Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagar Empire during Deva Raya II (1446) and Krishnadevaraya (1520),
Official languages	Kannada Telugu
Capitals	Early Capital: Anegondi Regal Capital: Vijayanagara
Government	Monarchy
Preceding states	Hoysala, Kakatiya, Pandya
Succeeding states	Mysore Kingdom, Vijayanagar Empire in Penukonda, Keladi Nayakas of Shimoga, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayakas of Chitradurga, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayaks of Gingee.

File:Stonechariot Vitthala hampi.jpg

Stone Chariot Hampi

The Vijayanagara empire (Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ, Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము) (literally City of victory) was a notable South Indian empire based in the Deccan from 1336 onwards. It was founded by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I with the support of saint Vidyaranya. The empire is named after its capital city Vijayanagara, whose impressive ruins surround Hampi in modern Karnataka, India. It lasted from about 1336 to about 1660, though throughout its last century it was in a slow decline after a major defeat at the hands of an alliance of the Deccan sultanates in 1565. Its founding, and even great part of its history are only now being discovered but its power and wealth are attested by archaeological research and excavations and the writings of European travellers of medieval times, such as Portuguese Domingo Paes and Nuniz and the Venetian Niccolò Da Conti who travelled here in 1420. Works of literature in local vernaculars have also provided critical information needed to piece together the history of the empire.

The empire left behind a legacy of monuments spread all over South India, the most well known of which are the group of monuments at the regal capital Vijayanagara (Hampi). Efficient administration and overseas trade brought new technologies to South India, especially in irrigation and water management. Mingling of the people of Southern India, irrespective of faith and vernacular brought new inspiration in architecture resulting in the construction of Hindu temples in the Deccan style and later in the Dravidian idiom using locally available granite. The temple building traditions that had been acquired during the rule of previous empires of Southern India came together into one style, called the Vijayanagara Architecture. Royal structures were also built in secular style showing influences from the Sultanates of Northern Deccan. The empire patronised fine arts resulting in literature and poetry reaching a new peak in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Sanskrit and the evolution of Carnatic music to its current form. Above all, the empire created an epoch in the history of South India which rose above the politics of narrow regionalism espousing the cause of the ancient and indigenous Hindu dharma.

History

Main article: Origin of Vijayanagara Empire

The founding of the kingdom was based in the principality of Anegondi on the northern banks of Tungabhadra river in the present day Karnataka. The capital was later moved to Vijayanagara during the reign of Bukka Raya I. In early 14th century, the Hindu kingdoms of the Deccan had been overrun by Muslim invaders from the north. From 1309, Malik Kafur reached and captured Warangal, later on reaching the Malabar kingdoms. By 1336, The Seuna kingdom of Devagiri, the Kakatiya of Warangal, the Pandya of Madurai and the tiny kingdom of Kampili had been defeated by the forces of the Sultan. The Hoysala Empire was the only remaining Hindu kingdom left standing in the path of the Muslim invasion. In 1343, after the death of Hoysala Veera Ballala III in battle against the Sultan of Madurai, the Hoysala empire merged with the growing Vijayanagara kingdom.

Many theories have been propounded about the origin of Vijayanagara empire. Well known historians from Archeological Survey of India hold their own opinions about the origin of the empire. Some historians claim a Telugu origin of Harihara I and Bukka Raya, the founders of the empire. The Telugu origin theory is based on works by Robert Sewell and records written by Muslim writers of those times. Other historians however attest to the Kannadiga origin of the founders. The Kannada origin theory is based on epigraphy (study of inscriptions, numismatics) and literary works of Vijayanagara times in Kannada such as Kumara Rama charita, Chikkadevaraya Vamshavali and Keladinripa Vijayam. The theory that the founders were ably supported by sage Vidyaranya in founding the empire is a popularly accepted. Writings by various foreign travellers during the late medieval era have also provided useful information regarding the empire.

To sum up, unless new evidence is discovered, the ancestry of Vijayanagara empire founders will remain a controversial matter. Modern research in the Vijayanagara principality has helped throw up much needed information about the history of this empire, its fortifications, scientific developments and architectural innovations, many of which actually bear influences from outside the empire.

Within the first two decades of coming to power, Harihara I gained control of most of the area south of Tungabhadra river. He earned the title Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara (master of the eastern and western oceans). His patronage of Sringeri monastery started from his 1346 grant to the order to build the Vidyasharnaka temple. His four brothers were governors of various regions of the kingdom. By 1371 Bukka Raya who succeeded Harihara I defeated the chiefdom of Arcot (1360), Reddys of Kodavidu and Sultan of Madurai and annexed it to the kingdom. By 1374, the regions of present day Goa, Tungabhadra - Krishna River doab came under their control, the island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged with the Ming Dynasty of China.

With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now beginning to look like an imperial empire, Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I defeated the Bahmani Sultan Mujahid and captured important ports of present day Goa, Chaul and Dabhol in North Konkan, forts in Udayagiri in Andhra Pradesh and defeated the Velamas of Rachakonda north of the Krishna river bringing the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella. Deva Raya I was the next capable ruler who fought the Gajapatis of Orissa successfully. Important works of fortification and irrigation were under taken during his time. The next ruler, Deva Raya II who was called Gajabetekara took control in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers. His rule saw successes against the Gajapatis of Orissa, Reddys of Kondavidu, the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon. An invasion of the island of Lanka and his overlordship over the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim brought rich tributes to the empire. Persian traveller Abdur Razzak who travelled in Vijayanagara in 1443 praised the king, his empire and achievements in war and cultural affairs. During this period, scholars in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit adorned his court. The empire declined during the later part of 15th century due to weak rulers and territory was lost to encroachment of ambitious subordinates untill the time of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya a commander who took control in 1485 and made a serious attempt to reconsolidate the empire. He was followed by his able general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, son of Tuluva Isvara in 1491 who took proxy control of the empire and fought many wars to prevent its disintegration. After nearly two decades of conflict with rebellious chieftains, The empire eventually came under the rule of the able son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, Krishnadevaraya.

In the following decades, the Vijayanagara empire dominated all of southern India serving as a bulwark against invasion from the Turkic Sultanates of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and remained in constant competition and conflict with the five Deccan Sultanates that had established themselves in the Deccan to the north of it. This period saw the growth of trade ties with the Portuguese, who captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur.

The empire is generally considered to have reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya during whose time Vijayanagara armies were successful and victorious everywhere. The annexation of Bijapur, Raichur and Bidar, territories in the eastern Deccan including Kalinga, supremacy over rebellious feudatories of Kondavidu, Rachakonda, Ummatur and chiefs of Tamil country brought the whole of South India under one umbrella. Many noted monuments were either completed or commissioned during his time. Among these are the Hazara Rama temple, the Krishna temple and the Ugra Narasimha idol, all at Vijayanagara.

Krishna Deva Raya was followed by Achyuta Raya in 1530 and in 1542 by Sada Siva Raya when the empire still remained unchallenged. The real power however lay with Aliya Rama Raya, son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya, who seemed to have made a point of unnecessarily provoking the Deccan sultanates who eventually allied against him. However some historians disagree with this and believe Rama Raya's involvement in Sultanate affairs was with the best interests of Vijayanagar.

File:Harara Rama templepillars DK.jpg

courtyard pillars Hampi

At the battle of Talikota in 1565, after what seemed like an easy victory for Vijayanagara armies, the sudden capture and killing of Aliya Rama Raya created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagara ranks. The Vijayanagara army was routed by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates who later attacked and plundered Hampi reducing it to ruins as it stands today. With this, the last significant Hindu state in the Deccan came to an end. Tirumala Raya, the sole survivor left Vijayanagara with vast amounts of treasure on the back of 550 elephants to Penukonda. Though the battle is called "Battle of Talikota", some scholars say the war was actually fought in between two towns Rakkasagi and Tangadigi in modern Bijapur district close to Talikota and is also called "Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi", while another scholar claims Bannihatti was the actual battle ground. Many theories have been proposed for the sudden defeat but the most prominent cause seems to be betrayal by two commanders called Gilani brothers who were employed by Rama Raya. Regarding the pillage of Vijayanagara, though some scholars say this was in revenge for similar atrocities committed earlier by Rama Raya in the Sultanate kingdoms, this theory has not found too much support because it is well known that Rama Raya was a secular man and that many Muslims had been promoted to high cadre in his government.

Main article: Battle of Talikota

After the defeat at Talikota, while the empire still continued to have some power and commanded respect from locals, it went into a steady decline, with the capital being changed on three occasions. It is known however that they continued to trade with the Portuguese and that they gave the British the land grant that enabled the establishment of Madras. The Telugu work Vasucharitamu refers to Tirumala Raya (Aliya Tirumala, another son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya), the first of the Aravidu line of coronated rulers (1570) as the reviver of the Karnata Empire. He ruled a diminished empire from Penukonda in present day Andhra Pradesh. He was succeeded by his son Sriranga I during whose rule the empire shrank further. Next came his able brother Venkata II who made Chandragiri his capital, repulsed the invasion of the Bahamani Sultans and saved Penukonda from being captured. His death brought internal revolt for succession and finally Ramadeva took power and ruled till 1632. After his death, the grandson of Aliya Rama Raya, Venkata III became king and ruled for about ten years. During the rule of Sriranga III, Vellore had become the capital and the empire came to an end with a successful invasion of Vijayanagar territory by the Sultan of Bijapur and Golkonda. Following this, the largest feudatories of the erstwhile empire, the Nayakas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the Kingdom of Mysore became the main powers in South India.

Background

Natural fortress, Hampi

Chalukya pillars and dravida vimana, Hampi

Main articles: Ancient City of Vijayanagara and Life in Vijayanagara Empire

Land
The principality of Vijayanagar, from its outermost fortifications consists of Anegondi in the north to the town of Hospet in the south covering in total about 650 km². The core area of Vijayanagara which covers around 25 km² includes the Tungabhadra river flowing through a rocky terrain with massive boulders piled up in impressive formations. In addition to this landscape which is naturally daunting, man made fortifications surrounded the regal city in several layers. The rocky hillocks made excellent sentinel points or watch towers and boulders provided raw material for temple construction activities. Going south from the river, the rocky landscape disappears replaced by flat cultivable land where temples large and small complexes were built. The largest human populations were located to the south of the irrigated lands, fed by clever ducts and anecut (dams) channelling water to the capital from the river. At its peak, Vijayanagara may have had up to a million residents.

Legend
Two important legends associated with Hampi, the core area of Vijayanagar had an important part in making the place pilgrim destination for centuries prior to the Vijayanagara era. One legend has it that a local Goddess called Pampa married Virupaksha (Lord Shiva) on the Hemakuta Hill and hence came to be considered an incarnation of Parvati. From Pampa came the name Pampe or in Kannada Hampe. The other legend draws from the Hindu epic Ramayana where Lord Rama and brother Lakshmana came looking for Sita to the area, the location of the ancient capital of Kishkindha and met Hanuman on the Rishyamuka Hill. Then followed a covenant between Sugreeva, the monkey king in exile and Rama to mutually help each other in finding Sita and getting rid of evil King Vali. The agreement is celebrated by the presence of a temple with icons of Lord Rama, Lakshmana and Sugreeva. Hanuman, the devout follower of Rama is said to have been born on Anjenadri Hill, near Tungabhadra river facing Hampi and hence his name Anjaneya. Archaeology traces the history of Hampi to neolithic settlements while inscriptional evidence confirms in more recent times the area came under the rule of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and finally the tiny kingdom of Kampili.

Choice of Capital
The legendary associations of the area with Lord Virupaksha (Harihara and Bukka Raya being of Shaiva faith) and Lord Rama, the personification of the perfect king was not lost to the founders of the empire. Its natural ruggedness and inaccessibility must have all been reasons to choose this area as the capital of the new empire. During the rule of the empire, Vijayanagara came to be known as one of the most beautiful cities in India. A copper plate inscription (Tamarashasana) of Marappa, one of the Sangama brothers dated 1346 states the Sangama genealogy and identifies family deity (gotradhidaivam) of the Sangama family as Lord Virupaksha of Hampi. Inscriptions attesting the elevation of Lord Virupaksha to Rashtra devata (God of the Kingdom) have been found. By the time of Bukka I, the capital had already grown into a great capital and inscriptions calls it great Nagari named Vijaya situated in Hemakuta.

Culture

Religion

File:HazaraRamatemple Blackgranite DK.jpg

Rangamantapa, Black Granite pillars Hampi

Main article: Haridasas of Vijayanagar Empire

The empire was built with the intention of protecting Hindu dharma from the onslaughts of the Mugal invasion of South India. However, the kings were tolerant to all religions and sects as attested by travelogues of foreign visitors to the empire. The Vijayanagara kings used titles like Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (protector of cows), Hindurayasuratrana (upholder of Hindu faith) testifying to their intention of protecting Hinduism. The founders of the empire Harihara I and Bukka Raya I were devout Shaiva (worshippers of Shiva) but made many grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint and made Varaha (boar, an avatar of Vishnu) their emblem. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi and Lord Venkateshwara at Tirupati. A Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani (Protective jewel of Karnata Empire). They patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.

The Bhakti movement (devotional movement) was active during this time and involved well known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas represented two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta, the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (Devaranamas and Kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples like Vyasatirtha, Naraharitirtha, Padmanabha Tirtha, Akshobhya Tirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha and others. Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya and Vadirajatirtha are called the Yathi Trayaru (holy Trinity) of the Madhvacharya order. In the 15th century, the haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraya but his disciple Vyasatirtha provided it a strong organisational base and was intimately associated with the Vijayanagara Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force. His eminent disciples were Sri Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa (Father of Carnatic music), Kanakadasa and King Krishnadevaraya who considered the saint his Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in many of his writings. During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Tallapakam Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu language at Tirupati in present day Andhra Pradesh.

The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita philosophy.

Contact of Islam with South India started as early as 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and the Arab lands. Jumma Masjid's existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century. Muslim settlers married local women and their children came to be known as Mappillas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trade and manning fleets. The interactions of the Vijayanagara empire with the Bahamani Sultanates to the north resulted in increase of Muslims in the south. The introduction of Christianity to South India may have begun as early as 8th century owing to findings of grants on copper plate inscriptions made to Malabar Christians. However Christian travellers often wrote of scarcity of Christians in South India in the middle ages making it an attractive region for missionary activity. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century, their trade interaction with the empire, propagation of the faith by Saint Xavier (1545) and the later Dutch settlements gave impetus to growth of Christianity in the south.

Literature

Main article: Vijayanagara Empire Literature

The Vijayanagar era is considered a golden age of arts and cultural developments. Great works in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil were written. A magnificent epoch in the history of South India, the period saw the rise of Telugu language as a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya.

Kannada
The Vijayanagara era continued the ancient tradition of Kannada literature. In Kannada, famous Jain poets were Madhura (patronised by King Harihara II and Deva Raya I), Ratnakaravarni and others. Virashaiva literature saw a renaissance with many famous works by Singiraja, Mallanarya (who was patronised by King Krishnadevaraya). Deva Raya II patronised several Virashaivas like Lakkana Dandesa, Chamarasa, Jakkanarya. Tontada Siddesvara was the guru of King Virupaksha Raya II. Famous among Vaishnava scholars were, Kumara Vyasa (patronised by Deva Raya II), Timmanna Kavi and Chatu Vittalanatha (patronised by King Krishnadevaraya and Achyuta Raya), Narahari and Kanakadasa. Purandaradasa (who was patronised by Achyuta Raya) and Kanakadasa wrote Dasa Sahithya and Keerthanas (devotional songs) sowing the seeds of carnatic music. Nanjunda, Kereya Padmarasa, Mangaraja and Linganna were other famous poets.

Telugu
The Vijayanagar period was the golden age of Telugu literature. Famous among Telugu scholars were Srinatha (who was patronised by the Kondavidu Reddy Kings and Sangama brothers), Mallayya, Singayya, Vishvanatha Nayani and Nachanna Soma (who was patronised by Bukka Raya I). During the reign of Krishnadevaraya, Telugu culture and literature flourished and reached their heyday. The emperor was himself a celebrated poet having composed Amuktamalyada. In his court, eight Telugu poets were regarded as the eight pillars (Astadiggajas) of the literary assembly. These poets were Allasani Peddana, Nandi Thimmana, Madayyagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramambhadrudu, Pingali Surana, Ramarajabhushanudu, and Tenali Ramakrishna.

Sanskrit
Sanskrit literature was given state patronage by the Vijayanagar kings. Some important scholars were Sayana, Madhva Vidyaranya, the spiritual force behind the founding empire, Devanna Bhatta, Gangadevi and Tirumalamba Devi, Rajanatha Dindima, Rajanatha Dindima II, Vedanta Desika, Gunda Dindima and Gangambika. Some Vijayanagar kings were also scholars. King Deva Raya I, Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya, Krishnadevaraya were themselves accomplished scholars in Sanskrit.

Tamil
Krishnadevaraya also patronised Tamil poet Haridasa Other Tamil poets during this time were Arunagirinatha, Svarupananda Deshika, Tattuvaraya, Pugalendi, Jnanprakashar, Andari, Kacchiyappa Shivacharya and Ilanjuriyar.

Architecture

Main articles: Vijayanagara Architecture, Vijayanagara, and Hampi

File:Harara Rama Bow DK.jpg

Lord Rama breaking Shiva's bow, Hampi

File:Hazara Rama rearview DK.jpg

Inside the Hazara Rama temple Hampi

Watch tower, secular style Hampi

The Vijayanagara Architecture is considered by many historians a vibrant combination of Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in the previous centuries. They left behind a legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting that influenced the development of arts long after the empire came to an end. The hallmark of their style was the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marraige hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). The use of locally available hard granite was popularised due to an imperative need for durability rather than sculpturability, the kingdom being under constant threat of invasions. While their monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air theatre of monuments at their capital Vijayanagara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

During the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but later a slow transition to dravida style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs occured. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka Raya I and Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan architecture. The varied and intricate treatment given to various style of pillars was their special feature. At Hampi, though the Vitthala temple is the best example of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a more modest but perfectly finished example. The conspicuous feature of their style was the return of simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. The grandest specimen of Vijayanagara art, the Vitthala temple took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.

Other important features of Vijayanagara style was the creation of large monolithics such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha, Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi, Gomoteshwara statues in Karkala and Venur, the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. Vijayanagara temples of Bhatkal, and other towns of coastal Karnataka, Kanakagiri, Sringeri, Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are also noted examples of their style. The Vijayanagara art also includes paintings such as Dasavathara and Girijakalyana in the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, Shivapurana paintings at Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi and paintings at the Jain basadi, Kamaskshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi. Some historians feel the mingling of architectural styles of South India resulted in a certian richness not seen in earlier centuries with a focus on decoration rather than sculpture perhaps surpassing anything else similar in India.

A dimension of the Vijayanagara architecture that brings out the cosmopolitan lifestyle of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic influence. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that betray these influences. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers indicates they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of these structures seem to have migrated into Vijayanagara during early 15th century coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II who are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform" (Mahanavmi dibba) has relief carvings which appear to depict figures of central Asian Turks who were known to be have been employed as royal attendants.

Language

The use of Kannada, Telugu and Tamil were extensive in their respective regions of the empire. Over 7000 inscriptions (Shasana) including 300 copper plate inscriptions (Tamarashasana) have been recovered to date, almost half of which are in Kannada, the remaining in Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, bilingual inscriptions having lost favour by the 14th century. The empire minted coins at Hampi, Penugonda and Tirupati with Devanagari, Kannada and Telugu legends usually carrying the name of the ruler. Gold, silver and copper were used to issue coins called Gadyana, Varaha, Pon, Pagoda, Pratapa, Pana, Kasu and Jital. The most beautiful of these were coins with the images of various Gods including Balakrishna (infant Krishna), Venkateshwara the preciding deity of the temple at Tirupati, Goddesses such as Bhudevi and Sridevi, devine couples, animals such as bulls and elephants and birds. The earliest coins feature Hanuman and the Garuda (divine eagle), the vehicle of Lord Vishnu. Kannada and Telugu inscriptions have been deciphered and recorded by historians of the Archeological survey of India.

Successors of Vijayanagar empire

After the decline of the empire, The Nayaka feudatories gained independence. They were the Nayakas in Karnataka and TamilNadu. They made a major impact in the later political scene. Among them the Madurai Nayaks ruled till 1734, The kingdom of Mysore lasted until Indian independence in 1947, although during the later part of their rule, from 1799 CE., they came under the British Raj. The Keladi and Chitradurga Nayakas also ruled till the end of 18th. century.

• Nayaks of Madurai

• Nayaks of Tanjore

• Keladi Nayakas of Shimoga

• Nayakas of Chitradurga

• Mysore Kingdom

• Nayakas of Gingee

References

• Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041
• K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002) ISBN 0-19-560686-8
• Hampi, A Travel Guide, Department of Tourism, India, Good Earth publication, New Delhi 2003
• New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, MARG, 2001, ISBN 81-85026-53-X
• Research on Vijayanagar empire by Robert Sewell

• Vijayanagar coins, Govt. museum, Chennai
• Coins of Vijayanagar Empire
• Vijayanagar Coinage
• History of Karnataka - Mr. Arthikaje,© 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc
• Indian Inscriptions - Archeological Survey Of India
• Cited and adapted from public domain source
• A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar: A Contribution to the History of India
• Vijayanagar Empire, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• A Complete list of Haridasas of Karnataka, C.R. Madhusudana Rao

The empire and modern media

The heroics and achievements of the empire have been brought out in modern films on multiple occasions.

• Vijayanagarada Viraputra about the life of Harihara I (Kannada)
• Sri KrishnaDeva Raya (Kannada and Telugu)
• Kumara Rama, prince of Kummatadurga, Bellary district, also known as Kampili kingdom (Kannada)

Free e-Book

• [1] A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): a contribution to the history of India (Translation of the "Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga" written by Domingos Paes and Fernão Nunes about 1520 and 1535, respectively, with a historical introduction by Robert Sewell).available freely at Project Gutenberg

Related links

• The Vijayanagar Empire - Vikram.G.Aarella
• (Biography of Hakka and Bukka
• Hampi - History and Tourism