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Swaminarayan
Swaminarayan under a Neem tree in Gadhada
Organization
PhilosophyVaishnavism
Senior posting
GuruRamanand Swami
HonorsFounded the Swaminarayan Sampraday, venerated as an Avatar of Narayana, from the Nara Narayana deity pair, in the Swaminarayan Faith

Swaminarayan (Gujarati: સ્વામિનારાયણ, Devanagari: स्वामीनारायण, IAST: Svāmīnārāyaṇa) (2 April 1781 – 1 June 1830), also known as Sahajanand Swami, is the central figure in a modern sect of Hinduism known as the Swaminarayan Faith, a form of Vaishnavism.[1] Within the faith, Swaminarayan is venerated as an incarnation of Narayana, from the Nara Narayana deity pair. Swaminarayan is also known by the names Ghanshyam Pande, Ghanshyam Maharaj, Shreeji Maharaj, Hari Krishna Maharaj and Shri Hari.

Swaminarayan was born Ghanshyam Pande in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1781. In 1792, he began a seven year pilgrimage across India, adopting the name Nilkanth Varni. He settled in the West Indian state of Gujarat around 1799. In 1800, he was initiated into the Uddhav Sampraday by his guru, Ramanand Swami, and given the name Sahajanand Swami. In 1802, his guru handed over the leadership of the Uddhav Sampraday to him and died. Sahajanand Swami held a gathering and gave the Swaminarayan mantra. From here onwards he came to be known as Swaminarayan and was regarded as an incarnation of god by his followers. The Uddhav Sampraday henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday. The Swaminarayan Sampraday is based on Vedic scriptures.

Swaminarayan was on good terms with the British Imperial Government and had followers not only from Hindu denominations, but adherents of Islam and Zoroastrianism as well. He built six temples in his lifetime. In 1826, he wrote the Shikshapatri, a book of social principles. Swaminarayan authorised composition various new scriptures and appointed 500 paramhansas to spread his philosophy. He died on 1 June 1830, and was cremated according to Hindu rites in Gadhada. Swaminarayan appointed acharyas to head the two dioceses of Swaminarayan Sampraday.

Swaminarayan is also remembered within the faith for undertaking reforms for the poor and women and performing yagnas (fire sacrifices) on a large scale, apart from performing miracles. He has, however, been criticised by people such as Swami Dayananda who questioned the acceptance of Swaminarayan as God. He had an estimated 1.8 million followers when he died and there have been different estimates of his following in the 21st century, ranging between 5 and 20 million.

Childhood as Ghanshyam

Dharmadev teaching Ghanshyam Hindu scriptures

Swaminarayan was born in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, a village near Ayodhya, in a Hindi speaking region in India.[2] He was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents, Hariprasad Pande (father, also known as Dharmadev) and Premvati Pande (mother, also known as Bhaktimata) in the Brahmin or priest caste of Sarvariya.[2] He had two brothers, Rampratap Pande, his older brother, and Icharam Pande, his younger brother.[3][4] During childhood, he is said to have mastered seven scriptures including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, and the Ramayana.[5]

Swaminarayan was born on the occasion of Rama Navami. The ninth day in the fortnight of waxing moon in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March-April) is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by his followers. This celebration marks the beginning of a ritual calendar for his followers, starting with the birthday of Swaminarayan on Swaminarayan Jayanti.[6]

Travels as Nilkanth Varni

After the death of his parents, Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 at the age of 11.[7] He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey. Nilkanth Varni traveled across India and parts of Nepal in search of an ashram, or hermitage, that practiced what he considered a correct understanding of Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and Pancaratra, the four primary schools of Hinduism.[8] To find such an ashram, Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories:[9]

Nilkanth Varni during his travels

While on his journey, Nilkanth Varni mastered Astanga yoga (eightfold yoga).[10][11] In Nepal, it is said that he met King Rana Bahadur Shah and cured him of his stomach illness. As a result, the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned.[12][13] Nilkanth Varni visited the Jagannath Temple in Puri as well as temples in Badrinath, Rameshwaram, Nashik, Dwarka and Pandharpur.[7]

In 1799, after a 12,000-kilometre (7,500 mi) journey, Nilkanth's travels as a yogi eventually concluded in Loj, a village in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. In Loj, Nilkanth Varni met Muktanand Swami, a senior disciple of Ramanand Swami. Muktanand Swami, who was twenty-two years older than Nilkanth, answered the five questions to Nilkanth's satisfaction.[14] Nilkanth decided to stay to get an opportunity to meet Ramanand Swami, who he met a few months after his arrival in Gujarat.[15][16]

Leadership as Sahajanand Swami

File:Lord.JPG
Traditional iconographical portrait of Swaminarayan
See also: Swaminarayan mantra

According to the sect, Nilkanth's understanding of the metaphysical and epistemological concepts of the pancha-tattvas (five eternal elements), together with his mental and physical discipline, are said to have inspired senior sadhus of Ramanand Swami.[17]

Nilkanth Varni received sannyasa initiation from Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800, and with it was granted the name Sahajanand Swami or Narayan Muni to signify his new status.[18]

At the age of 21, Sahajanand Swami was given the leadership of the Uddhav Sampraday[8] by Ramanand Swami, who then died. The Uddhav Sampraday henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday.[18]

Sahajanand Swami was later known as Swaminarayan after the mantra he taught at a gathering, in Faneni, a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami.[19] He gave his followers a new mantra, known as the Swaminarayan mantra, to repeat in their rituals: Swaminarayan.[18] When chanting this mantra, some devotees went into samadhi (a form of meditation)[20][21] and claimed that they could see their personal gods, even though they had no knowledge of Astanga Yoga.[10][22][23] As early as 1804, Swaminarayan, who was reported to have performed miracles, was described as a manifestation of God in the first work written by a disciple, Nishkulanand Swami.[24][25] This work, the Yama Danda, was the first piece of literature written within the Swaminarayan sect.[26]

Reforms

Reforms for the poor and women

Swaminarayan distributing food among the needy

After assuming the leadership of the Sampraday, Swaminarayan worked to assist the poor, distributing food and drinking water to the needy.[27] He undertook several social service projects and opened alms houses for the poor. Swaminarayan organized food and water relief to people during times of drought, which won him many disciples.[28]

To counter the practice of sati (the practice of self-immolation by a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre), Swaminarayan argued that, as human life was given by God it could be taken only by God, and that sati had no Vedic sanction. He went to the extent to call sati nothing but suicide. Swaminarayan offered parents help with dowry expenses to discourage female infanticide, calling infanticide a large sin.[29][30]

At that time, influential and wealthy individuals educated their girls through private and personal tuition. Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members. The literacy rate among females began to increase, and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects. Many within the faith consider Swaminarayan a pioneer of education of females in India.[30][31][32][33][29]

Animal Sacrifices and Yagnas

Swaminarayan was against animal sacrifices as carried out by brahmana priests during Vedic rituals, such as yajnas (fire sacrifices), influenced by the Kaula and Vama Marg cults.[34] The priests also consumed "sanctified" prasad in the form of meat of these animals. To solve this problem, Swaminarayan conducted several large scale yajna's involving priests from Varanasi. These did not have animal sacrifices and were conducted in strict accordance with Vedic scriptures. Swaminarayan was successful in reinstating ahimsa through several such large scale yajna's. Swaminarayan stressed lacto vegetarianism among his followers and forbade meat consumption.[35][33][36][37]

Disciples of Swaminarayan composed devotional poems which are widely sung by the tradition during festivals.[38][39] Swaminarayan introduced fasting and devotion among followers.[40] He conducted the festivities of Vasant Panchami, Holi, and Janmashtami with organization of the traditional folk dance raas.[10]

Caste system and moksha

Some suggest that Swaminarayan worked towards ending the caste system, allowing everyone into the Swaminarayan Sampraday. However partaking in the food of lower castes and caste pollution was not supported by him.[35] He instructed his paramhansas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed people from the lower strata of society as his personal attendants. He ate along with lower castes. His followers gave up meat eating and consumption of alcohol, opium and tobacco.[1][41] Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes.[35] Members of the lower castes were attracted to the movement as it improved their ritual status in society.[1][33] It is said that Swaminarayan dispelled the myth that moksa (liberation) was not attainable by everyone.[42] He said that the soul is neither male nor female and everyone was equal in the eyes of god.[1][43]

Relations with other religions and the British Government

In 1822, The first Swaminarayan Mandir was constructed on the land granted by the British Imperial Government in Ahmedabad.

Swaminarayan strived to maintain good relationships with people of other religions, sometimes meeting prominent leaders. His followers cut across religious boundaries, including people of Muslim and Parsi backgrounds.[10][44] Swaminarayan's personal attendants included Khoja Muslims.[10] In Kathiawad, many Muslims wore kanthi necklaces given by Swaminarayan.[45] He also had a meeting with Reginald Heber, Lord Bishop of Calcutta and a leader of Christians in India at the time.[46] Bishop Heber mentions in his account of the meeting that about two hundred disciples of Swaminarayan accompanied him as his bodyguards mounted on horses carried Matchlocks and swords. Bishop Heber himself had about a hundred horse guards accompanying him (fifty horses and fifty muskets) and mentioned in his account that it was painful and humiliating for him to see two religious leaders meeting at the head of two small armies, his being the smaller contingent.[47][48] As a result of the meeting, both leaders gained mutual respect for one another.[48]

Swaminarayan enjoyed a good relationship with the British Imperial Government. The first temple he built, in Ahmedabad, was built on 5000 acres of land gifted by the government. The British officers gave it a 101 gun salute when it was opened.[49][50] It was in an 1825 meeting with Reginald Heber that Swaminarayan is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God Supreme.[46] In 1830, Swaminarayan had a meeting with Sir John Malcolm, Governor of Bombay (1827 to 1830). According to Malcolm, Swaminarayan had helped bring some stability to a lawless region.[51] During the meeting with Malcolm, Swaminarayan gifted him with a copy of the Shikshapatri. This copy of the Shikshapatri is currently housed at the Bodleian Library at University of Oxford.[52] Swaminarayan also encouraged the British Governor James Walker to implement strong measures to stop the practice of sati.

Temples and ascetics

Swaminarayan and Paramhansas in Gadhada
Main articles: List of Swaminarayan temples and Swaminarayan ascetics

Swaminarayan ordered the construction of several mandirs and himself installed the images of various deities, such as Nara Narayana, Laxminarayan, Radha Krishna, Radha Ramana, Revti Baldevji, and many other images. The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan provide evidence of the priority of Krishna.[46][53]

The first temple Swaminarayan constructed was in Ahmedabad in 1822, with the land for construction gifted by the British Imperial Government.[54][49] Following a request of devotees from Bhuj, Swaminarayan asked Vaishnavananand Swami to build a temple there. Folloeing planning, construction commenced in 1822, and the temple was built within a year.[54] A temple in Vadtal followed in 1824,[54] a temple in Dholera in 1826,[54] a temple in Junagadh in 1828[54] and a temple in Gadhada, also in 1828.[54] By the time of his death, Swaminarayan had also ordered construction of temples in Muli, Dholka and Jetalpur.[55]

From early on, ascetics have played a major role in the Swaminarayan movement. They contribute towards growth and development of the movement, encouraging people to follow a pious and religious life.[56] Tradition maintains that Swaminarayan initiated 500 ascetics as paramhansas in a single night. Paramahansa is a title of honor sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment. Paramhansas were the highest order of sannyasi in the sect.[57] Prominent paramhansas initiated by Swaminarayan include Muktanand Swami, Gunatitanand Swami, Gopalanand Swami, Brahmanand Swami, Premanand Swami, Nishkulanand Swami, and Nityanand Swami.[58]

Texts

Swaminarayan writing the Shiskhapatri

There are many scriptures that were written by Swaminarayan or his followers that are of importance within the faith. The most notable scriptures throughout the sect are the Shikshapatri and the Vachanamrut. Other important works include the Satsangi Jeevan, Swaminarayan's authorized biography, and other scriptures including the Muktanand Kavya, the Nishkulanand Kavya and the Bhakta Chintamani.[59][60]

Shikshapatri

In 1826, Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri. While the original Sanskrit manuscript is not available, it was translated into Gujarati by Nityanand Swami under the direction of Swaminarayan and is reveared in the sect.[35] The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency summarised it as a book of social laws that his followers should follow.[61] A commentary on the practice and understanding of dharma, it is a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses, outlining the basic tenets that he believed his followers should uphold in order to live a well-disciplined and moral life. It is also used in daily morning ritual.[59][62]

Vachanamrut

Swaminarayan's philosophical, social and practical teachings are contained in the Vachanamrut, a collection of dialogues recorded by five followers from his spoken words. The Vachanamrut is the scripture most commonly used in the Swaminarayan sect. It contains views on dharma (moral conduct), jnana (understanding of the nature of the self), vairagya (detachment from material pleasure), and bhakti (pure, selfless devotion to God), the four essentials Hindu scriptures describe as necessary for a jiva (or soul) to attain salvation.[63]

Death and succession

Madan Mohan (right) with Swaminarayan in the form of Hari Krishna (left), installed by Swaminarayan on the central altar in Dholera (1826)
Further information: [[:Swaminarayan Faith]]

In 1830, Swaminarayan gathered his followers and announced his departure. He later died on 1 June 1830,[64] and it is believed by followers that, at the time of his death, Swaminarayan left Earth for Akshardham, his abode.[65][66][10] He was cremated according to Hindu rites at Lakshmi Wadi in Gadhada.[67][68]

Prior to his death, Swaminarayan decided to establish a line of acharyas, or preceptors, as his spiritual successors.[69] Swaminarayan established two gadis (seats of leadership). One seat was established in Ahmedabad (Nar Narayan Dev Gadi) and the other one in Vadtal (Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi) on November 21, 1825. He appointed an acharya to each of these two gadis to pass on his message to others and to preserve his fellowship, Swaminarayan Sampraday. These acharyas came from his immediate family; he formally adopted a son from each of his two brothers Rampratap and Ichcharam, and appointed them to the office of acharya. Ayodhyaprasad, son of his elder brother Rampratap, was appointed acharya of Ahmedabad Gadi, and Raghuvira, son of his younger brother Ichcharam, was appointed acharya of the Vadtal Gadi.[70] Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family.[71] The administrative division of his followers into two territorial dioceses is set forth in minute detail in a document written by Swaminarayan called Desh Vibhaag Lekh.[72] The current acharyas of the Swaminarayan Sampraday are Acharya Shree Koshalendraprasad Pande, of the Ahmedabad Gadi, and Acharya Shree Rakeshprasad Pande, of the Vadtal Gadi.[27][73]

Decades after his death, several divisions occurred with different understandings of the leadership succession. [74] This included the establishment of Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS), the founder of which broke away from the Vadtal Gadi in 1907, and Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan, the founder of which broke away from the Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940's. The followers of BAPS hold Gunatitanand Swami as the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan, asserting that on several occasions Swaminarayan revealed to devotees that Gunatitanand Swami was Aksharbrahm manifest. Followers of BAPS believe that the acharyas were given political leadership of the faith while Gunatitanand Swami was given spiritual leadership by Swaminarayan. The followers of the Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan hold Gopalanand Swami as the true successor to Swaminarayan.[75][76]

Following and criticism

File:NN2.JPG
Nara Narayana deities installed by Swaminarayan in the first Swaminarayan Temple, Ahmedabad. It is believed that Narayana incarnated as Swaminarayan.

At present, there are hundreds of Swaminarayan temples or centres around the globe. According to the biographer Raymond Williams, when Swaminarayan died, he had a following of 1.8 million people. In 2001, Swaminarayan centres existed on four continents, and the congregation was recorded to be five million, the majority in the homeland of Gujarat.[77][78][79] According to recent studies in England alone, there are over 5,000 families in twenty centres.[80] In contrast with these estimates, the Indian Express estimated members of the Swaminarayan faith to number over 20 million (2 crore) worldwide in 2007.[81] While no detailed statistical information is available, most of the followers of Swaminarayan share a belief that Swaminarayan is the complete manifestation of Narayana or the supreme person and superior to other avatars.[18]

Doctrinally, Swaminarayan was close to eleventh century philosopher Ramanuja, and was critical of Shankaracharya's concept of advaita, or monistic non-dualism. Swaminarayan's ontology maintained that the supreme person is not formless and that God always has a divine form.[82]

Several decades after formation of the movement, Swami Dayananda questioned acceptance of Swaminarayan as a supreme being, disapproving of the idea that visions of Swaminarayan could form a path to attaining perfection. Accused of deviating from the Vedas, his followers were criticised for the illegal collection of wealth and the "practice of frauds and tricks."[83] In the views of Swami Dayananda, published as early as 1875, it was a "historical fact" that Swaminarayan would decorate himself as Narayana in order to gain followers.[84]

The Swaminarayan faith has been linked to patriarchal class structures that subjugate women.[85] Members of the faith are defensive of the fact that some practices seem to restrict women and make gender equality in leadership impossible.[86] However, while "many would assert that Swaminarayan Hinduism serves a patriarchal agenda, which attempts to keep women in certain roles", Swaminarayan himself, despite considerable criticism from those in his own contemporary society who "loathed the uplift of lower caste women," insisted that education was the inherent right of all people.[87] In case of widows, he directed those who could not follow the path of chastity to remarry. For those who could, he lay down strict rules which included them being under the control of male members of the family. This may seem regressive, however it gave them "a respected and secure place in the social order" of the time.[88] He also directed male devotees not to listen to religious discourses given by women. Swaminarayan wanted women "to live always under the control of male members of their family and prohibited them from receiving instruction in any science from any man excepting their nearest relations."[33]

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d Rohit Barrot (1987). Richard Burghart (ed.). Caste and sect in Swaminaran Movement. Vol. Hinduism in Great Britain. Routledge. pp. 67–70. Retrieved May 8, 2009.
  2. ^ a b Williams 2001, p. 13
  3. ^ "Biography: Early Days, Leaving Home". BPS Swaminarayan sanstha. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  4. ^ "Lord Swaminarayan Bhagwan's Life". Shri Swaminarayan Temple (ISSO OF CHICAGO). Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  5. ^ M. Gupta (2004). Let's Know Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Star Publications. p. 33. Retrieved May 15, 2009.
  6. ^ Williams 2001, p. 141
  7. ^ a b "Sampradat history: Nilkanth Varni". Harrow, England: Shree Kutch Satsang Swaminarayan Temple. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  8. ^ a b Williams 2001, p. 15
  9. ^ Williams 2001, p. 36
  10. ^ a b c d e f Dinkar Joshi, Yogesh Patel (2005). Glimpses of Indian Culture. Star Publications. pp. 92–93. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
  11. ^ "Biography of Swaminarayan". BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  12. ^ "Nilkanth Varni's journey across India from Ayodhya to Loj". kakaji.org. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  13. ^ Gujarat (India) (1969). Gujarat State Gazetteers: Bhavnagar. Directorate of Govt. Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State. p. 577. Retrieved May 15, 2009.
  14. ^ Williams 2001, p. 75
  15. ^ "Teenage Yogi". BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  16. ^ Williams 2001, pp. 16, 17
  17. ^ "Bhagwan Swaminarayan: Life" (PDF). Shri Swaminarayan Mandir - Somerset, NJ (Vadtaldham). Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  18. ^ a b c d Williams 2001, p. 17
  19. ^ "Meaning of Swaminarayan". Shree Swaminarayan Temple: Sansthan Vadtal. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  20. ^ The word samadhi has different meanings in Hinduism. It may refer to a form yogic concentrated meditation. As a cause of death, it refers to the act of consciously and intentionally leaving one's body at the time of death. See Samadhi#Samadhi_as_leaving_the_body. This act is also called maha-samadhi ("great samadhi").
  21. ^ Williams 2001, pp. 21, 240
  22. ^ Kirin Narayan (1992). Storytellers, Saints and Scoundrels. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 141. ISBN 8120810023. Retrieved May 8, 2009.
  23. ^ Williams 2001, p. 21
  24. ^ Takashi Shinoda (2002). The other Gujarat. Popular Prakashan. p. 9. ISBN 8171548741. Retrieved June 27, 2009.
  25. ^ Williams 2001, p. 77
  26. ^ Williams 2001, pp. 17, 76, 189
  27. ^ a b "Times Music cassette on Swaminarayan serial launched". Times of India. 2006-01-19. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
  28. ^ "Food and Water for the Needy". Shree Swaminarayan Temple: Sansthan Vadtal. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  29. ^ a b Williams 2001, pp. 165, 167
  30. ^ a b Martha Craven Nussbaum (2007). The clash within. Harvard University Press. pp. 322, 323. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
  31. ^ "education of females". Shree Swaminarayan Temple: Sansthan Vadtal. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  32. ^ "Swaminarayan's Life - Biography: Uplift of Women". www.swaminarayan.org. Retrieved 2008-06-07.
  33. ^ a b c d M M Rahman (2006). Encyclopaedia of Historiography. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. pp. 145, 146. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
  34. ^ Christopher John Fuller (2004). The camphor flame. Princeton University Press. p. 171. Retrieved May 8, 2009.
  35. ^ a b c d S Golwalkar (1997). "Swaminarayan , Pramod Mahajan , Bal Thackeray". In M. G. Chitkara (ed.). Hindutva. APH Pub. Corp. pp. 227–228. ISBN 81-7024-798-5.
  36. ^ Williams 2001, p. 24, 159
  37. ^ Prema A. Kurien (2007). A place at the multicultural table: the development of an American Hinduism. Rutgers University Press. p. 105. Retrieved May 8, 2009. Page 105
  38. ^ Williams 2001, p. 189
  39. ^ Mohan Lal (1992). Encyclpopaedia of Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. p. 4255. ISBN 8126012218.
  40. ^ Williams 2004, p. 162
  41. ^ Williams 2001, p. 77, 165
  42. ^ Williams 2001, p. 162
  43. ^ Williams 2001, p. 57, 77
  44. ^ J. J. Roy Burman (2005). Gujarat Unknown. Mittal Publications. p. 18. Retrieved June 13, 2009.
  45. ^ Behramji Merwanji Malabari, Krishnalal M. Jhaveri, Malabari M. B (1997). Gujarat and the Gujaratis. Asian Educational Services. pp. 263–269. ISBN 8120606515. Retrieved May 7, 2009.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ a b c Raymond Brady Williams (2004). Williams on South Asian Religions and Immigration: Collected Works. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. p. 81. ISBN 0754638561. Cite error: The named reference "isbn0754638561" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  47. ^ R.V. Russell, R.B.H. Lai (1916). Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India. Asian Educational Services. pp. 328, 329. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
  48. ^ a b Williams 2001, p. 69
  49. ^ a b "The foundations of devotion". Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, Financial Times. 2003-03-04. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  50. ^ Williams 2001, p. 29
  51. ^ Williams 2001, p. 7
  52. ^ Williams 2001, p. 57
  53. ^ Williams 2001, p. 96
  54. ^ a b c d e f "Swaminarayan temples". Shri Swaminarayan Temple (ISSO OF CHICAGO). Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  55. ^ Williams 2001, p. 29
  56. ^ Williams 2001, pp. 107
  57. ^ Williams 2001, p. 22
  58. ^ "Paramhansas". Shree Swaminarayan Temple: Sansthan Vadtal. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  59. ^ a b Williams 2001, pp. 187–190
  60. ^ "Nishkulanand Swami in his early days" (PDF). Shri SwaminarayanMandir - Somerset, NJ (Vadtaldham)). Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  61. ^ M. G. Chitkara (1997). Hindutva. APH. p. 230. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
  62. ^ "Vachanamrut and other literary works".
  63. ^ K. Ayyappapanicker, Sahitya Akademi (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Vol. 1. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 130–131. ISBN 8126003650. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
  64. ^ Williams 2001, p. 29
  65. ^ "What is Akshardham?". BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha. 2005. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
  66. ^ Williams 2001, p. 93
  67. ^ "About Sampraday". Shree Swaminarayan Temple: Sansthan Vadtal. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  68. ^ Raymond Brady Williams (2001). An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 34–36. ISBN 052165422X.
  69. ^ Williams 2001, p. 34
  70. ^ Williams 2001, pp. 35–37
  71. ^ Williams 2001, p. 35
  72. ^ Williams 2001, p. 36
  73. ^ "Vadtal, the delinquent in Swaminarayan family". Times of India. 2003-03-17. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
  74. ^ "Swaminarayan monks caught in sex video - India - The Times of India". indiatimes.com. Retrieved 2009-05-23.
  75. ^ The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. 2004. p. 172. ISBN 0-691-12048-X.
  76. ^ Williams 2001, p. 52
  77. ^ Williams 2001, pp. 68
  78. ^ Robin Rinehart (2004). Contemporary Hinduism. ABC-CLIO. p. 215. Retrieved May 10, 2009.
  79. ^ Marcus J. Banks (1985). Review: A New Face of Hinduism: The Swaminarayan Religion. By Raymond Brady Williams. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1984. Pp. xiv, 217. Modern Asian Studies 19 pp 872-874
  80. ^ Hunt, Stephen (2003). Alternative religions: a sociological introduction. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. pp. 119–120. ISBN 0-7546-3410-8.
  81. ^ "Niche Faiths". Indian Express. 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
  82. ^ Williams 2001, p. 79
  83. ^ Narayan, Kirin (1992). Storytellers, Saints and Scoundrels. Motilal Banarsidass,India. pp. 141–143. ISBN 81-208-1002-3.
  84. ^ Narayan, Kirin (1992). Storytellers, Saints and Scoundrels. Motilal Banarsidass,India. p. 143. ISBN 81-208-1002-3.
  85. ^ Hardiman, David (1988-09-10). "Class Base of Swaminarayan Sect". Economic and Political Weekly. 23 (37): 1907–1912. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
  86. ^ Williams 2001, p. 165
  87. ^ Rudert, A. "eCommons@Cornell: Inherent Faith and Negotiated Power: Swaminarayan Women in the United States". ecommons.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2009-05-10. Chapter 1. (2004)
  88. ^ Williams 2001, p. 167

References

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