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Sri Lanka Army

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Sri Lanka Army

File:The Sri Lanka Army Flag And Crest.JPG
Sri Lanka Army Insignia and Flag
ActiveOctober 9, 1949 - Present
CountrySri Lanka
BranchSri Lanka Armed Forces
RoleForeign and Domestic Defense
Size150,000[1][2]
Part ofMinistry of Defence
Military HeadquartersArmy Headquarters, Colombo
Motto(s)Latin: Pro Patria
"For Country" [3]
AnniversariesOctober 9
EngagementsWorld War II
1971 Insurrection
Insurrection 1987-89
Sri Lankan Civil War
Commanders
Commander of the Sri Lanka ArmyLt. Gen. Sarath Fonseka
Notable
commanders		Gen. D.S. Attygalle

Lt. Gen. Denzil Kobbekaduwa

Maj. Gen. Vijaya Wimalaratne
Sri Lanka Army
Components
History
Equipment
Leadership and ranks

The Sri Lanka Army is the oldest and largest of the Sri Lanka Armed Forces and is responsible for land-based military and humanitarian operations. Established as the Ceylon Army in 1949, it was renamed when Sri Lanka became an independent republic in 1972. As of the year 2000, the Army had approximately 150,000 regular and reserve personnel and 18,000 National Guardsmen[1][2] and comprises 13 operational divisions, one air-mobile brigade, one commando brigade, one special forces brigade, one independent armored brigade, three mechanized infantry brigades and over 40 infantry brigades.[4]. Since the 1980s the army has been engaged in the Sri Lankan civil war.

The professional head of the Sri Lanka Army is the Commander of the Army, currently Lieutenant General Sarath Fonseka. The Commander-in-Chief of the Sri Lankan Military is the President of the country, who heads the National Security Council through the Ministry of Defense, which is the highest level of military command charged with formulating, executing defence policy and procurements for the armed forces.[5]. However operations of the Sri Lanka Army are coordinated by the Joint Operations Command, with other two armed forces.

History

Ancient and pre-colonial times

The first military engagements in Sri Lankan history were marked by the advent of King Vijaya, a North Indian prince who landed along with his followers on the beaches of northwestern Sri Lanka around 543 BC. Prince Vijaya and his followers occupied the lands of the native Veddah people. Repeated incursions by South Indians, particularly the Cholas, into Sri Lankan territory occurred throughout the next few centuries and led to the engagement of the rival forces in battle.[6] In one famous encounter, Sinhalese King Dutugemunu (200 BC) raised an army of eleven thousand inhabitants in his battle against the Chola invader King Elara, whom he eventually defeated. King Dutugemunu's organizational skills, bravery and chivalry are famous and his battles have gone down in history as outstanding offensive operations.[7]

Other Sri Lankan rulers whose military achievements stand out include King Gajabâhu (113 AD), who sailed to India to bring back his captured soldiers, and King Dhatusena (433 AD) who is credited with repulsing numerous Indian invasions and for organizing a naval build-up to deter seaborne attacks. He also had the foresight to cover his defenses with artillery. Vijayabâhu I (1001 AD) was another warrior king who dislodged Indian invaders and united the country. Parakramabahu the Great (1153 AD) was an outstanding monarch of the Polonnaruwa period of Sri Lankan history, and his accomplishments as a military leader and a great administrator are noteworthy. His reign included a military expedition to Burma (Myanmar) in retaliation for indignities inflicted on his envoys and Burmese interference in the elephant trade. This marked the first overseas expedition in Sri Lankan military history. It is also reported that Parakramabahu's fame was such that his assistance was sought by South Indian rulers who were involved in internecine struggles. Another strong ruler in the pre-colonial era was Parâkramabâhu VI, who defeated Indian invaders, united the island and ruled it from capital Sri Jayawardhanapura, Kotte.[7] Although the known epigraphical records do not indicate that the Sri Lankan rulers had a full-time standing army at their disposal, there is evidence supported by legend, designation, name, place and tradition that prove there were 'stand-by' equestrian, elephant, and infantry divisions to ensure royal authority at all times. Militias were raised as the necessity arose, and the soldiers returned to their pursuits, mainly for farming, after their spell of military duty.[7]

Colonial era

Parts of Sri Lanka came under the control of three colonial European powers, namely the Portuguese in the 16th century, the Dutch in the 17th century and the British in the 18th century. Yet, until the entire island was ceded to the British in 1815, regional kingdoms maintained most of their independent defense forces and were able to successfully repulse repeated thrusts by the European armies. However the British, unlike their counterparts, were not primarily restricted to maritime power, and thus had the capability to bring the entire island under their control and to integrate locals into the British defense forces.[7]

Portuguese and Dutch rule (1505-1796 AD)

In the beginning of the 16th century, modern Europe first came in contact with Sri Lanka, which was then referred to as Ceylon. In 1505 a Portuguese fleet, while operating in the Indian seas against Arab traders, was blown off course and landed at Galle, on the southern coast of the island.[8] In 1517 the Portuguese re-appeared, and with the consent of the Sinhalese King established a trading post in Colombo. Having initiated contact with Sri Lanka as traders, the Portuguese soon made themselves political masters of the western seaboard. Numerous forts were soon established, and features of European civilization were introduced.[7]

The Portuguese are credited with the introduction of European-style fortresses to Sri Lanka during this era. Although some locals already possessed military training and fighting experience, there is no evidence that the Portuguese employed local inhabitants into their own forces. Thus the Portuguese were forced to restrict their presence in the island due to their small numbers and their efforts were more focussed toward projecting maritime power.[7]

In 1602 Dutch explorers first landed in Sri Lanka, which was then under Portuguese control. By 1658 they had completely ousted the Portuguese from the coastal regions of the island. Much like the Portuguese, they did not employ locals in their military, and preferred to live in isolation, pursuing their interests in trade and commerce. Like the Portuguese, they defended their forts with their own forces, but unlike the Portuguese, Dutch forces employed Swiss and Malay mercenaries. The Dutch Forts in Jaffna, Galle, Matara, Batticaloa and Trincomalee were sturdily built and are considered a tribute to their military engineering skills. Also, like the Portuguese, the Dutch focussed on maritime power and although they had the capability to develop and use local forces, they chose to isolate themselves from the local population.[7]

British rule (1798-1948 AD)

The British Empire then ousted the Dutch from the coastal areas of the country, and sought to conquer the independent Kandyan Kingdom. In the face of repeated British assaults, the Kandyans were forced into a degree of guerrilla warfare and fared well against their superior British adversaries.[7]

Initially the British stationed their forces, which included naval vessels, artillery troops and infantry, to defend of the island nation from other foreign powers, using the natural harbor of Trincomalee as their headquarters in Sri Lanka. In 1796, the Swiss and Malay mercenaries who were previously in the service of the Dutch were transferred to the British East India Company. While the Swiss De Meuron's Regiment was eventually disbanded in Canada in 1822, the Malays, who initially formed a Malay Corps, were converted into the 1st Ceylon Regiment in 1802 and placed under a British commanding officer. In the same year, the British became the first foreign power to raise a Sinhalese unit, which was named the 2nd Ceylon Regiment, also known as the Sepoy Corps.[7]

In 1803 the 3rd Ceylon Regiment was created with Moluccans and recruits from Penang. All these regiments fought alongside British troops in the Kandyan wars which began in 1803. Throughout the following years, more Sinhalese and Malays were recruited to these regiments, and in 1814 the 4th Regiment was raised, which was comprised entirely of African troops. It was later renamed as the Ceylon Rifle Regiment. Eventually, the Kandyan Kingdom was ceded to the British in 1815, and with that they gained control over the whole island. Resistance to British occupation cropped up almost instantly. During the first half-century of occupation, the British faced a number of uprisings, and were forced to maintain a sizable army in order to guarantee their control over the island. After the Matale Rebellion lead by Puran Appu in 1848, in which a number of Sinhalese recruits defected to the side of the rebels, the recruitment of Sinhalese to the British forces was temporarily halted.[7]

Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers

The second phase in the employment of non-British personnel commenced in 1861 after the enactment of an ordinance designed to authorize the creation of a Volunteer Corps in the island. It was designated the Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers (CLIV). This move compensated for the disbandment of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment in 1874. The Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers was originally administered as a single unit. However, over the years various sections of the volunteers grew large enough to become independent from their parent unit. The different units that emerged from the Volunteer Force were the

Ceylon Defence Force
Main article: Ceylon Defence Force
File:PM visits the 1st Bn CLI.JPG
First Prime Minister of Independent Sri Lanka Hon. D.S.Senanayaka visiting the 1st battalion of the CLI at the Echelon Square and watching volunteers being trained to handle light machine guns.

In 1910 the name of the military was formally changed to the Ceylon Defence Force (CDF). It continued to grow throughout the early period of the 20th century. The CDF saw active service when a contingent of the Ceylon Mounted Infantry (CMI) in 1900, and a contingent of the Ceylon Planters Rifle Corps (CPRC) in 1902, took part in the Second Boer War in South Africa. Their services were recognized by the presentation in 1902 of a color to the CMI, and a presentation in 1904 of a banner to the CPRC. In 1922, the CDF was honored by the presentation of the King's and Regimental colors to the Ceylon Light Infantry (CLI).[7]

During the First World War, many volunteers from the Defence Force traveled to England and joined the British Army, and many of them were killed in action. One of them mentioned by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was Private Jacotine of the CLI, who was the last man left alive in his unit at the Battle of Lys, and who continued to fight for 20 minutes before he was killed.[9]

In 1939, the CDF was mobilized and an enormous expansion took place which required the raising of new units such as the Ceylon Signals Corps, the Auxiliary Territorial Service (Ceylon) and also the Colombo Town Guard, which had been previously disbanded, but was later re-formed to meet military requirements. During the Second World War, Britain assumed direct control over the Armed Forces of Ceylon.[10]

Post-independence

Brigadier James Sinclair, Earl of Caithness inspecting a guard of honour.

At the end of World War II, CDF which had increased in size during the war began demobilization.In 1948 Sri Lanka gained independence from Britain, becoming a Dominion within the commonwealth and a year earlier Ceylon entered into the bi-lateral Anglo-Ceylonese Defence Agreement of 1947. This followed by the Army Act No. 17 of 1949 which was passed by Parliament on April 11, 1949 and formalized in Gazette Extraordinary No. 10028 of October 10, 1949 marked the creation of the Ceylon Army, consisting of a regular and a volunteer force, the later being the successor of the disbanded CDF[11][12]. Therefor October 10 1949 is considered the Ceylon Army was raised, and October 10 is celebrated annually as Army day. The Defence Agreement of 1947 provided the assurance that British would come to the aid of Ceylon in the event it was attacked by a foreign power and provided British military advises to build the country's military. Brigadier James Sinclair, Earl of Caithness was appointed as general officer commanding Ceylon Army, as such becoming the first commander of the Ceylon Army.

The initial requirement was to raise an artillery regiment, an engineer squadron, an infantry battalion, a medical unit, and a service corps company. For much of the 1950s the army was preoccupied with the task of building it self and training existing and new personal. To this aim the British Army Training Team (BATT) advisory group carried out training for ex-members of the CDF within the Ceylon Army, senior officers were sent to the British Army Staff College, Camberley and some attached to units of the British Army of the Rhine to gain field experience. New officers were sent for training at Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst which continued until the 1960s and both officers and other ranks were sent to specialist training courses in Britain, India, Pakistan and Malaya. There were no formations and all units were structured to directly function under the Army Headquarters. However temporary field headquarters were to be formed at the time requirement arose[12].

File:Maj Gen Mutukumaru.jpg
Major General Anton Muttukumaru, OBE, ED, ADC 09th Feb 1955 - 31st Dec. 1959 - First Ceylonese Commander

Due to a lack of any major external threats the growth of the army was slow and the primary duties of the army quickly moved towards internal security by the mid 50's, same time as the first Ceylonese Commander Major General Anton Muttukumaru took command of the army. The first internal security operation of the Ceylon Army began in 1952 code named Operation Monty to counter the influx of illegal South Indian immigrants brought in by smugglers on the north-western cost, in support of Royal Ceylon Navy coastal patrols and police operations. This was expanded and renamed as Task Force Anti-Illicit Immigration (TaFII) in 1963 and continued up till 1981 when it was disbanded. The Army was mobilized to help the police to restore peace under provincial emergency regulations during the 1953 hartal, the 1956 Gal Oya Valley riots and in 1958 it was deployed for the first time under emergency regulations throughout the island during the 1958 Riots[13].

During the 1950s and 1960's the army was called apron to carry to essential services when the workers went on strike which were organized by the left wing parties and trade unions for various reasons, the most notable was the 1961 Colombo Port strike, during which ships threatened to by pass Colombo port and the country almost staved. To counter these common strikes several units were formed, who were employed in development work when there were no strikes[13].

In 1962 several volunteer officers attempted a military coup, which was stopped hours before it was lunched. This attempted coup effect the military to a great extent, since the government mistrusted the military, it reduced the size and growth of the army, especially the volunteer force, with several units being dissbanded. In May 1972, when Ceylon proclaimed it self a republic and changed its name to from the Dominion of Ceylon to the Republic of Sri Lanka, all Army units were renamed accordingly.[14]

1970–Present

After successfully defeating the insurgency led by the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) in 1971, the army was confronted with a new conflict, this time with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and other Tamil militant groups. The war escalated to the point where India was asked to intervene as a peacekeeping force. This was later seen as a tactical error, as the Indian Peace Keeping Force united nationalist elements such as the JVP to politically support the LTTE in their call to evict the IPKF. The war with the LTTE was halted following the signing of a ceasefire agreement in 2002 with the help of international mediation. However, renewed violence broke out in December 2005 and following the collapse of peace talks, the Army has been involved in the heavy fighting that has resumed in the north and east of the country.

Main article: Sri Lankan Civil War

Since 1980 the army has undertaken many operations against the LTTE rebels. The major operations conducted by the army eventually lead to the capture of Jaffna and other rebel strongholds.

Allegations of Warcrimes and Genocide

Following its recent offensive in the northern province of Sri lanka against the LTTE, the Sri Lankan Army has been accused of warcrimes and genocide, including shelling civilians, dropping cluster bombs on hospitals, and firing into government designated "safe zones", all of which violate the international humanitarian law. Despite independent verification by the ICRC, the government of Sri Lanka deny all claims of the deteriorating humanitarian situation in the countries north. [15]

Major combat operations

Peacekeeping

The Sri Lanka Army has taken part in two peacekeeping missions with United Nations over the course of its history. First assignment was in the Congo (ONUC) (1960 - 1963). Most recently, following the signing of a ceasefire agreement was signed between the government and the LTTE in 2002, Sri Lankan forces were invited by the United Nations to be part of the UN peacekeeping force in Haiti.[16] The Sri Lanka Light Infantry was selected to be part of the peacekeeping operations, and training programs on counter revolutionary warfare were conducted for the troops in Kukuleganga. Following the successful completion of the training, a battalion under the command of Col. K.A.D.A. Karunasekara left for Haiti on October 22, 2004. In the process of the peacekeeping operations, 2 soldiers were killed in a raid in Petit-Goave.[17] After over 6 months of service, the first contingent of the peacekeeping force returned to Sri Lanka on May 17, 2005[16]. In December 2007, 7th rotation of the Sri Lankan contingent had been deployed with a force of 991 officers and other ranks, many of the those deployed have been awarded the United Nations Medal for their services.[18]

Peacekeeping scandal [19]

In November 2007, 114[20] members of the 950 member Sri Lankan Army peacekeeping mission in Haiti, were accused of sexual misconduct and abuse.[21] 108 members, including 3 officers of the 950-member-strong Sri Lanka peacekeeping contingent is being sent back after being implicated in alleged misconduct and sexual abuse.[22] UN spokeswoman Michele Montas said: "The United Nations and the Sri Lankan government deeply regret any sexual exploitation and abuse that has occurred."[21] The Sri Lankan Officials claim that there is little tangible evidence on this case. [20] After inquiry into the case the UN Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) has concluded ‘acts of sexual exploitation and abuse (against children) were frequent and occurred usually at night, and at virtually every location where the contingent personnel were deployed.’ The OIOS is assisting in the pending legal proceedings initiated by the Sri Lankan Government and has said charges should include rape "because it involves children under 18 years of age".[23]

Current deployments

As of present, the bulk of the Sri Lankan Army is deployed for domestic defensive and combat operations, while a sizable foreign deployment is maintained.

Domestic

Due to the Sri Lankan Civil War the army has been on a constant mobilized (including reservist) state since the 1980s (except for a brief period from 2002-2005). The majority of the army as been deployed in the North and Eastern provinces of the country, which includes 11 Divisions coming under three operational headquarters. The army is also based in other parts of the island for internal security including a Division for the defense of the capital.

Foreign

Since 2004 the army has maintained a battalion sized unit with support personal totaling around 1000 personal in Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti.[24]

Organization Structure

The professional head of the army is the Commander of the Army, at present Lieutenant General Sarath Fonseka. He is assisted by the Chief of Staff of the Army, currently Major General Nissanka Wijesinghe [25]. The Commandant of the Volunteer Force is head of the Army Volunteer Force and is responsible for the administration and recruitment of all reserve units and personal.

In late 1987, the army had a total estimated strength of up to 40,000 troops, about evenly divided between regular army personnel and reservists on active duty. The approximately 20,000 regular army troops represented a significant increase over the 1983 strength of only 12,000. Aggressive recruitment campaigns following the 1983 riots raised this number to 16,000 by early 1985.[26] By 2007, the Army had expanded to over 120,000 personnel.[1]

Administrative

The Army Headquarters, situated in Colombo is the main administrative and the operational headquarters of the Sri Lanka Army. It divided into a number of branches, namely the General Staff (GS) branch responsible for coordination of operations and training and the Adjutant General's (AGs) branch responsible for personal administration, welfare, medical services and rehabilitation. The Quarter Master General's (QMGs) branch is responsible for feeding, transport, movement and construction and maintenance. The Master General of Ordnance's (MGOs) branch is responsible for procurement and maintenance of vehicles and special equipment.[27] The Military Secretary's Branch is responsible for handling all matters pertaining to officers such as promotions, postings and discipline. Each branch is headed by an officer in the rank of Major General who is directly responsible to the Commander of the Army for the smooth functioning of the Branch. Under each Branch, there are several Directorates, each headed by a Brigadier.[27]

The Headquarters of field formations each have its own staff. For instance a divisional headquarters is divided into a GS branch as an AQ branch, each headed by a Colonel and is responsible for operations & training and administration & logistics respectively. Similarly, a Brigade Major and Major AQ is responsible for operations and administration in a brigade.[27]

Like the Indian Army, the Sri Lanka Army has largely retained the British-style regimental system that it inherited upon independence. The individual regiments (such as the Sri Lanka Light Infantry and the Sinha Regiment) operate independently and recruit their own members. Officers tend to remain in a single battalion throughout their careers. The infantry battalion, the basic unit of organization in field operations, includes five companies of four platoons each. Typical platoon have three squads (sections) of ten personnel each. In addition to the basic infantry forces, a commando regiment was also established in 1986. Support for the infantry is provided by an armoured regiment, five reconnaissance regiments, three mechanized infantry regiments, five field artillery regiments, a rocket artillery regiment, three commando regiments , three special forces regiments, six field engineering regiments, five signals battalions, a medical corps, and a variety of logistics units.[26]

Regiments & Corps

Main article: List of current Sri Lanka Army regiments and corps

[11]

Operational Command

Various formations are also raised from time to time to suit various security requirements in the country. The Army at present has deployed 12 Divisions, 4 task forces and several independent brigades. Each division is commanded by a General Officer Commanding in the rank of Major General. Except for the 11 Division based at the Panagoda Cantonment which is responsible for the maintenance of capability for the defence of the capital, all other divisions are deployed for operations in the Northern and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka, coming under three operational commands, which are the Security Forces Headquarters Jaffna (SFHQ-J), Wanni (SFHQ-W) & East (SFHQ-E). Each division is further divided into brigades. Each brigade is commanded by an officer in the rank of Brigadier and has a number of Infantry battalions, support arms (Artillery, Engineers and Signals) and support services (Service Corps, Engineering Services, Ordnance Corps, Electrical and Mechanical Engineers) under assigned to it. In other parts of the country, there are Area and Sub-Area Headquarters. Armour, Artillery, Engineers and Signals Units are grouped under Brigade Headquarters of their own arm; Armored Brigade, Artillery Brigade and so on.

Combat formations

Main article: List of current Sri Lanka Army formations
Security Forces Headquarters - Jaffna (SFHQ-J)
Security Forces Headquarters - Wanni (SFHQ-W) [31]
Security Forces Headquarters - East (SFHQ-E)
Independent
Disbanded

Training

General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU) formed in 1981 and situated in Ratmalana, fourteen kilometers south of Colombo, is Sri Lanka's only university specializing in defense studies. Each year, approximately fifty cadets from all three services are admitted to the university (aged 18-22) to participate in a three-year program of academic work and basic training.[27][26]

Junior field officers of the army and their counterparts of the Navy and Air Force are given advanced training and education at the Defence Services Command and Staff College (DSCSC) at Batalanda, Makola which was established in 1997 as the Army Command and Staff College.

Basic officer training is carried out at the Sri Lanka Military Academy (SLMA) (formally the Army Training Center) situated in Diyatalawa, in the Badulla District. The officer cadets graduating from the academy are commissioned as officers in the regular and volunteer forces. The course for officer cadets runs for ninety weeks and includes training in tactics and administration which helps prepare the cadets to take up the positions of platoon commanders. The course consisted of military and academic subjects and also trained the cadets physically. The course helps to promote leadership qualities and the understanding of each one’s role as an officer and a servant of the state. Due to the lack of officers within the lower levels, the training process was sped up in the 1980s by developing a short commission course. The cadets were given a training of fifty-six weeks and devoted themselves to continue their careers in the military with the ten years of service for regular army officers and five years of service for volunteer officers.

Training for the new recruits are mostly carried out at several locations followed by additional training (both officers and other ranks) at the Infantry Training School in Minneriya, the Combat Training School in Ampara, the Army Training School in Maduru Oya while non commissioned officers receive training at the Non Commissioned Officers Training School at Kala Oya. All these establishments come under the control of the Army Headquarters. Specialist and additional training is given by specialist training schools, regimental training centers and individual field units.[27][26]

As the armed forces of Sri Lanka have a limited indigenous training facilities, especially in advanced roles, they have depended greatly on military training provided by foreign countries. The United Kingdom played a major role in the early years following independence and have continued to be an important source of military expertise to the Sri Lankan military. Other sources include Pakistan, Australia, Malaysia, and the United States. Additionally, in an agreement reached in 1984, Israeli security personnel (reportedly from Shin Bet, the Israeli counterespionage and internal security organization) trained army officers in counterinsurgency techniques.[26]

Training establishments

Personnel

The Sri Lanka Army presently stands at 120,000 strong[1] including 2,960 women plus an additional 10,000 personal in reserve.[45]

Parama Weera Vibhushanaya recipients

Notable fallen members

Women in the Sri Lanka Army

Main article: Sri Lanka Army Women's Corps

The Sri Lanka Army Women's Corps (SLAWC) was formed on September 01 1979 as an unarmed, noncombatant support unit. Set up with the assistance of the Women's Royal Army Corps, it was identical in structure to its parent organization, and its first generation of officer cadets was trained in Britain. Candidates were required to be between eighteen and twenty years old and to have passed the General Common Entrance (Ordinary level) examinations, while the Officer candidates must have passed the Advanced Level. Enlistment entailed a five-year service commitment (the same as for men), and recruits were not allowed to marry during this period. In the sixteen-week training course at the Army Training Center at the Diyatalawa Sri Lanka Military Academy, cadets were put through a program of drill and physical training similar to the men's program, with the exception of weapons and battle craft training. Female recruits were paid according to the same scale as the men, but were limited to service in nursing, communications, and clerical work. In late 1987, the first class of women graduates from the Viyanini Army Training Center were certified to serve as army instructors. But, from late 1987 - after hostilities began, the first batch of women graduates from the British Army's Women's Corp Center certified to serve as Army Instructors.[50]

Up to now, women officers have proved their ability and serve in varied specialized fields in the Service as control tower operators, electronic warfare technicians, radio material teletypists, automotive mechanics, aviation supply personnel, cryptographers, doctors, combat medic, lawyers, engineers and even aerial photographers.[51]

To meet the operational requirements in the field areas, the 2nd Volunteer Battalion of the Women’s Corps was also raised. A few officers from the regular counter part were attached to this unit to organize the command structure. They are currently employed in active combat duties in the northern and eastern parts of the island.

Many officers commencing with Lieutenant Colonel A.W. Thambiraja were appointed to command this unit from time to time. The first women’s corps officer to command the unit was Lieutenant Colonel Kumudini Weerasekara in 1992 and as of 2007 there where three female officers of the rank of Major General. At present there is one regular regiment and four volunteer regiments in the Women’s Corps.[52]

Complaints over survivors’ benefits

The Organisation for Disabled Soldiers has complained that compensation paid for war victims is inadequate. In August 2007, a spokesman for the organisation pointed out that the compensation paid to the families of soldiers killed during the war has remained flat for 23 years at Rs. 150,000, which has dwindled in value to the equivalent of US$1500. This amount is the same for all ranks, including generals. In contrast, however, the families of politicians are much more highly compensated; the family of the late Minister Mr. M. H. M. Ashroff was awarded Rs. 5 million (US$50,000) following his death in a helicopter crash.

Equipment

File:SLAC 0101.jpg
A T-55AM2 Main battle tank of the SLAC
File:SLAC 0102.jpg
A BMP-2 Infantry fighting vehicle ] of the SLAC

After the 1971 uprising, the army expanded its range of weapons from the original stock of World War II-era British Lee Enfield rifles, Sten Submachine guns, Vickers machine guns, Bren machine guns, 6-inch coastal guns, Daimler Armoured Cars, Bren Gun Carriers[53], 40 mm anti-aircraft guns, 3.7 inch heavy anti-aircraft guns and 4.2-inch heavy mortars. New sources of weaponry in the mid-to-late 1970s included the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and China - countries with which the leftist Bandaranaike government had close ties to. China continued to be an important source of arms well into the 1990s.[26]

To meet the threat posed by predominantly the LTTE, Army purchased modern military hardware including 50-caliber Heavy machine guns, Rocket Propelled Grenade Launchers, Night Vision Devices, 106 mm Recoilless rifles, 60 mm and 81 mm Mortars, 40 mm Grenade Launchers and some Sniper Rifles. Refurbished armored personnel carriers were added to the 'A' vehicle fleet of the 1st Reece Regiment, Sri Lanka Armoured Corps. These APCs enabled the Armoured Corps to have their own assault troops to provide close contact protection to their Alvis Saladin and Ferret Scout Cars which were vulnerable to anti-tank weapons. The capability of the Sri Lanka Artillery was enhanced with the introduction of Ordnance QF 25 pounders.[26][54] Chinese-made 122 mm, 130 mm and 152 mm howitzers were introduced to the Sri Lankan Army in 1995 and 1998 whilst 122 mm Multi Barrel Rocket Launchers (MBRL), were first used in 2000 by the Sri Lanka Army.[55]

Though the weapons were obsolete at the time of purchase, the Government security forces found them to be successful in combat. Land mines proved to be the most lethal threat to the security forces, as many mines have been deployed against government forces by the LTTE in the Northern and Eastern Provinces. These mines are deployed with normalcy against government trucks and buses, with a high rate of casualty. These land mines weighed approximately 50 - 100kgs, against which no armoured vehicle that the SLA possessed was able to withstand the blast effect. Therefore the South African made Buffel was introduced to service in 1985 to reduce damage due to land mines. By 1987 the Army's own Unicorn was also developed to a level so that they too matched the capabilities of the Buffels from South Africa, this was followed up by the newer Unibuffel class[56]. Both the Unicorn and the Unibuffel are assembled by the Sri Lanka Electrical & Mechanical Engineers.[26][54]

In recent years, Sri Lanka has become increasingly reliant on China for weapons.[57] This is due to most European nations and the United States Governments passing regulations about the selling of weaponry to nations which are suffering from internal conflict.[58] However in light of recent attacks by the LTTE, the United States has expressed its intent to maintain military training assistance and possibly increase it should the violence continue.

China has no such regulations upon their arms producers, and some see the sales as an attempt to gain political influence with strategically-important Sri Lanka.[59] Sri Lanka also continues to receive a variety of weapons from Britain, Pakistan, Israel and other former suppliers.[60][57]

See also

Further reading

  • Army, Sri Lanka. (1st Edition - October 1999). "50 YEARS ON" - 1949-1999, Sri Lanka Army. ISBN 995-8089-02-8

References

  1. ^ a b c d "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2000" (HTML). U.S. State Department. February 23, 2001. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
  2. ^ a b Army now 150,000 strong recruits more, readies for big battles on the Vanni front. The Island
  3. ^ Lions of the Punjab and Jungle Lions (Hakirat and our Singhes), by a soldier who remembers, The Island
  4. ^ "Deadly arsenals dot Sri Lanka". Richard M Bennett. Asia Times Online. 05 August 2006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ "Commander-in-Chief Completes One Year in Office". Media Center for National Security. 2007-03-08. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
  6. ^ "Sri Lanka Army History, The Ancient Time". Sri Lanka Army. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Army, Sri Lanka (1999). "Chapter 1". Sri Lanka Army, "50 YEARS ON" - 1949-1999 (1st Edition ed.). Colombo: Sri Lanka Army. pp. 1–3. ISBN 995-8089-02-8. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. ^ "The Portuguese in Sri Lanka (1505-1658)". WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka. Retrieved 2004-06-30.
  9. ^ "Indias.com, Sri Lankan Army". Indias. Retrieved 2006-02-04.
  10. ^ "History of the Sri Lanka Light Infantry Regiment, Sri Lanka Army". Sri Lanka Army. Retrieved 2006-02-04.
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  12. ^ a b Sergei de Silva-Ranasinghe looks back at the early days of the Sri Lanka Army
  13. ^ a b An evolving army and its role through time, Sergei de Silva- Ranasinghe’s article on the early days of the Sri Lanka Army
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  15. ^ http://www.amnesty.org.uk/news_details.asp?NewsID=18057
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  17. ^ "2 U.N. peacekeepers killed in Haiti fighting". San Diego Union Tribune. March 21, 2005. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ^ Sri Lankan troops in Haiti honoured
  19. ^ Williams, Carol J. (2007-12-15). "U.N. confronts another sex scandal". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
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  21. ^ a b "Sri Lanka to probe UN sex claims". BBC. 2007-11-03. Retrieved 2007-11-05.
  22. ^ Reddy, B. Muralidhar (2007-11-05). "Part of Sri Lankan contingent in Haiti to be sent back". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-11-05.
  23. ^ "UN confirms sex charges". Sundaytimes. 2008-03-30. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
  24. ^ Haiti - MINUSTAH - Facts and Figures
  25. ^ Major General Wijesinghe appointed as Chief of Staff of the Sri Lanka Army, colombopage.com
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  28. ^ Regimental Centres
  29. ^ President's Security now Comes Under New Army Unit
  30. ^ a b Internal Fissures Widen in LTTE as Forces Gain Ground in North Global Crackdown Continues to Batter Tigers
  31. ^ a b c d e f Sri Lanka Army captured Vellankulam – last bastion of Tigers in Mannar district Cite error: The named reference "Div4" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  32. ^ a b c d The Island 21.08.08
  33. ^ Two LTTE female cadres killed in clashes - Vavuniya front
  34. ^ 57 Div maneuvering to Kilinochchi
  35. ^ VIPs advised to strictly adhere to security measures
  36. ^ a b c Tigers run out of options as Forces advance on all fronts
  37. ^ Task Force I elevated to a permanent Division, Dailynews
  38. ^ Mop up operations in progress in Pooneryn salient; Air Force comes to troops assistance
  39. ^ Progress of Wanni theatre of operation
  40. ^ Task Force III Attacks Terrorists; Recovers Dead Bodies & Weapons
  41. ^ Troops make further gains in march to Kilinochchi
  42. ^ Bitter battles, heavy toll, Tiger strongholds under siege
  43. ^ Eelam War IV: Tigers Face Defeat
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  47. ^ a b c d e Heroes who made the supreme sacrifice
  48. ^ Ratnayake, Brigadier Daya (2005-07-30). "Noble in death as in life". The Sunday Times. Wijeya Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved 2007-08-18.
  49. ^ De Silva, Senaka (2005-06-01). "Senior Army officer shot dead". Daily Mirror. Wijeya Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved 2007-06-03.
  50. ^ "Sri Lankan Army Women's Corps". About, Inc. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  51. ^ "An officer and a lady: You've come a long way, lass". Sunday Observer. Retrieved 2006-10-08.
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  53. ^ Michael K. Cecil - Sri Lanka’s Military: The Search For A Mission, [1].
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  55. ^ http://www.army.lk/org2.php
  56. ^ a b c "SFrom Unicorn to Unibuffel" (HTML). sundayobserver. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help) Cite error: The named reference "JIG" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  57. ^ a b Bedi, Rahul (2007-06-02). "Sri Lanka turns to Pakistan, China for military needs". IANS. Urdustan.com Network. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  58. ^ "Small Arms and Light Weapons Conference Report" (PDF). Judith McDaniel. Retrieved 2006-07-23.
  59. ^ "No Nonsense guide to The Arms Trade". Gideon Burrows. Retrieved 2005-11-19.
  60. ^ "Naval surveillance is the millstone around LTTE's neck". P.K. Balachanddran. Retrieved 2003-10-17.
  61. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Smith, Chris (2003). In the Shadow of a Cease-fire: The Impacts of Small Arms Availability and Misuse in Sri Lanka (PDF). Small Arms Survey. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  62. ^ "T 81 Assault Rifle" (HTML). SinoDefence. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
  63. ^ International, Amnesty. Undermining Global Security: the European Union’s arms exports (PDF) (1st Edition ed.). Amnesty International. ISBN 0-86210-356-8. Retrieved 14. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonth= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  64. ^ "Profiling the Small Arms Industry" (HTML). Arms Trade Resource Center. World Policy Institute. 2000. Retrieved 2007-03-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  65. ^ "Trans-National Crime and Light Weapons Proliferation: Security Implications for the State" (HTML). Tara Kartha. IDSA. August 15, 2002. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
  66. ^ "Accuracy International L96A1" (HTML). www.MilitaryFactory.com. January 16, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
  67. ^ "Biography of Mikhail Kalashnikov" (HTML). VRQ International, Inc. January 14, 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
  68. ^ "If You're Involved in Resolving the" (HTML). ibiblio.org. January 5, 1999. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
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  71. ^ "ZSD89 Armoured Personnel Carrier" (HTML). sinodefence.com. 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-02. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  72. ^ "Type 63" (HTML). nation.lk.
  73. ^ Armada, International (2006). The Trend (PDF). No.1 (Volume 30 ed.). Zurich: Armada International. p. 32. ISBN 0252-9793. Retrieved 15. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |origmonth= and |origdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonth= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  74. ^ Nonis, Anton (2004-04-25). "The evolution of the indigenous armoured vehicle: From Unicorn to Unibuffel". The Sunday Observer. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
  75. ^ a b c "United Nations Register of Conventional Arms" (PDF). United Nations. August 21, 2003. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
  76. ^ Saferworld's research project on arms and security in EU Associate Countries, Czech Republic
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