genetics experts, he was most likely a bronze-skinned man - resembling a modern day man of Middle Eastern descent.
Jesus has been featured in many films and media forms, sometimes seriously, and other times satirically. Many of these portrayals have attracted controversy, whether they were intended to be based on the Biblical accounts (such as Mel Gibson's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ and Pier Pasolini's The Gospel According to St. Matthew) or intentionally added extra material (such as The Last Temptation of Christ). Another recurring theme is the up-dating of aspects of the life of Jesus, or imagining his Second Coming (for example, The Seventh Sign). In many films Jesus himself is a minor character, used to develop the overall themes or to provide context. For example, in Ben-Hur and The Life of Brian Jesus only appears in a few scenes.
In music, many songs refer to Jesus and Jesus provides the theme for many classical works throughout musical history.
Sources and further reading
- The New Testament of the Bible, especially the Gospels.
- The Greek New Testament, Aland, United Bible Societies
- A Textual Commentary on the Greek NT, Metzger
- The Apostolic Fathers, Lightfoot, Harmer, Holmes
- Akers, Keith, "The Lost Religion of Jesus," ISBN 1930051263
- Badenas, Robert. Christ the End of the Law, Romans 10.4 in Pauline Perspective, ISBN 0905774930
- Brown, Raymond. Does the NT call Jesus God?, Theological Studies #26, 1965
- Dunn, James D.G. Jesus, Paul and the Law, ISBN 0664250955
- Ehrman, Bart. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, ISBN 0195154622
- Fredriksen, Paula. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity ISBN 0679767460
- Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ ISBN 0300084579, ISBN 0300040180
- Funk, Robert W. The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus
- McDowell, Josh. Evidence that Demands a Verdict, Two volumes looking at Jesus from the point of view of evidence. Vol I: ISBN 0918956463 , Vol. II: ISBN 0918956730
- Meier, John P. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus
- Pelikan, Jaroslav. Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture, Yale University Press, 1985, hardcover, 270 pages, ISBN 0300034962; trade paperback, HarperCollins reprint, 304 pages, ISBN 0060970804; trade paperback, Yale University Press, 1999, 320 pages, ISBN 0300079877
- Sanders, E.P. The historical figure of Jesus, Penguin, 1996, ISBN 0140144994. An up-to-date, popular, but thoroughly scholarly book.
- Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615. More specialistic than the previous book, though not inaccessible.
- Theissen, Gerd, and Annette Merz. The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide, Fortress Press, 2003, ISBN 0800631226. An amazing book, tough but rewarding, exceptionally detailed.
- Theissen, Gerd. The Shadow of the Galilean: The Quest of the Historical Jesus in Narrative Form. Fortress Press.
- Lewis, C.S. Mere Christianity ISBN 0060652926
- Vermes, Geza. Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels ISBN 0800614437
- Vermes, Geza. The Religion of Jesus the Jew ISBN 0800627970
- Vermes, Geza. Jesus in his Jewish context ISBN 0800636236
- Walvoord, John F. Jesus Christ Our Lord. Moody Press, 1969. ISBN 0802443265
- Wilson, Ian Jesus: The evidence ISBN 0297835297
- Yoder, John H. The Politics of Jesus ISBN 0-8028-0734-8
- Yogananda, Paramahansa: The Second Coming of Christ, ISBN 0876125550
- In Quest of the Hero:(Mythos Series) — Otto Rank, Lord Fitzroy Richard Somerset Raglan and Alan Dundes, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0691020620
- Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History.
- The Jewish historian Josephus allegedly wrote about Jesus in Jewish Antiquities, Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph 3 www.josephus-1.com in the year 94. Most scholars regard this passage as a later insertion.
- Bloodline of the Holy Grail by Laurence Gardner. A popular book, but with a hypothesis that would not be accepted by mainstream scholars.
See also
- List of founders of major religions
- List of people believing themselves deities
- Miracles of Jesus
- Resurrection of Jesus
- Anno Domini and Common Era (which show how Jesus' birth has influenced the modern day calendar)
External links
General
