List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology

Detail from the Arch of Titus showing spoils from the Sack of Jerusalem by Titus in 70 CE. Depicted are the menorah and trumpets, as well as what might be the Table of Showbread.

Black Obelisk 841 BC. Earliest known picture of an Israelite: possibly Jehu son of Omri, or Jehu's ambassador, kneeling at the feet of Shalmaneser III.

Lachish relief – Judean captives being led away into slavery by the Assyrians after the siege of Lachish in 701 BC, which is also well-preserved in a series of reliefs that once decorated the Assyrian king Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh.

The Cylinder of Nabonidus confirms Belshazzar's existence. (see Book of Daniel)

The Cyrus cylinder, regarding King Cyrus's treatment of religion, which is significant to the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah.

Taylor prism on display at the British Museum. Describes the Assyrian king Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem in 701 BC during the reign of king Hezekiah, which is recorded by Herodotus and the Bible in Isaiah chapters 33 and 36; 2 Kings 18:17; 2 Chronicles 32:9. Photo by David Castor.

Shalmaneser III's (859–824 BC) Kurkh Monolith names King Ahab.

Mesha Stele c. 850 BC – Possible reference to the House of David; also mentions Omri, Israel, Yahweh, Bezer and others

A stone on the Temple Mount with the Hebrew language inscription "To the Trumpeting Place"

Portal showing a series of inscriptions recounting pharaoh Shishaq's invasion of Judah and Israel in 925 BC, located at the Bubastis Portal outside the Temple of Amun at Karnak(1 Kings 14:25; 2 Chronicles 12:1–12).

Siloam Inscription Transcription.

Hezekiah's tunnel

Replica of the Gezer calendar in Gezer, Israel.

LMLK seal stamp; Redondo Beach collection #22

The following is a list of artifacts, objects created or modified by human culture, that are significant to the historicity of the Bible.

Artifacts

2000 BC

• Deluge Tablet – The Epic of Gilgamesh records a Babylonian flood story (see: Noah).
• Law tablets – ancient Near East legal tablets: Code of Hammurabi, Laws of Eshnunna, the Code of Ur-Nammu, king of Ur (ca. 2050 BC), the Laws of Eshnunna (ca. 1930 BC) and the codex of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (ca. 1870 BC). Later codes than Hammurabi's include the Code of the Nesilim. Hittite laws, the Assyrian laws, and Mosaic Law / Ten Commandments. (see Cuneiform law).
• Hittite texts (17th century BCE and later)

1500 BC

• Ugaritic religious texts – (14th – 12th century BC?) verifies the account of Philo, preserved by Eusebius, regarding the Canaanite religion.
• Amarna letters (c. 1300s BC) – correspondence on clay tablets between the Egyptian administration and various Middle East kings petty sub-rulers in Canaan during the New Kingdom.
• Ipuwer Papyrus (c. 13th century BC) – ancient papyrus manuscript describing Egypt as afflicted by natural disasters and in a state of chaos. Statements such as "the River is blood" have been interpreted by some as an Egyptian account of the Plagues of Egypt described in the Book of Exodus in the Bible. However, it is generally rejected by Egyptologists (see there Parallels with the Book of Exodus).
• Midianite pottery – (13th-12th centuries BCE) The Biblical account states that Midian was where Moses spent the 40 years between the time that he fled Egypt after killing an Egyptian who had been beating a Hebrew, and his return to lead the Israelites. During those years, he married Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro, the priest of Midian. In later years the Midianites were often oppressive and hostile to the Israelites, at least partly as God's punishment for their idolatry.
• Merneptah Stele (c. 1209/1208 BC).- one of the earliest known references to Israel or to the Israelites.

10th century BC

• Khirbet Qeiyafa pottery sherd – (10th century BC) early Hebrew inscription dates from the reign of King David and contains lines similar to Isaiah 1:17, Psalms 72:3, and Exodus 23:3. Was discovered in excavations near Israel's Elah valley.
• Gezer calendar (10th century BC) – calendar from the Biblical city of Gezer. It is one of the oldest known examples of Hebrew writing.
• Goliath Potsherd (10th to mid 9th centuries BC) – Potsherd inscribed with the two names "alwt" and "wlt", etymologically related to the name Goliath. The artifacts are therefore connected with Tell es-Safi, the traditional identification of Gath.
• Large Stone Structure – possible site of King David's palace (tentatively dated to 10th to 9th century BCE).
• Stepped Stone Structure – (1000-900 BC) - has been suggested as being Jebusite, the Millo, or part of the Large Stone Structure, which has been suggested as being part of King David's palace.
• Bubastis portal – showing a series of inscriptions recounting pharaoh Shishaq's invasion of Judah and Israel in 925 BC, located outside the Temple of Amun at Karnak.(1 Kings 14:25; 2 Chronicles 12:1–12).
• Shishaq Relief – depicts Egypt's victory over King Rehoboam c. 925 BC, time of the plunder of Solomon's Temple in Judah.

9th century BCE

• Amman Citadel Inscription – 9th century BC inscription in the Ammonite language, one of the few surviving written records of Ammon.
• Tel Dan Stele – (9th century BCE) a stele commemorating victory by Aramaeans against the Israelites. It is claimed by a number of scholars that the inscription contains the phrase House of David although others dispute this .
• Melcarth/Ben-Hadad stele – (9th–8th century BCE) William F. Albright identifies Bir-hadad with Ben-hadad I, who was a contemporary of the biblical Asa and Baasha.
• Seal of Jehucal – (9th century BCE ?) Jehucal or Jucal is mentioned in chapters 37 and 38 of the Book of Jeremiah where King Zedekiah sends Jehucal son of Shelemiah and the priest Zephaniah son of Maaseiah to the prophet Jeremiah saying `Please pray for us to the Lord our God` (Chapter 38 verse 3).
• Kurkh Monolith (c. 859–824 BC) - British Museum – names King Ahab of Israel, erected by Shalmaneser III to commemorate the Battle of Karkar, which Ahab participated in along with many other regional leaders.
• The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III (c. 858–824 BC) - British Museum – scholars believe the obelisk depicts either Jehu son of Omri (a king of Israel mentioned in 2 Kings), or Jehu's ambassador, paying homage to Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (c.825 BC); an early, possibly the earliest, surviving picture of an Israelite. The inscription identifies "the tribute of Jehu, son of Omri: I received from him silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden vase with pointed bottom, golden tumblers, golden buckets, tin, a staff for a king [and] spears."
• Ostraca House – (probably about 850 BC, at least prior to 750 BC) 64 legible ostraca found in the treasury of Ahab – written in early Hebrew.
• Mesha stele (also called the Moabite stone) (c.850 BC) – a Transjordan stele describing the victories of Moabite king Mesha over the Kingdom of Israel. French scholar André Lemaire suggested that line 31 of the Stele bears the phrase "the house of David" (in Biblical Archaeology Review [May/June 1994], pp. 30–37).
• Balaam inscription (c. 840–760 BC) 9th or 8th century BC inscription about a prophet named Balaam (cf. the Book of Numbers).

8th century BCE

• Sefire stele – (8th century BCE) described as "the best extrabiblical source for West Semitic traditions of covenantal blessings and curses."
• Siloam inscription – Records the construction of Hezekiah's tunnel in the 8th century BC .
• Stele of Zakkur – (8th century BCE) Mentions Hazael king of Aram.
• Shebna's lintel inscription – (8th - 7th century BCE ?) found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to Hezekiah's comptroller Shebna.
• Babylonian Chronicles (c. 747–247 BC) – dealing with Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem, etc. (see Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC), Zedekiah and Book of Kings, Book of Jeremiah, Lamentations.)
• King Ahaz's Seal (732 to 716 BC) – Ahaz was a king of Judah but "did not do what was right in the sight of the Lord his God, as his ancestor David had done" (2 Kings 16:2; 2 Chronicles 28:1). He worshiped idols and followed pagan practices. "He even made his son pass through fire, according to the abominable practices of the nations" (2 Kings 16:3). Ahaz was the son and successor of Jotham.
• Bullae (c.715–687 BC or 716–687 BC) (clay roundels impressed with a personal seal identifying the owner of an object, the author of a document, etc) are, like ostraka, relatively common, both in digs and on the antiquities market. The identification of individuals named in bullae with equivalent names from the Bible is difficult, but identifications have been made with king Hezekiah and his servants (????? avadim in Hebrew).
• Hezekiah's tunnel (c. 701 BC) – a tunnel created by King Hezekiah in anticipation of an Assyrian invasion. From National Geographic: "The tunnel, which is about 500 meters (550 yards) long, brings water from the Gihon Springs [sic], located some 300 meters (330 yards) outside the walls of old Jerusalem, to the Siloan Pool [sic] inside the ancient city. It was built to protect the city's water supply during an Assyrian siege".
• Lachish relief – portion of the Sennacherib relief, which depicts captives from Judah being led into captivity after the fall of Lachish in 701 BC
• Taylor Prism – a clay prism inscribed with the annals of the Assyrian king Sennacherib notable for describing his siege of Jerusalem in 701 BC during the reign of king Hezekiah. This event is recorded in several books contained in Bible including Isaiah chapters 33 and 36; 2 Kings 18:17; 2 Chronicles 32:9. This event is also recorded by Herodotus.

7th century BCE

• Ekron dedicatory inscription (7th century BC) – a dedicatory inscription of the seventh-century king of Ekron, Achish. Achish is a name used in the Hebrew Bible for two Philistine rulers of Gath. The inscription states "This temple was built by 'Akish, son of Padi, son of Yasid, son of Ada, son of Ya'ir, ruler of Ekron..." The inscription not only securely identifies the site, it gives a brief king-list of rulers of Ekron, fathers to sons: Ya'ir, Ada, Yasid, Padi, 'Akish.
• Bulla of Jehucal – son of Shelemiah, son of Shevi. This person seems to be mentioned (twice) in the Book of Jeremiah who thus presumably lived in the late 7th century BC (i.e. at about the same time as Jeremiah). (see Large Stone Structure for discovery) (see also Book of Jeremiah).
• LMLK seals on storage jar handles, excavated from strata formed by Sennacherib's invasion during the reign of Hezekiah (circa 700 BC).
• Necho II basalt cartouche - (610 BCE – 595 BCE) found at Sidon, suggesting Necho II's involvement in the region (see: Josiah)
• Bulla of Shaphan (r. 609–598 BC) – possible link to a figure during the reign of Jehoiakim.

6th century BCE

• Ketef Hinnom priestly blessing – Probably the oldest surviving texts currently known from the Hebrew Bible – Priestly blessing dated to 600 BC. Text from the Book of Numbers in the Old Testament. Described as "one of most significant discoveries ever made" for biblical studies.
• Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets (6th century BC) – Describe the rations set aside for a royal captive identified with Jehoiachin, king of Judah (Cf. 2 Kings 24:12,15–6; 25:27–30; 2 Chronicles 36:9–10; Jeremiah 22:24–6; 29:2; 52:31–4; Ezekiel 17:12).
• Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet – (circa 595 BC) a clay cuneiform inscription referring to an official at the court of Nebuchadrezzar II, king of Babylon, possibly the same official named in the Biblical Jeremiah.
• Lachish letters – letters written in carbon ink by Hoshaiah, a military officer stationed near Jerusalem, to Joash the commanding officer at Lachish during the last years of Jeremiah during Zedekiah’s reign (c.588 BC) (see Nehemiah 12:32, Jeremiah 42:1, 43:2). Lachish fell soon after, two years before the fall of Jerusalem.
• Cylinder of Cyrus (c. 559 BC-530 BC) – regarding King Cyrus's treatment of religion, which is significant to the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah.
• Cylinder of Nabonidus (555–539 BC) – proves Belshazzar's existence. See Daniel 5; 7:1; 8:1. Daniel 5 describes Belshazzar's Feast where a hand was seen writing on the wall of the chamber a mysterious sentence mene mene tekel upharsin. (see also Nabonidus Chronicle)
• Trumpeting place inscription – (after 516 BCE?) A stone (2.43x1 meters) with Hebrew language inscription "To the Trumpeting Place" excavated by B. Mazar at the southern-western corner of the Temple Mount. It is believed to be a directional sign for the priests who blew a trumpet announcing the beginning and end of the Shabbat in the Second Temple period.

5th century BCE

• Elephantine papyri, ancient Jewish papyri dating to the 5th century BC, name three persons mentioned in Nehemiah: Darius II, Sanballat the Horonite and Johanan the high priest.
• Nabonidus Chronicle – (5th century BCE) Amélie Kuhrt describes it as "the most reliable and sober [ancient] account of the fall of Babylon."

2nd century BCE

• Dead Sea Scrolls (150 BCE and 70 CE)
• Hasmonean coinage (164 BCE – 35 BCE)

1st century BCE

• Herod's temple (c. 19 BCE)
• Western Wall – (c. 19 BCE) is an important Jewish religious site located in the Old City of Jerusalem. Just over half the wall, including its 17 courses located below street level, dates from the end of the Second Temple period, being constructed around 19 BC by Herod the Great. The remaining layers were added from the 7th century onwards.
• Second Temple Inscription – inscription from Herod's Temple, late 1st century BC. It warns gentiles to refrain from entering the Temple enclosure, on pain of death.

1st century AD

• Jehohanan Crucifixion Nail (1st century AD) – Skeletal remains of crucified individual, showing a nail through the right calcaneus bone. It gives insight into the method of crucifixion used around the time of Jesus.
• Arch of Titus – (c. 82 AD) relief shows spoils from the sack of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD. Depicted are the menorah and trumpets, as well as what might be the Table of Showbread. (see: Judaea Capta coinage)
• Erastus Inscription (Roman period)
• Herodium (after 40 BCE)
• Judaea Capta coinage (after 70 AD)

2nd century AD

• List of New Testament papyri (after 100 AD)

Indefinite period

• Biblical period ostraca (broken pottery used for writing brief notes, the ancient equivalent of notepaper) are relatively common in archaeological digs. One ostracon, found at Elah, may contain the earliest known example of Hebrew.
• Bulla of Gedalyahu/Galihu Ben Immer – A bulla was excavated that contains part of a name Gabriel Barkay suggests may have been Galihu son of Immer, a brother of Pashur son of Immer, who is described in the Bible [Jeremiah 20:1] as a priest and temple official."
• Cave of the Patriarchs – The compound, located in the ancient city of Hebron, is the second holiest site for Jews (after the Temple Mount in Jerusalem) and is also venerated by Christians and Muslims all of whom have some traditions which maintain that the site is the burial place of three Biblical couples: (1) Abraham and Sarah; (2) Isaac and Rebekah; (3) Jacob and Leah.
• Foundation Stone – stone also called the Well of Souls, now located in the Dome of the Rock. According to the Bible, King David purchased a threshing floor owned by Araunah the Jebusite, and some believe that it was upon this rock that he offered the sacrifice mentioned in the verse. David wanted to construct a Temple in Jerusalem, but as his hands were "bloodied," he was forbidden to do so himself. The task was left to his son Solomon, who completed the Temple in c. 950 BC.
• Pim weight – evidence of the use of an ancient source for the Book of Samuel due to the use of an archaic term.
• Shiphrah slave list – Shiphrah was one of two midwives who helped prevent the genocide of Hebrew children by the Egyptians, according to the Book of Exodus 1:15–21. The name is found in a list of slaves in Egypt during the reign of Sobekhotep III. This list is on Brooklyn 35.1446, a papyrus scroll kept in the Brooklyn Museum.

Staircase that may have led up to the Temple

• Susa remains – Susa is mentioned in the Ketuvim of the Hebrew Bible, mainly in Esther, but also once each in Nehemiah and Daniel. Both Daniel and Nehemiah lived in Susa during the Babylonian captivity of Judah of the 6th century BC. Esther became queen there, and saved the Jews from genocide. A tomb presumed to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known as Shush-Daniel. The tomb is marked by an unusual white, stone cone, which is neither regular nor symmetric. Many scholars believe it was at one point a Star of David.
• Tomb of Daniel (before 1160 AD)
• Rachel's Tomb outside Bethlehem (before 4th century AD)
• Uzziah Tablet – (8th century BCE or 30-70 AD?) controversial tablet discovered in 1931 by Professor E.L. Sukenik of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in a Russian convent.
• Warren's Shaft – possible route corresponding to the biblical account of Joab, king David's commander, launching a secretive attack against the Jebusites, who controlled Jerusalem.
• Pool of Bethesda – in the nineteenth century, archaeologists discovered the remains of a pool exactly matching the description in John’s Gospel.

Controversial

• Acheiropoieta (see Shroud of Turin, Image of Edessa, and the Veil of Veronica)
• Ivory pomegranate
• James Ossuary
• Jehoash Inscription – controversial black stone tablet in Phoenician regarding King Jehoash's repair work. Suspected to be a forgery, (but see: Book of Kings).
• Shlomit / Temech seal
• Sudarium of Oviedo
• Tower of Siloam – ruins possibly mentioned in the Gospel of Luke.

Artifacts described but unknown to modern scholarship

• The Ark of the Covenant
• Ephod
• Hoshen
• Noah's Ark – Searches for Noah's Ark
• Solomonic column – (see Boaz and Jachin)

Forgery

• Stone Seal of Manasseh – Stone seal of Manasseh, King of Judah c.687–642 BC. Reportedly offered to a private collector for one million dollars.

Significant museums

• Israel Museum, Jerusalem
• Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem
• Hecht Museum
• Oriental Institute, Chicago

See also

Dead Sea scroll fragments on display at the Archaeological Museum, Amman

• Archaeology of Israel
• Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem
• Assyro-Babylonian religion
• The Bible and history
• Biblical archaeology (excavations and artifacts)
• Chronology of the Bible
• Cities of the Ancient Near East
• Hittite sites – Hittites – History of the Hittites
• Library of Ashurbanipal
• List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources
• List of burial places of Biblical figures
• List of Egyptian papyri by date
• List of megalithic sites
• Model of Jerusalem in the Late 2nd Temple Period
• Near Eastern archaeology
• Nag Hammadi library – early Christian gnostic papyri.
• Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible
• Oxyrhynchus Papyri – collection of Old and New Testament papyri, Apocryphal works and works of Philo
• Relics attributed to Jesus
• Syro-Palestinian archaeology