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This 11th-century image is one of many images of Jesus in which a halo is used to represent divinity.

Jesus (c. 6–4 BC to c. AD 29–33) is the central figure in Christianity, in which context he is known as Jesus Christ (from the Hebrew יהושע [Yĕhošūa‘], and Greek Χριστός [Christos]), and an important prophet in Islam. He is also called Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus the Nazarene. Some scholars believe that Yeshu, as found in the Jewish Talmud, also refers to Jesus, although many scholars dispute this.

The main account of his life is the four Gospels, which form the first books of the New Testament of the Bible. According to these, Jesus was the Messiah ("anointed one") and the Son of God, who preached a religious message in Galilee and Judea in Israel, and was ultimately sentenced to death and crucified in Jerusalem by order of the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate before rising from the dead on the third day. Jesus's acts and words, as presented in the New Testament, constitute Christianity's basic teachings. These teachings were spread by a small group of followers or disciples known as Apostles. The most prominent of the disciples was Paul of Tarsus, a Saint and putative author of several of the New Testament books, most notably the "Pauline epistles," which he is believed to have written while imprisoned.

Religious perspectives

Main article: Religious perspectives on Jesus

Most groups identifying themselves as Christians believe Jesus was God Incarnate (a man who was the earthly aspect of God, as part of the Holy Trinity), who came to earth to save humanity from sin and death through the shedding of his own blood in sacrifice (salvation), and who returned from the dead to rejoin his Father in Heaven. However, some groups identifying themselves as Christian, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, Unitarians, and Christian Scientists, believe Jesus was the son of God or divinely inspired but not God incarnate.

Muslim views of Jesus–Isa–hold that he was one of the prophets of Israel and the Messiah, but that the miracles were performed by God on Jesus' behalf, and consider any belief that he is divine to be a heresy, irreconcilable with Islam's monotheistic beliefs. The Ahmadiyya believe that Jesus was sent to reform, rather than prophecy to, the Hebrew people including the "Ten Lost Tribes," and hold that Jesus was crucified but did not die as a result. The Bahá'í Faith considers Jesus to be a manifestation of God.

Judaism has deemed Jesus a false messiah, and religious Jews are still awaiting the arrival of the Messiah; many Jews minimize Jesus' role as miracle worker, but a small number consider him a great teacher. Hinduism is divided on the issue of Jesus—some hold that he was just a man, others say he was a great guru or yogi, others still equate Jesus with an avatar. He has been claimed as an Ascended Master by Theosophy and some of its offshoots; related speculations have him studying mysticism in the Himalayas or hermeticism in Egypt in the period between his childhood and his public career.

Many atheists, agnostics, and deists believe that Jesus was an ordinary human, a traveling Jewish teacher who performed no miracles and made no claims of being God or of having supernatural abilities. Some faiths, on studying the origins of Christianity, believe there is not enough evidence to support that Jesus was a real person.

Non-religious perspectives

Many historians and other critical scholars of the Bible accept the existence of the biblical Jesus. Various scholars, however, have differing interpretations in regard to the authenticity of Jesus' divinity, miracles, and any other supernatural elements in accounts of his life. The divinity of Jesus was of course decided by a vote, when Emperor Constantine unified the Roman Empire around Christianity, thus suggesting an air of politicisation to this supposedly religious issue. It is not the case that all scholars reject Jesus' divinity, yet some may choose to describe the social and cultural implications of claiming divinity in the 1st century AD. As such, scholars are interested in providing an historical context to the beliefs and tenets of Jesus' Kingdom of God movement. They believe he was simply a Jewish apocalyptic teacher and faith healer who was crucified, and was subsequently the inspiration for Christianity.

Some academics, and other skeptics, see no evidence for Jesus as a real person, but think the evidence suggests he is either a composite figure, or a fictional personage not believed to be real by early Christians, based on morality stories, prior religion, and fable. Other academics and skeptics believe Jesus was a Jewish troublemaker who was put to death by the Romans at the behest of the Jewish establishment. It has also been suggested that Jesus did not die on the cross, with a variety of theories being suggested (see below).

Date of birth and death

Main article: Chronology of Jesus' birth and death Template:Timeline for Jesus The most detailed historical information about Jesus's birth and death is contained in the Gospels, but they were written to promote a philosophy and religion rather than to teach history. As a result, there is considerable debate about the exact date of birth and death of Jesus, even among Christian scholars.

Dionysius Exiguus attempted to pinpoint the year of Jesus's birth, which resulted in our current calendar system. According to his calculations, Jesus was born in December of the year 1 BC. However, based on a lunar eclipse that Josephus reports shortly before the death of Herod the Great, the birth of Christ must have been at some time before the year 4 BC, probably 5 or 6 BC. Allowing for the time of the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate and the dates of the Passover in those years, his death can be placed most probably in AD 30 or AD 33, and his birth was probably not in December, since based on the accounts of the shepherds and parts of the gospels, the time of year depicted was in spring or summer. This was changed by the Romans who celebrated the festival of Apollo from december 22nd for 3 days. They wanted to celebrate the comming of the saviour along with the festival. Further, the Jews followed the Lunar calendar with phases of the moon as dates. So the exact date in a solar calendar is difficult to predict.

As regards his death there is a controversy. All the gospels feel the crucifixion was before the passover, while St John's Gospel feels that the crucifixion was after the passover festival. This matter has not been resolved

Life and teaching according to the New Testament

File:Joyful3.jpg

This traditional image shows Jesus' birth in Bethlehem.

Main articles: New Testament view on Jesus' life and Resurrection of Jesus

Jesus was born in Bethlehem, while Nazareth in Galilee was his childhood home, as the son of Mary (a virgin) and God. Mary's husband was Joseph, who had sons called James, Joseph, Judas, and Simon, and some daughters, who may, or may not, be the children from a previous marriage rather than Mary's.

The Gospels do not describe much of Jesus' life between the ages of 12 and 32, the last incident before the gap being that he instructed the scholars in the temple, neither is much of his childhood discussed (though some non-Biblical texts go into this detail). However, just after he was baptized by John the Baptist, to whom Jesus' relationship is not made clear, Jesus began his public teaching.

Jesus used a variety of methods in his teaching, such as paradox, metaphor and parable, leaving it unclear how literally he wished to be taken and precisely what he meant. Jesus also performed various miracles in the course of his ministry, ranging from cures to exorcisms, with several others that show a dominion over nature. Scholars in mainstream Christian traditions as well as many secular scholars view these as claims of supernatural power. However, others consider the stories to be allegorical—"He made the blind to see, and the deaf to hear" is interperted by many as meaning "He opened the eyes of people to the truth."

Jesus debated with many religious leaders including the opposing forces of Sadducees and Pharisees, and produced an argument which a few modern scholars think indicates that Jesus may have been a liberal Pharisee, or an Essene. For many years in the first millennium, Jesus was cast as an enemy of the Pharisees, as the Pharisees had become the dominant sect of Judaism. In his role as a social reformer, and with his followers holding the inflammatory view that he was Messiah, Jesus threatened the status quo.

Jesus also preached the imminent end of the current era of history, in some sense a literal end of the world as people of his time knew it; in this sense he was an apocalyptic preacher bringing a message about the imminent end of the world the Jews knew. Some interpretations of the text, particularly amongst Protestants, suggest that Jesus opposed stringent interpretations of Jewish law, supporting the spirit of the law more than the letter of the law.

The Bible does not explicitly indicate that Jesus had any romantic relationships, and most scholars and Christians think that he had none. However, some contrary interpretations are based on references to "the disciple whom Jesus loved", usually thought to refer to John the Apostle though some think it might be a reference to Lazarus, and a lesser number still think it may be Mary Magdalene.

File:Michelangelo.pieta.350pix.jpg

Michelangelo's Pietà shows Mary holding the dead body of Jesus.

Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival, created a disturbance at the Temple by overturning the tables of the moneychangers there, and was subsequently arrested on the orders of the Sanhedrin and the High Priest, Joseph Caiphas. He was identified to the guards by one of his Apostles, Judas Iscariot, who is portrayed as having betrayed Jesus, by a kiss.

Jesus was crucified by the Romans on the reluctant orders of Pontius Pilate, bowing to the Jewish religious leaders' pressure. A deal with Pilate by Joseph of Arimathea resulted in the body being taken down and entombed, during the presence of Mary and other women, notably Mary Magdalene.

Jesus' disciples encountered him again on the third day after his death, raised back to life. No one was a witness to the resurrection, though those who went to anoint the body found the tomb empty. After the resurrection, the Gospels give various accounts of Jesus meeting various people in various places over a period of forty days before "ascending into heaven".

According to most Christian interpretations of the Bible, the theme of Jesus' preaching was that of apocalyptic repentance. Later, Jesus extensively trained twelve Apostles to continue his teachings. Most Christians who hold that Jesus's miracles were literally true, not allegory, think that the Apostles gained the power to perform healing to both Jews and Gentiles alike after they had been empowered by the Holy Spirit which he was to send to them following his Ascension.

Names and titles

Main article: Names and titles of Jesus

Jesus is derived from the Greek Ιησους (Iēsoûs) via Biblical Latin. The earliest use of Iēsoûs is found in the Septuagint, as a transliteration of the Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושע — known in English as Joshua when transliterated directly from Hebrew), and also Yeshua (ישוע). Jesus' original Aramaic name is not reported by ancient sources, though modern scholars have suggested ישׁוע / Yēšûaʿ which was a fairly common name at the time. His patronymic would have been, ben Yusef, for "son of Joseph."

Christ is not a name but a title, which comes from the Greek Χριστός (Christos) via Latin, which means anointed with chrism. The Greek form is a liberal translation of Messiah from Hebrew mashiyakh (משיח) or Aramaic m'shikha (משיחא), a word which occurs often in the Hebrew Bible and typically refers to the "high priest" or "king". The title Christ is also sometimes identified with the Latin crestus, meaning "useful", although the words are unrelated in terms of etymology, and Chrestus was often used as a pet name for slaves.

The Gospels record Jesus referring to himself both as Son of Man and as Son of God, but not as God the Son. However, some scholars have argued that Son of Man was an expression that functioned as an indirect first person pronoun, and that Son of God was an expression that signified "a righteous person." Evidence for these positions is provided by similar use by other persons than Jesus at a similar time to the writing of the Gospels, such as Jewish priests and judges.

In the Gospels, Jesus has many other titles, including Prophet, Lord, and King of the Jews. Together, the majority of Christians understand these titles as attesting to Jesus' divinity. Some historians argue that when used in other Hebrew and Aramaic texts of the time, these titles have other meanings, and therefore may have other meanings when used in the Gospels as well.

Historicity

File:Cliche picture of Jesus.jpg

The historical Jesus probably bore little resemblance to the contemporary popular conception.

Main articles: Historicity of Jesus, Jesus and textual evidence

Debates concerning Jesus as a historical figure center on three issues: the role of God in natural and human history, the veracity of the New Testament as a historical source, and the paucity of other, non-Christian sources that attest to events in the New Testament.

The question of God's role in natural and human history involves not only assumptions about God, but about how humans acquire knowledge. This subject is discussed in the disciplines of epistemology and metaphysics.

The 19th century was particularly marked by a movement toward higher criticism, where previously universally accepted tenets were closely inspected to determine their veracity. One of the major centers of this study with respect to the Bible and the life of Jesus was Eberhard Karls university in Tübingen, Germany. Some scholars in this group reached the conclusion that there was no historical Jesus at all.

As might be expected, opinions about the historicity of Jesus run the gamut from "myth" (Earl Doherty) to "demythologized" (Rudolf Bultmann) to "basically historical, with additions" (Will Durant) to "fully historical" (most conservative Christians).

Consensus on such an issue is particularly hard to reach, given that the subject touches on deeply held beliefs. The majority of Christian theologians and historians and some non-Christian theologians and historians acknowledge that a person named Jesus did exist in the first century. Beyond that, little has been absolutely agreed upon.

Cultural and historical background

Main article: Cultural and historical background of Jesus

The world in which Jesus lived was volatile, marked by cultural and political dilemmas. Culturally, Jews had to grapple with the values and philosophy of Hellenism, together with the paradox that their Torah applied only to them, but revealed universal truths. This situation led to new interpretations of the Torah, influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism.

All of Palestine belonged to the Roman empire at the time given for Jesus' birth, but it was indirectly ruled by King Herod the Great. After Herod's death in 4 BC, Judea and Samaria were combined into the Roman province of Palestina, ruled by the Jewish High Priest under the supervision of a Roman procurator. Galilee, where Jesus allegedly grew up, remained under the jurisdiction of Herod's son, the Tetrarch Herod Antipas.

Within Judaism, there were several parties, primarily the Sadducees, closely connected with the priesthood and the temple, and the Pharisees, who were teachers and leaders of the synagogues. They resented Roman occupation, but at Jesus' time were not particularly political. Isolated in small communities from these main groups, by choice, lived the Essenes, whose theology and philosophy are percieved as having influenced Jesus and/or John the Baptist by many scholars. The Zealots, who advocated direct action against the Romans (eventually leading to the destruction of the temple, and the subsequent decline of the Saducees and Essenes), may have been active at this time (though this is debated).

Many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king (or Messiah) of the line of David — in their view the last legitimate Jewish regime. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Therefore the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention; thus, the majority of Jews accepted Roman rule. Some like John the Baptist in the first half of the century, and Yehoshua ben Ananias in the second, claimed that a messianic age was at hand. Others believed that the kingdom should be restored immediately, through violent human action.

Relics

Main article: Relics of Jesus

There are many items that are purported to be authentic relics of the Gospel account, which are listed in the main article. The most famous alleged relic of Jesus is the Shroud of Turin, which is claimed to be the burial shroud used to wrap the body of Jesus. Many modern Christians, however, do not accept any of these as true relics. Indeed, this skepticism has been around for centuries, with Erasmus joking that so much wood formed parts of the True Cross, that Jesus must have been crucified on a whole forest.

Artistic portrayals

Images

Main article: Images of Jesus

Drama

Main article: Dramatic portrayals of Jesus Christ

Jesus has been featured in many films and media, sometimes as a serious portrayal, and other times as satire. Many of these portrayals have attracted controversy, whether they were intended to be based on the Biblical accounts (such as Mel Gibson's The Passion of the Christ and Pier Pasolini's The Gospel According to St. Matthew) or intentionally added extra material (such as The Last Temptation of Christ). Another recurring theme is the up-dating of aspects of the life of Jesus, or imagining his Second Coming (for example, The Seventh Sign). In music, many songs refer to Jesus.

In many portrayals Jesus himself is a minor character, used to develop the overall themes. For example, in Ben Hur and The Life of Brian Jesus only appears in a few scenes.

Sources and further reading

The New Testament of the Bible, especially the Gospels.
Albright, William F. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: An Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, ISBN 0931464013
Ehrman, Bart Jesus: apocalyptic prophet of the new millennium, ISBN 019512474X
Ehrman, Bart The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, ISBN 0195154622
Fredriksen, Paula Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity ISBN 0679767460
Fredriksen, Paula From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ ISBN 0300084579, ISBN 0300040180
Mendenhall, George E. The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8018-1654-8. A study of the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats the teachings and followers of Jesus in that context.
Mendenhall, George E. Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction to the Bible in Context, Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. ISBN 0-664-22313-3. Another, less technical, study of the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats the teachings and followers of Jesus in that context.
Pelikan, Jaroslav Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture, Yale University Press, 1985, hardcover, 270 pages, ISBN 0300034962; trade paperback, HarperCollins reprint, 304 pages, ISBN 0060970804; trade paperback, Yale University Press, 1999, 320 pages, ISBN 0300079877
Sanders, E.P. The historical figure of Jesus, Penguin, 1996, ISBN 0140144994. An up-to-date, popular, but thoroughly scholarly book.
Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615. More specialistic than the previous book, still not inaccessible though.
Theissen, Gerd & Annette Merz, The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide, Fortress Press, 2003, ISBN 0800631226. An amazing book, tough but rewarding, exceptionally detailed.
Theissen, Gerd The Shadow of the Galilean: The Quest of the Historical Jesus in Narrative Form. Fortress Press.
Lewis, C.S. Mere Christianity
Vermes, Geza Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels ISBN 0800614437
Vermes, Geza, The Religion of Jesus the Jew ISBN 0800627970
Vermes, Geza, Jesus in his Jewish context ISBN 0800636236
Walvoord, John F. Jesus Christ Our Lord. Moody Press, 1969. ISBN 0802443265
Wilson, Ian Jesus: The evidence ISBN 0297835297
Yogananda, Paramahansa: The Second Coming of Christ, ISBN 0876125550
In Quest of the Hero:(Mythos Series) — Otto Rank, Lord Fitzroy Richard Somerset Raglan and Alan Dundes, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0691020620
On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History — Thomas Carlyle
The Superhuman life of Gesar of Ling — Alexandra David-Neel (A divine hero still in oral tradition)
The Jewish historian Josephus allegedly wrote about Jesus in Antiquities, Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph www.josephus-1.com
Bloodline of the Holy Grail by Laurence Gardner. A popular book, but with a hypothesis that would not be accepted by mainstream scholars.
Jesus and the Victory of God N.T.Wright, SPCK (London), 1996 ISBN 0281047170. Second in a projected massive five or six volume series on Christian origins, dealing with the life and death of Christ from a very open Evangelical perspective. The author is now Bishop of Durham (Church of England).
Michael H. Hart, The 100, Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500

External links

General

@@ Line 18: / Line 18: @@
 ==Non-religious perspectives==
-Many historians and other critical scholars of the [[Bible]] accept the existence of the biblical Jesus.  Various scholars, however, have differing interpretations in regard to the authenticity of Jesus' divinity, miracles, and any other [[supernatural]] elements in accounts of his life. The divinity of Jesus was of course decided by a vote, when Emperor Constantine unified the Roman Empire around Christianity, thus suggesting an air of politicisation to this supposedly religious issue. It is not the case that all scholars reject Jesus' divinity, yet some may choose to describe the social and cultural implications of claiming divinity in the first century CE.  As such, scholars are interested in providing an historical context to the beliefs and tenets of Jesus' Kingdom of God movement.  They believe he was simply a [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[apocalyptic]] [[teacher]] and [[faith healer]] who was crucified, and was subsequently the inspiration for Christianity.
+Many historians and other critical scholars of the [[Bible]] accept the existence of the biblical Jesus.  Various scholars, however, have differing interpretations in regard to the authenticity of Jesus' divinity, miracles, and any other [[supernatural]] elements in accounts of his life. The divinity of Jesus was of course decided by a vote, when Emperor Constantine unified the Roman Empire around Christianity, thus suggesting an air of politicisation to this supposedly religious issue. It is not the case that all scholars reject Jesus' divinity, yet some may choose to describe the social and cultural implications of claiming divinity in the [[1st century]] AD.  As such, scholars are interested in providing an historical context to the beliefs and tenets of Jesus' Kingdom of God movement.  They believe he was simply a [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[apocalyptic]] [[teacher]] and [[faith healer]] who was crucified, and was subsequently the inspiration for Christianity.
 Some academics, and other [[skeptic]]s, see no evidence for Jesus as a real person, but think the evidence suggests he is either a composite figure, or a fictional personage not believed to be real by early Christians, based on morality stories, prior religion, and fable. Other academics and skeptics believe Jesus was a Jewish troublemaker who was put to death by the [[Roman]]s at the behest of the Jewish establishment. It has also been suggested that Jesus did not die on the cross, with a variety of theories being suggested (see below).