Korea

Korea


Joseon royal throne

Korea (Korean: (조선 or 한국, see below) is a geographic area, civilization, and former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. The peninsula is currently divided into North Korea and South Korea, and borders China to the northwest and Russia to the northeast, with Japan situated to the southeast across the Korea Strait.

One of the world's oldest civilizations^[1], Korea began with the founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BC, according to the Dangun legend. Limited linguistic evidence suggests possible Altaic-Tungusic origins of these people, whose northern Mongolian Steppe culture absorbed refugees and invaders from northern China. In the 4th century, the adoption of Buddhism and the Chinese writing system ("hanja" in Korean) had a profound effect on its society. Koreans later passed on these, as well as their own advances, to Japan, helping that country take its first steps into civilization.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]

After the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea by Silla in 676, Korea was ruled by a single government and maintained political and cultural independence, despite the Mongol invasions of the Goryeo Dynasty in the 13th century and Japanese invasions of the Joseon Dynasty in the 16th century. Korean civilization reached its height in the 15th century, during the reign of King Sejong the Great, when the Korean alphabet hangul was created and turtle ships, currently believed to be the world's first ironclad warships, were deployed.

During the latter part of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname the "Hermit Kingdom". By the late 19th century, the country became the object of colonial designs by the imperial aggressors of Japan and Europe. In 1910, Korea was forcibly annexed by Japan and remained occupied until the end of World War II in 1945.

In 1945, Soviet and U.S. troops occupied the northern and southern halves of the country, respectively. The two Cold War enemies helped establish governments sympathetic to their own ideologies, leading to Korea's current division into two political entities: North Korea and South Korea.

Names of Korea

The name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo period of Korean history, which in turn referred to the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo. It is now commonly used in English contexts by both North and South Korea.

In the Korean language, Korea as a whole is referred to as Chosŏn (Template:Ko-chmr) by North Korea and Han-guk (Korean: 한국; Hanja: 韓國; RR: Hanguk; MR: Han'guk) by South Korea.

History

There is archaeological evidence that people were living on the Korean Peninsula around 700,000 years ago, during the Lower Paleolithic. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 BC. The Jeulmun Pottery Period spans from 3500 BC to 2000 BC.

Gojoseon

Gojoseon was founded in 2333 BC, according to the Dangun legend. ^[6] It was known as Joseon but is called Gojoseon ("Old Joseon") today to distinguish it from the recent Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). The original capital was Asadal, in southern Manchuria, but later moved to today's Pyongyang in North Korea. Gojoseon cultural artifacts and walled cities are found throughout Korea and Manchuria.

Archaeological and contemporary written records indicate it likely developed from a federation of walled cities into a centralized state sometime between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, when it declared itself a kingdom and warred with northern Zhou dynasty kingdoms of China. ^[7]

In 108 BC, the Chinese Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installed four commanderies in northern Korea and Manchuria primarily as commercial outposts. By 75 BC, three of those commanderies had fallen to Korean resistance. One commandery remained under Chinese control until 313 AD.

A state called Jin existed in southern Korea prior to Gojoseon's fall, as evidenced by written records and bronze artifacts from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. Jin was followed by the Samhan, three loose confederacies that claimed descent from Jin.

The Three Kingdoms

The three kingdoms Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje were founded around the time of Gojoseon's fall. They competed with each other both economically and militarily. Buddhism eventually became the chief religion of all three kingdoms.

Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC by Jumong (posthumously called King Dongmyeongseong). Goguryeo united Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye and other states in the former Gojoseon territory, in addition to destroying the last Chinese commandery in 313 AD.^[8] Goguryeo was the most dominant power, but was at constant war with the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. Goguryeo's defeat of Sui invasion forces contributed to the collapse of the Sui Dynasty, but the Tang Dynasty continued attacks against Goguryeo.

Baekje was founded in 18 BC by Jumong's third son, Onjo, around modern-day Seoul. It occupied the southwest of the peninsula, and at its height, controlled much of the western half.

Silla was founded by Bak Hyeokgeose in 57 BC. Although later records claim Silla was the oldest of the three kingdoms, it is believed to be the latest to develop into a centralized kingdom.

Unified Silla and Balhae

Silla emerged as a sea power and battled Japanese pirates, especially during the Unified Silla period. Silla first annexed the smaller Gaya confederacy. By the 660s, Silla formed an alliance with the Tang Dynasty of China to conquer Baekje and later Goguryeo. After repelling Chinese forces, Silla established the first unified state in Korea, often called Unified Silla.

After Silla's unification, former Goguryeo general Dae Joyeong led a group of Koreans to the Jilin area in Manchuria and founded Balhae (698 AD - 926 AD) as the successor to Goguryeo. Eventually, Balhae's territory extended from the Sungari and Amur Rivers in northern Manchuria down to the northern provinces of Korea. Balhae was conquered by the Khitans in 926.

Goryeo Dynasty

In the late 9th century, Unified Silla gave way to the brief Later Three Kingdoms period. The Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) replaced Silla. Many members of the Balhae ruling class joined the newly founded Goryeo, which established its boundaries to an area slightly larger than the Korean peninsula (See Gando region which is now occupied by the Chinese). During this period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and Buddhism flourished.^[9]

In the 10th and 11th centuries, Korea continued to be plagued by attacks from Jurchen and Khitan tribes on the northern borders. Conflict increased between civil and military officials as the latter were degraded and poorly paid. This led to an uprising by military and forced some military officials to migrate from the country.

In 1238, the Mongolian Empire invaded. After nearly thirty years of war, the two sides signed a treaty that favored the Mongols. In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal strife, and Korea was able to pursue political reform without Mongol interference. At this time, General Yi Seong-gye distinguished himself by repelling Japan-based pirates, known as Wokou. ^[10]

Joseon Dynasty

In 1392, Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) with a coup, moving the capital to Hanseong (now Seoul) and built Gyeongbokgung Palace.

King Sejong the Great (1418-1450) promulgated Hangul, the Korean alphabet, and reigned over cultural and technological advances. After several weak kings who died or failed to influence Korea, King Seongjong's rule (1457-1494) saw economic and cultural revival.

During the Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea (1592 - 1598), Japan invaded Korea under Toyotomi Hideyoshi. After a scorched earth campaign by Korea and through the assistance of Ming Chinese, the Japanese eventually withdrew, and Korea was left with widespread destruction. Especially important for Korea in this period were the turtle Ships of Admiral Yi Sun-sin and the hwacha weaponry.

In the 1620s and 1630s Joseon suffered invasion by the Manchu, who eventually conquered Ming China. Korea then enjoyed over two centuries of peace, but isolated itself from the outside world so much that it was often called the "Hermit Kingdom".

The Joseon Dynasty is believed to have been the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia.

Japanese occupation

Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea to move out of China's sphere of influence into its own. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by the Japanese under Miura Goro's directive (Kim et al. 1976).^[11] After the Sino-Japanese and the Russo-Japanese War, Japan gained control of Korea. In 1910, Japan forced Korea to sign the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty, although executed by Korean ministers and advisors rather than the Korean head of state, the emperor.^[12]

Korean resistance to Japanese brutal occupation was manifested in the massive March 1st Movement of 1919. This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 were killed by Japanese soldiers and police.^[13] In Manchuria, Korean fighters engaged in frequent battles with the Japanese troops and tens of thousands of Koreans joined The National Revolutionary Army and The Peoples Liberation Army to fight against the Japanese, and in Shanghai, China, a Korean government in exile was formed.

For more than 30 years under the Japanese occupation, Korean culture and economy suffered heavy losses. The Korean language was banned and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names.^[14] Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.^[15] To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collectors.

During World War II, Koreans were forced to support the Japanese war effort. Tens of thousands of men ^[16] were conscripted into Japan's military. Approximately 200,000 girls and women ^[17], mostly from Korea and China, were conscripted as sex slaves, euphemistically called "comfort women".^[18]

Anti-Japanese sentiment is still fairly strong in Korea, as a result of Japanese war crimes and continuing Korean-Japanese disputes.

Division and War

With the defeat of Japan in 1945, the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the Soviet Union administering the peninsula north of the 38th parallel and the United States effectively administering the south. The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments. Kim Il Sung became the leader of the North Korean government. Syngman Rhee, a long-time resident of the U.S., was elected as the president of the South.

The Korean War began in June 1950 and lasted until 1953. The North Korean army launched a full-scale attack on the South on June 25, 1950, after years of frequent minor bloody conflicts along the border. The well-equipped and trained North Korean Army easily overwhelmed the South Korean forces, prompting an urgent intervention by the U.S. forces, later reinforced by the U.N. forces. When the allied forces pushed the North Koreans back to the Chinese-North Korean border, the Chinese entered the war. Millions of civilians died and the United States waged a bombing campaign over North Korea that effectively destroyed most cities (Cumings 1997: 298).

The war ended in a ceasefire agreement at approximately the same boundary. The two countries never signed a peace treaty. Both Korean states proclaim eventual reunification as a goal, and discourses on a united Korea are very much a part of Korean ethno-cultural identity.

Geography

Korea is located on the Korean Peninsula in North-East Asia. It is bound by two countries and three seas. To the northwest, the Yalu River separates Korea from China and to the northeast, the Tumen River separates Korea from Russia. The Yellow Sea is to the west, the East China Sea is to the south, and the Sea of Japan (East Sea) is to the east of Korea. Notable islands include Jeju-do, Ulleung-do, and Dokdo.

The southern part and western part of the Korean mainland have well developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Mt. Baekdu (2744m, Changbaishan in Chinese). The border with China runs through the mountain. The southern extension of Mt. Baekdu is a highland called Gaema Gowon. This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the peninsula. This series of mountains is named Baekdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Sobaeksan (2,184 m), Baeksan (1,724 m), Geumgangsan (1,638 m), Seoraksan (1,708 m), Taebaeksan (1,567 m), and Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are NW, NWW.

Unlike most older mountains on the mainland, many important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the Cenozoic orogeny. Jeju-do, situated off the southern coast, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain Mt. Halla (1950 m) is the highest in South Korea. Ulleung-do is a volcanic island in the Sea of Japan, who's composition is more feslic than Jeju-do. The volcanic islands tend to be younger as one moves westward.

Because the mountainous region is mostly on the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdong River and the Seomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Yalu, the Cheongcheon River, the Daedong River, the Han River, the Geum River, and the Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and they provide an ideal environment for wet-rice cultivation.

The southern and southwestern coastlines of Korea form a well-developed Lias coastline, known as Dadohae in Korean. Its complicated coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast. It can get as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats have been developing on the south and west coastlines.

Demographics

Korea is populated by a highly homogeneous ethnic group, the Koreans, who speak a distinct language called Korean.

A minority of ethnic Chinese (about 20,000)^[19] live in South Korea and small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese live in North Korea.^[20]

The combined population of the Korea is about 71 million.

Language

Culture and Arts

In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (東方禮儀之國). During the 7th and 8th centuries, land and sea trading networks connected Korea to Arabia. As early as 845, Arab traders mentioned Korea saying, "Over the sea beyond China lies a mountainous country called 'Silla', rich in gold. Muslims who arrive there by accident are so attracted by its character that they stay there forever and do not want to leave."

Korean festivities often showcase vibrant colors, which have been attributed to Mongolian influences: bright red, yellow, and green often mark traditional Korean motifs.^[21] These bright colors are sometimes seen in the traditional dress known as hanbok.

Literature

Korean literature is traditionally divided into two categories. The literature written until the end of the Joseon Dynasty is called "Classical". The literary production posterior to this era is called named "New" or "Modern" literature. Unlike their predecessors, writers of modern literature are largely influenced by Western authors.

Korea's classical literature came into being in the context of local beliefs, and the in the wake of Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism, with a dominance of the latter. Recorded in Chinese characters, literature of the "Classical" Age produced innovative poetic forms such as hyangga.

Religion and education

Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by Buddhism, Taoism, and Korean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, Christianity has competed with Buddhism in South Korea, while religion has been suppressed in North Korea.

According to 2003 statistics compiled by the South Korean government, about 46 % of citizens profess to follow no particular religion. Christians account for 27.3% of the population and Buddhists 25.3%.

Koreans valued scholarship and rewarded education and study of Chinese classic texts; Yangban boys were highly educated in Hanja. A man's "bone rank" (determined by the rank of his father and his mother) defined his social status, in addition to his performance in civil service examination which evaluated what government post he would be appointed to.

Cuisine

Korean cuisine is probably best known for kimchi, which uses a distinctive fermentation process of preserving vegetables. Chili peppers are also commonly used, which has given it a reputation for being spicy. Fish, generally grilled or stewed, is the primary source of protein. Bulgogi (roasted marinated beef, chicken, or pork), galbi (ribs), and samgyeopsal (pork fatback) are popular meat entrees. Korean meals are usually accompanied by a soup or stew, often made with dwenjang bean paste. Popular dishes are bibimbap (mixed rice), naengmyeon (cold noodles), galbitang (stewed ribs), and dwenjang jjigae (bean paste soup).

Science and technology

Cheomseongdae, oldest surviving astronomical observatory in East Asia

One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is Cheomseongdae, a 9-meter high observatory built in 633. It is considered to be the world's oldest surviving astronomical observatory.

The world's earliest known block printed document is thought to be a Buddhist scripture (a copy of the Jikji) believed printed in Korea in 750-751 CE which, if correct, would make it older than the Diamond Sutra. The world's first metal movable type was developed in Korea in 1232, modeled after widespread Chinese clay (Bi Sheng in 1041) and wood (Wang Zhen) movable type, before Johann Gutenberg developed his metal letterset type (Cumings 1997: 65). Though the block printing was used much earlier, metal movable type marked a significant development in printing allowing the same tools to be used for more diverse printings.

Some Chinese thought Korean porcelains were of the finest quality before and during the Goryeo Dynasty. During the Goryeo period, Korea advanced traditional arts and crafts, such as white celadon glazes, fine silk, paper and Sword making.

The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances made under King Sejong was the Ch'ilchongsan, developed in 1442. This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar movements. Hangul, perhaps the most scientifically designed script in widespread use, is attributed to King Sejong the Great in 1443. An automated water clock was invented in 1434 by Jang Yeong-sil, who later developed a more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, water gauge, and the rain gauge.

During the Joseon period, Korean silk was highly regarded by China and Korean pottery made with blue-green celadon were of the highest quality in the world. Also, during this time, the world's first ironclad warships, the Geobukseon (Turtle Ship) were invented,^[22] as well as other weapons such as the Bikeokjinchonlae and the Hwacha.

References

Cumings, Bruce. Korea's Place in the Sun, Norton, 1997. ISBN 0-393-31681-5
Kim, et al. Women of Korea: A History from Ancient Times to 1945, Ewha Womans University Press, 1976. ISBN 89-7300-1167.
Asian Info website
Park's Associates

Notes

^ Ancient civilizations
^ "Yayoi Period History Summary," BookRags.com; Jared Diamond, "Japanese Roots," Discover 19:6 (June 1998); Thayer Watkins, "The Genetic Origins of the Japanese"; "Shinto - History to 1900," Encyclopædia Britannica; "The Yayoi period (c. 250 BC–c. AD 250)," Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ "Korean Buddhism Basis of Japanese Buddhism," Seoul Times, June 18, 2006; "Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan," Asia Society Museum; "Kanji," JapanGuide.com; "Pottery," MSN Encarta; "History of Japan," JapanVisitor.com.
^ Delmer M. Brown (ed.), ed. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–149. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); George Sansom, A History of Japan to 1334, Stanford University Press, 1958. p. 47. ISBN 0804705232
^ From Paekche to Origin of Yamato
^ [Go-Choson]
^ http://www.library.ucla.edu/eastasian/korea.htm
^ [Koguryo]
^ http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history/koryo_dynasty.htm
^ http://152.99.71.184/warp/webapp/content/view?meta_id=english&id=62
^ [Murder of Empress Myeongseong]
^ Forced Annexation
^ March 1st Movement
^ 宮田節子 [Miyata, Setsuko]. "創氏改名" [Creating Surnames and Changing Given Names}, 明石書店 [Akashi-shoten], 1992, al. ASIN 4750304069
^ Newsweek.com. Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan?
^ 山脇啓造 [Yamawaki, Keizo]. 近代日本と外国人労働者―1890年代後半と1920年代前半における中国人・朝鮮人労働者問題 [Modern Japan and Foreign Laborers: Chinese and Korean Laborers in the late 1890s and early 1920s], 明石書店[Akashi-shoten], 1994, et al. ASIN: 4750305685
^ Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Comfort Women. Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II. Translated by Suzanne O'Brien. Columbia University Press, 2001, ISBN: 0-231-12032-X, originally published by 岩波書店, 1995. ASIN: 4004303842
^ Comfort-Women.org
^ https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ks.html
^ https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kn.html
^ http://www.pacificasiamuseum.org/calendar/kcostumes.htm
^ [First Ironclad Warships]

External links

[1] Ancient civilizations

[2] "Yayoi Period History Summary," BookRags.com; Jared Diamond, "Japanese Roots," Discover 19:6 (June 1998); Thayer Watkins, "The Genetic Origins of the Japanese"; "Shinto - History to 1900," Encyclopædia Britannica; "The Yayoi period (c. 250 BC–c. AD 250)," Encyclopædia Britannica.

[3] "Korean Buddhism Basis of Japanese Buddhism," Seoul Times, June 18, 2006; "Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan," Asia Society Museum; "Kanji," JapanGuide.com; "Pottery," MSN Encarta; "History of Japan," JapanVisitor.com.

[4] Delmer M. Brown (ed.), ed. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–149. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); George Sansom, A History of Japan to 1334, Stanford University Press, 1958. p. 47. ISBN 0804705232

[5] From Paekche to Origin of Yamato

[6] [Go-Choson]

[7] ttp://www.library.ucla.edu/eastasian/korea.htm

[8] [Koguryo]

[9] ttp://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history/koryo_dynasty.htm

[10] ttp://152.99.71.184/warp/webapp/content/view?meta_id=english&id=62

[11] [Murder of Empress Myeongseong]

[12] Forced Annexation

[13] March 1st Movement

[14] 宮田節子 [Miyata, Setsuko]. "創氏改名" [Creating Surnames and Changing Given Names}, 明石書店 [Akashi-shoten], 1992, al. ASIN 4750304069

[15] Newsweek.com. Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan?

[16] 山脇啓造 [Yamawaki, Keizo]. 近代日本と外国人労働者―1890年代後半と1920年代前半における中国人・朝鮮人労働者問題 [Modern Japan and Foreign Laborers: Chinese and Korean Laborers in the late 1890s and early 1920s], 明石書店[Akashi-shoten], 1994, et al. ASIN: 4750305685

[17] Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Comfort Women. Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II. Translated by Suzanne O'Brien. Columbia University Press, 2001, ISBN: 0-231-12032-X, originally published by 岩波書店, 1995. ASIN: 4004303842

[18] Comfort-Women.org

[19] ttps://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ks.html

[20] ttps://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kn.html

[21] ttp://www.pacificasiamuseum.org/calendar/kcostumes.htm

[22] [First Ironclad Warships]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]